Lancemaside A isolated from Codonopsis lanceolata and its metabolite echinocystic acid ameliorate scopolamine-induced memory and learning deficits in mice

In silico and pharmacokinetic assessment of echinocystic acid effectiveness in Alzheimer's disease like pathology

Aim: Alzheimer's disease causes dementia which impairs the cognitive domains. Methodology: The pharmacokinetic characteristics and biological activity of echinocystic acid are predicted in this work using in silico or computational approaches, including pkCSM, Swiss ADME, OSIRIS® property explorer, PASS online web resource and MOLINSPIRATION® software. Results & discussion: The compound has lipid metabolism regulating property as major role in decreasing the progression of Alzheimer's disease and it has no major side effects and ADR. The drug also has anti-inflammatory properties which can help in regulating the innate immunity that plays a major role in Alzheimer's disease. Conclusion: From the computational screening, we infer that, echinocystic acid can regulate memory loss, cognitive disability and also slow down the progression of Alzheimer's disease-like pathology.

In silico guided screening of active components of C. lanceolata as 3-chymotrypsin-like protease inhibitors of novel coronavirus

Despite the intense worldwide efforts towards the identification of potential anti-CoV therapeutics, no antiviral drugs have yet been discovered. Numerous vaccines are now approved for use, but they all serve as preventative measures. To effectively treat viral infections, it is crucial to find new antiviral drugs that are derived from natural sources. Various compounds with potential activity against 3 chymotrypsin-like protease (3CLpro) were reported and some are validated by bioassay studies. Therefore, we performed the computational screening of phytoconstituents of Codonopsis lanceolata to search for potential antiviral hit candidates. The curated compounds of the plant C. lanceolata were collected and downloaded from the literature. The binding affinity of the curated datasets was predicted for the target 3CLpro. Stigmasterol exhibits the highest docking score for the 3CLpro target. In addition, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were conducted for the validation of docking results using root mean square deviation and root mean square fluctuation plots. The MD results indicated that the docked complex was stable and retained hydrogen bonding and non-bonding interactions. Furthermore, the calculation of pharmacokinetic parameters and Lipinski's rule of five suggest that C. lanceolata has the potential for drug-likeness. In order to develop new medicines for this debilitating disease, we will focus on the primary virus-based and host-based targets that can direct medicinal chemists to identify novel treatments to produce new drugs for it.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-023-03745-2.

Echinocystic acid alleviated hypoxic-ischemic brain damage in neonatal mice by activating the PI3K/Akt/Nrf2 signaling pathway

Neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is considered a major cause of death and long-term neurological injury in newborns. Studies have demonstrated that oxidative stress and apoptosis play a major role in the progression of neonatal HIE. Echinocystic acid (EA), a natural plant extract, shows great antioxidant and antiapoptotic activities in various diseases. However, it has not yet been reported whether EA exerts a neuroprotective effect against neonatal HIE. Therefore, this study was undertaken to explore the neuroprotective effects and potential mechanisms of EA in neonatal HIE using in vivo and in vitro experiments. In the in vivo study, a hypoxic-ischemic brain damage (HIBD) model was established in neonatal mice, and EA was administered immediately after HIBD. Cerebral infarction, brain atrophy and long-term neurobehavioral deficits were measured. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) and dihydroethidium (DHE) staining were performed, and the contents of malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione (GSH) were detected. In the in vitro study, an oxygen-glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R) model was employed in primary cortical neurons, and EA was introduced during OGD/R. Cell death and cellular ROS levels were determined. To illustrate the mechanism, the PI3K inhibitor LY294002 and Nrf2 inhibitor ML385 were used. The protein expression levels of p-PI3K, PI3K, p-Akt, Akt, Nrf2, NQO1, and HO-1 were measured by western blotting. The results showed that EA treatment significantly reduced cerebral infarction, attenuated neuronal injury, and improved brain atrophy and long-term neurobehavioral deficits in neonatal mice subjected to HIBD. Meanwhile, EA effectively increased the survival rate in neurons exposed to OGD/R and inhibited oxidative stress and apoptosis in both in vivo and in vitro studies. Moreover, EA activated the PI3K/Akt/Nrf2 pathway in neonatal mice following HIBD and in neurons after OGD/R. In conclusion, these results suggested that EA alleviated HIBD by ameliorating oxidative stress and apoptosis via activation of the PI3K/Akt/Nrf2 signaling pathway.

Lancemaside A Isolated from the Root of Codonopsis lanceolata Inhibits Ovarian Cancer Cell Invasion via the Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)-Mediated p38 Pathway

Codonopsis lanceolata roots have been widely used in Korean cuisine and traditional medicine. This study aimed to investigate the antimetastatic effects of lancemaside A, a major triterpenoid saponin, isolated from the roots of C. lanceolata, in human ovarian cancer cells. Lancemaside A significantly suppressed the migration and invasion and the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)-2 and -9 in ovarian cancer A2780 and SKOV3 cells. Treatment with lancemaside A generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) in ovarian cancer cells. However, treatment with anti-oxidant N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) significantly negated the anti-invasive activity of lancemaside A. Additionally, lancemaside A activated p38 MAP kinase, which is mediated by ROS generation. This is the first study, to our knowledge, to reveal that lancemaside A isolated from the roots of C. lanceolata exerts antimetastatic activity through inhibition of MMP expression and cancer cell invasion via activation of the ROS-mediated p38 pathway.

The effect of maslinic acid on cognitive dysfunction induced by cholinergic blockade in mice

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent disease associated with cognitive dysfunction. Current AD therapeutic agents have several gastrointestinal or psychological adverse effects and therefore, novel therapeutic agents with fewer adverse effects must be developed. Previously, we demonstrated that oleanolic acid, which is similar in chemical structure to maslinic acid, ameliorates cognitive impairment through the activation of tropomyosin receptor kinase (TrkB)-ERK-cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation and increased levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). In the present study, we investigate the effect of maslinic acid on cholinergic blockade-induced memory impairment in mice.

METHODS AND KEY RESULTS

Maslinic acid reversed scopolamine-induced memory impairment, as determined by the Y-maze, passive avoidance and Morris water maze tests. In addition, we also observed that ERK-CREB, PI3K and PKB (Akt) phosphorylation levels were increased by maslinic acid administration in the mouse hippocampus. Moreover, we determined that the effects of maslinic acid on scopolamine-induced memory impairment in the passive avoidance test were abolished by a specific TrkB receptor antagonist (ANA-12). Additionally, we observed similar temporal changes in the expression levels between BDNF and tissue plasminogen activator in the hippocampus.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

These findings suggest that maslinic acid enhances cognitive function through the activation of BDNF and its downstream pathway signalling in the hippocampus and that it might be a potential therapeutic agent for cognitive decline, such as that observed in AD.

Echinocystic acid, a natural plant extract, alleviates cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury via inhibiting the JNK signaling pathway

Echinocystic acid (EA) was found to possess antiviral, anti-inflammatory and antioxidation activities. A recent study showed the antiapoptotic effects of EA on acute myocardial infarction. In this study, we demonstrated the potential neuroprotective effects of EA on cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in mice. Intraperitoneal injection of EA 1 h before ischemia significantly reduced the cerebral infarct volume and neurological deficit after 60 min of ischemia and 24 h of reperfusion. The neuroprotective effects of EA occurred in a dose-dependent manner. Then, we explored the mechanisms of neuroprotection by EA. This compound exerted antiapoptotic activity by upregulating the level of Bcl-2 and simultaneously downregulating the levels of cleaved caspase-3 and Bax. Furthermore, EA also possessed anti-inflammatory activity and prevented the excessive phosphorylation of NF-κB (p-P65) and the increase in IL-1β and IL-6 levels. Finally, our data indicated that EA treatment decreased the level of phosphorylated JNK in vivo, and the JNK activator anisomycin (AN) reversed the neuroprotective effects of EA, indicating that the JNK pathway is involved in the antiapoptotic and anti-inflammatory mechanisms of EA. In summary, our findings suggest that EA provides neuroprotective effects through its antiapoptotic and anti-inflammatory activities by inhibiting the JNK signaling pathway in cerebral I/R injury. Due to its safety and lack of toxicity, EA is a potential candidate for the treatment of ischemic stroke in future clinical trials.

Ursolic and oleanolic acid derivatives with cholinesterase inhibiting potential

Triterpenoids are in the focus of scientific interest, and they were evaluated for many pharmacological applications among them their ability to act as inhibitors of cholinesterases. These inhibitors are still of interest as drugs that improve the life quality of patients suffering from age-related dementia illnesses especially of Alzheimer's disease. Herein, we prepared several derivatives of ursolic and oleanolic acid and screened them in Ellman's assays for their ability to inhibit acetylcholinesterase and/or butyrylcholinesterase, and for each of the active compounds the type of inhibition was determined. As a result, several compounds were shown as good inhibitors for acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase even in a micromolar range. An ursolic acid derived hydroxyl-propinyl derivative 10 was a competitive inhibitor for butyrylcholinesterase with an inhibition constant of Ki = 4.29 μM, and therefore being twice as active as gold standard galantamine hydrobromide. The best inhibitor for acetylcholinesterase, however, was 2-methyl-3-oxo-methyl-ursoloate (18), acting as a mixed-type inhibitor showing Ki = 1.72 µM and Ki' = 1.28 μM, respectively.

Gut microbiota: a new angle for traditional herbal medicine research

Traditional Herbal Medicine (THM) has been used for thousands of years, and is popular worldwide due to its effectiveness in a variety of diseases.

Phytoconstituents and their Possible Mechanistic Profile for Alzheimer's Disease - A Literature Review

Memory is an associated part of life without which livelihood of a human being becomes miserable. As the global aged population is increasing tremendously, time has come to concentrate on tail end life stage diseases. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of such diseases whose origin is enigmatic, having an impact on later stage of life drastically due to irreparable damage of cognition, characterised by the presence of neurotoxic amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques and hyper phosphorylated Tau protein as fibrillary tangles. Existing therapeutic regimen mainly focuses on symptomatic relief by targeting neurotransmitters that are secondary to AD pathology. Plant derived licensed drugs, Galantamine and Huperzine-A were studied extensively due to their AChE inhibitory action for mild to moderate cases of AD. Although many studies have proved the efficacy of AChEIs as a preferable symptom reliever, they cannot offer long term protection. The future generation drugs of AD is expected to alter various factors that underlie the disease course with a symptomatic benefit promise. As AD involves complex pathology, it is essential to consider several molecular divergent factors apart from the events that result in the production of toxic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Even though several herbals have shown neuroprotective actions, we have mentioned about the phytoconstituents that have been tested experimentally against different Alzheimer's pathology models. These phytoconstituents need to be considered by the researchers for further drug development process to make them viable clinically, which is currently a lacuna.

Echinocystic Acid Facilitates Neurite Outgrowth in Neuroblastoma Neuro2a Cells and Enhances Spatial Memory in Aged Mice

Aging leads to functional changes in the brain and decreases ability of learning and memory. Neurite outgrowth is important in learning and memory, therefore regulation of neurite outgrowth might be a candidate for treating aged brain. Echinocystic acid (EA), a pentacyclic triterpene, has shown to exert various neurological effects. However, the effect of EA on neurite outgrowth has not been studied. In this study, we examined if EA is effective on neurite outgrowth and memory in aged mice. The effect of EA on neurite outgrowth was observed by examining neurite processes of Neuro2a cells treated with EA. Western blot analysis was conducted to examine possible mechanisms. Morris water maze test was used to examine the effect of EA on learning and memory in aged mice. Immunohistochemistry was conducted to observe the effect of EA on neurite outgrowth in the hippocampus. EA was shown to induce neurite outgrowth in a concentration dependent manner without affecting cell viability. Moreover, EA treatment increased phosphorylation of c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and JNK inhibitor, SP600125, blocked the effect of EA on neurite outgrowth. These results demonstrated that EA treatment promotes neurite outgrowth through the JNK signaling pathway. In in vivo experiments, EA treatment increased neurite outgrowth in aged mouse hippocampus. Moreover, EA treatment enhanced spatial learning and memory in aged mice. These results suggest that EA can be developed as a new, naturally occurring drug to treat ageing-related neurological diseases.

Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Codonopsis: A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Species of the genus Codonopsis are perennial herbs mainly distributed throughout East, Southeast and Central Asia. As recorded, they have been used as traditional Chinese medicines since the Qing Dynasty, where they were claimed for strengthening the spleen and tonifying the lung, as well as nourishing blood and engendering liquid. Some species are also used as food materials in southern China and Southeast Asia, such as tea, wine, soup, plaster, and porridge.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The review aims to assess the ethnopharmacological uses, explicit the material basis and pharmacological action, promote the safety of medical use, and suggest the future research potentials of Codonopsis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information on the studies of Codonopsis was collected from scientific journals, books, and reports via library and electronic data search (PubMed, Elsevier, Scopus, Google Scholar, Springer, Science Direct, Wiley, Researchgate, ACS, EMBASE, Web of Science and CNKI). Meanwhile, it was also obtained from published works of material medica, folk records, ethnopharmacological literatures, Ph.D. and Masters Dissertation. Plant taxonomy was confirmed to the database "The Plant List" (www.theplantlist.org).

RESULTS

Codonopsis has been used for medicinal purposes all around the world. Some species are also used as food materials in southern China and Southeast Asia. The chemical constituents of Codonopsis mainly are polyacetylenes, polyenes, flavonoids, lignans, alkaloids, coumarins, terpenoids, steroids, organic acids, saccharides, and so on. Extract of Codonopsis exhibit extensive pharmacological activities, including immune function regulation, hematopoiesis improvement, cardiovascular protection, neuroprotection, gastrointestinal function regulation, endocrine function regulation, cytotoxic and antibacterial effects, anti-aging and anti-oxidation, etc. Almost no obvious toxicity or side effect are observed and recorded for Codonopsis.

CONCLUSIONS

The traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Codonopsis are reviewed in this paper. Species of the genus have long been used as traditional medicines and food materials, they are reported with a large number of chemical constituents with different structures, extensive pharmacological activities in immune system, blood system, digestive system, etc. and almost no toxicity. More profound studies on less popular species, pharmacodynamic material basis and pharmacological mechanism, and quality assurance are suggested to be carried out to fulfil the research on the long-term clinical use and new drug research of Codonopsis.

The memory ameliorating effects of DHP1402, an herbal mixture, on cholinergic blockade-induced cognitive dysfunction in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The seeds of Ziziphus jujuba var. spinosa (Bunge) Hu ex H.F Chow (Rhamnaceae) and the roots of Codonopsis lanceolata (Siedbold & Zucc.) Benth. & Hook. f ex Trautv. (Campanulaceae), contained in the DHP1402, have long been used for treating dementia or hypomnesia as folk medicine.

AIM OF THE STUDY

It has been reported that Z. jujuba var. spinosa and C. lanceolata are effective in improving cognitive function, but via different mechanisms. Therefore, in the present study, we evaluated the synergistic effects of Z. jujuba var. spinosa and C. lanceolata on scopolamine-induced memory impairment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Scopolamine, a cholinergic muscarinic receptor antagonist, was used to induce cognitive dysfunction. We employed several behavioral tasks to estimate the synergistic effect of the seeds of Z. jujuba var. spinosa and the roots of C. lanceolata. In addition, we introduced the Western blotting, the antagonism passive avoidance task to investigate a synergistic effect of an herbal formulation.

RESULTS

Synergistic effects of a combination of Z. jujuba var. spinosa and C. lanceolata at a 5:1 ratio [(w/w), DHP1402] were observed against cognitive dysfunction in the passive avoidance and Y-maze tasks. DHP1402 also ameliorated memory deficits in a dose-dependent manner in these behavioral tasks, as well as in the Morris water maze task. According to the Western blot results, the phosphorylation levels of protein kinase A (PKA), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) in the hippocampus were also increased in a synergistic manner after the administration of DHP1402. In addition, we found that the effects of DHP1402 on cognitive function were mediated by N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor signalling, based on the antagonism studies. Furthermore, we found that DHP1402 has inhibitory activity against acetylcholinesterase (AChE).

CONCLUSION

DHP1402 attenuates cholinergic blockade-induced cognitive dysfunction through NMDA receptor modulation, PKA-ERK-CREB pathway activation, and AChE inhibition. Therefore, DHP1402 could be a candidate for alleviating cognitive dysfunction.

Codonopsis lanceolata Water Extract Increases Hepatic Insulin Sensitivity in Rats with Experimentally-Induced Type 2 Diabetes

We examined the mechanisms and efficacy of Codonopsis lanceolata water extract (CLW) for treating type 2 diabetic (T2DM) symptoms. Partial pancreatectomized (Px) rats, a non-obese T2DM model, were provided high fat diets containing cellulose (control), 0.3% (CLW-L) or 1% CLW (CLW-H) for eight weeks. The positive control group was provided with rosiglitazone (20 mg/kg bw/day). The control group had lower epididymal fat masses than the CLW and the positive control groups, possibly due to urinary glucose loss, although CPT-1 and SIRT-1 expression was higher in the CLW group. CLW-H significantly reduced serum glucose levels and urinary glucose loss compared to the untreated control. The improvement of glucose utilization was associated with a higher fat mass in the CLW-H and positive control groups. Glucose-stimulated insulin secretion was higher in the untreated control than other groups and CLW tightly regulated insulin secretion as much as the positive control, and it was much tighter than the untreated control. Glucose infusion rates were higher during the hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp in the CLW and positive controls than the untreated control, and liver glucose outputs were lower during basal and hyperinsulinemic conditions in the CLW and positive control groups than the untreated control group. The increased hepatic insulin sensitivity was associated with enhanced insulin signaling in CLW (pAkt➔pGSK-1β). In conclusion, CLW consumption effectively alleviated diabetic symptoms by improving insulin sensitivity, potentiating hepatic insulin signaling and tightly regulating the insulin secretion capacity in non-obese T2DM rats.

Understanding the Molecular Mechanisms of the Interplay Between Herbal Medicines and Gut Microbiota

Herbal medicines (HMs) are much appreciated for their significant contribution to human survival and reproduction by remedial and prophylactic management of diseases. Defining the scientific basis of HMs will substantiate their value and promote their modernization. Ever-increasing evidence suggests that gut microbiota plays a crucial role in HM therapy by complicated interplay with HM components. This interplay includes such activities as: gut microbiota biotransforming HM chemicals into metabolites that harbor different bioavailability and bioactivity/toxicity from their precursors; HM chemicals improving the composition of gut microbiota, consequently ameliorating its dysfunction as well as associated pathological conditions; and gut microbiota mediating the interactions (synergistic and antagonistic) between the multiple chemicals in HMs. More advanced experimental designs are recommended for future study, such as overall chemical characterization of gut microbiota-metabolized HMs, direct microbial analysis of HM-targeted gut microbiota, and precise gut microbiota research model development. The outcomes of such research can further elucidate the interactions between HMs and gut microbiota, thereby opening a new window for defining the scientific basis of HMs and for guiding HM-based drug discovery.

Oleanolic acid ameliorates cognitive dysfunction caused by cholinergic blockade via TrkB-dependent BDNF signaling

Oleanolic acid is a naturally occurring triterpenoid and is widely present in food and medicinal plants. To examine the effect of oleanolic acid on memory deficits, we employed a cholinergic blockade-induced cognitive deficit mouse model. A single administration of oleanolic acid significantly increased the latency on the passive avoidance task and affected the alternation behavior on the Y-maze task and the exploration time on the novel object recognition task, indicating that oleanolic acid reverses the cognitive impairment induced by scopolamine. In accordance with previous reports, oleanolic acid enhanced extracellular-signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression in the hippocampus. Interestingly, ameliorating effect of oleanolic acid on scopolamine-induced memory impairment was abolished by N2-(2-{[(2-oxoazepan-3-yl)amino]carbonyl}phenyl)benzo[b]thiophene-2-carboxamide (ANA-12), a potent and specific inhibitor of tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), in the passive avoidance task. Similarly, oleanolic acid significantly evoked long-term potentiation in a dose-dependent manner, which was diminished by ANA-12 treatment as shown in the electrophysiology study. Together, these results imply that oleanolic acid ameliorates scopolamine-induced memory impairment by modulating the BDNF-ERK1/2-CREB pathway through TrkB activation in mice, suggesting that oleanolic acid would be a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of cognitive deficits.

Steamed and Fermented Ethanolic Extract from Codonopsis lanceolata Attenuates Amyloid-β-Induced Memory Impairment in Mice

Codonopsis lanceolata (C. lanceolata) is a traditional medicinal plant used for the treatment of certain inflammatory diseases such as asthma, tonsillitis, and pharyngitis. We evaluated whether steamed and fermented C. lanceolata (SFC) extract improves amyloid-β- (Aβ-) induced learning and memory impairment in mice. The Morris water maze and passive avoidance tests were used to evaluate the effect of SFC extract. Moreover, we investigated acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB), and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling in the hippocampus of mice to determine a possible mechanism for the cognitive-enhancing effect. Saponin compounds in SFC were identified by Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography-Quadrupole-Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS). SFC extract ameliorated amyloid-β-induced memory impairment in the Morris water maze and passive avoidance tests. SFC extract inhibited AChE activity and also significantly increased the level of CREB phosphorylation, BDNF expression, and ERK activation in hippocampal tissue of amyloid-β-treated mice. Lancemasides A, B, C, D, E, and G and foetidissimoside A compounds present in SFC were determined by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS. These results indicate that SFC extract improves Aβ-induced memory deficits and that AChE inhibition and CREB/BDNF/ERK expression is important for the effect of the SFC extract. In addition, lancemaside A specifically may be responsible for efficacious effect of SFC.

Shenqi fuzheng injection attenuates irradiation-induced brain injury in mice via inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway and microglial activation

AIM

Radiation-induced brain injury (RIBI) is the most common and severe adverse effect induced by cranial radiation therapy (CRT). In the present study, we examined the effects of the traditional Chinese medicine Shenqi Fuzheng Injection (SFI) on RIBI in mice, and explored the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

C57BL/6J mice were subjected to a single dose of 20-Gy CRT. The mice were treated with SFI (20 mL·kg(-1)·d(-1), ip) for 4 weeks. Morris water maze test was used to assess the cognitive changes. Evans blue leakage and a horseradish peroxidase (HRP) assay were used to evaluate the integrity of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The expression of inflammatory factors and microglial activation in brain tissues were detected using RT-PCR, Western blotting and immunofluorescence staining.

RESULTS

CRT caused marked reductions in the body weight and life span of the mice, and significantly impaired their spatial learning. Furthermore, CRT significantly increased the BBB permeability, number of activated microglia, expression levels of TNF-α and IL-1β, and the levels of phosphorylated p65 and PIDD-CC (the twice-cleaved fragment of p53-induced protein with a death domain) in the brain tissues. Four-week SFI treatment (administered for 2 weeks before and 2 weeks after CRT) not only significantly improved the physical status, survival, and spatial learning in CRT-treated mice, but also attenuated all the CRT-induced changes in the brain tissues. Four-week SFI pretreatment (administered for 4 weeks before CRT) was less effective.

CONCLUSION

Administration of SFI effectively attenuates irradiation-induced brain injury via inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway and microglial activation.

Allobetulin derived seco-oleananedicarboxylates act as inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase

Ring opening of allobetulone gave either seco-acid 8 or di-acid 4. These acids were converted into esters that were screened by Ellman's assay. A dibutenylester of low cytotoxicity (NIH 3T3 murine embryonic fibroblasts) was shown to be a good mixed-type inhibitor (Ki=3.39, Ki'=2.26μM) for acetylcholinesterase.

Adaptive cellular stress pathways as therapeutic targets of dietary phytochemicals: focus on the nervous system

During the past 5 decades, it has been widely promulgated that the chemicals in plants that are good for health act as direct scavengers of free radicals. Here we review evidence that favors a different hypothesis for the health benefits of plant consumption, namely, that some phytochemicals exert disease-preventive and therapeutic actions by engaging one or more adaptive cellular response pathways in cells. The evolutionary basis for the latter mechanism is grounded in the fact that plants produce natural antifeedant/noxious chemicals that discourage insects and other organisms from eating them. However, in the amounts typically consumed by humans, the phytochemicals activate one or more conserved adaptive cellular stress response pathways and thereby enhance the ability of cells to resist injury and disease. Examplesof such pathways include those involving the transcription factors nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, nuclear factor-κB, hypoxia-inducible factor 1α, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, and forkhead box subgroup O, as well as the production and action of trophic factors and hormones. Translational research to develop interventions that target these pathways may lead to new classes of therapeutic agents that act by stimulating adaptive stress response pathways to bolster endogenous defenses against tissue injury and disease. Because neurons are particularly sensitive to potentially noxious phytochemicals, we focus on the nervous system but also include findings from other cell types in which actions of phytochemicals on specific signal transduction pathways have been more thoroughly studied.

Neuroprotective Effect of Steamed and Fermented Codonopsis lanceolata

Codonopsis lanceolata has been used as an herbal medicine for several lung inflammatory diseases, such as asthma, tonsillitis, and pharyngitis. Previously, we showed the neuroprotective effect of steamed and fermented C. lanceolata (SFC) in vitro and in vivo. In the current study, the treatment of HT22 cells with SFC decreased glutamate-induced cell death, suggesting that SFC protected HT22 cells from glutamate-induced cytotoxicity. Based on these, we sought to elucidate the mechanisms of the neuro-protective effect of SFC by measuring the oxidative stress parameters and the expression of Bax and caspase-3 in HT22 cells. SFC reduced contents of ROS, Ca²⁺ and NO. Moreover, SFC restored contents of glutathione and glutathione reductase as well as inhibited Bax and caspase-3 activity in HT22 cells. These results indicate that steamed and fermented C. lanceolata (SFC) extract protected HT22 cells by anti-oxidative effect and inhibition of the expression of Bax and caspase-3.

Cognitive-Enhancing Effect of Steamed and Fermented Codonopsis lanceolata: A Behavioral and Biochemical Study

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory impairment. Codonopsis lanceolata (C. lanceolata) has been employed clinically for lung inflammatory diseases such as asthma, tonsillitis, and pharyngitis. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of fermented C. lanceolata (300, 500, and 800 mg/kg) on learning and memory impairment induced by scopolamine by using the Morris water maze and passive avoidance tests. To elucidate possible mechanism of cognitive-enhancing activity, we measured acetylcholinesterase (AchE) activity, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB) expression in the brain of mice. Administration of fermented C. lanceolata (800 mg/kg) led to reduced scopolamine-induced memory impairment in the Morris water maze and passive avoidance tests. Accordingly, the administration of fermented C. lanceolata inhibited AchE activity. Interestingly, the level of CREB phosphorylation and BDNF expression in hippocampal tissue of scopolamine-treated mice was significantly increased by the administration of fermented C. lanceolata. These results indicate that fermented C. lanceolata can ameliorate scopolamine-induced memory deficits in mouse and may be an alternative agent for the treatment of AD.

The treatment of Alzheimer's disease using Chinese medicinal plants: from disease models to potential clinical applications

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by the sustained higher nervous disorders of the activities and functions of the brain. Due to its heavy burden on society and the patients' families, it is urgent to review the treatments for AD to provide basic data for further research and new drug development. Among these treatments, Chinese Material Medica (CMM) has been traditionally clinical used in China to treat AD for a long time with obvious efficacy. With the further research reports of CMM, new therapeutic materials may be recovered from troves of CMM. However, So far, little or no review work has been reported to conclude anti-AD drugs from CMM in literature. Therefore, a systematic introduction of CMM anti-AD research progress is of great importance and necessity. This paper strives to systematically describe the progress of CMM in the treatment of AD, and lays a basis data for anti-AD drug development from CMM, and provides the essential theoretical support for the further development and utilization of CMM resources through a more comprehensive research of the variety of databases regarding CMM anti-AD effects reports.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Literature survey was performed via electronic search (SciFinder®, Pubmed®, Google Scholar and Web of Science) on papers and patents and by systematic research in ethnopharmacological literature at various university libraries.

RESULTS

This review mainly introduces the current research on the Chinese Material Medica (CMM) theoretical research on Alzheimer's disease (AD), anti-AD active constituent of CMM, anti-AD effects on AD models, anti-AD mechanism of CMM, and anti-AD effect of CMM formula.

CONCLUSION

Scholars around the world have made studies on the anti-AD molecular mechanism of CMM from different pathways, and have made substantial progress. The progress not only enriched the anti-AD theory of CMM, but also provided clinical practical significance and development prospects in using CMM to treat AD. Western pure drugs cannot replace the advantages of CMM in the anti-AD aspect. Therefore, in the near future, the development of CMM anti-AD drugs with a more clearly role and practical data will be a major trend in the field of AD drug development, and it will promote the use of CMM.

Lancemaside A from Codonopsis lanceolata modulates the inflammatory responses mediated by monocytes and macrophages

In this study, we aimed to examine the cellular and molecular mechanisms of lancemaside A from Codonopsis lanceolata (Campanulaceae) in the inflammatory responses of monocytes (U937 cells) and macrophages (RAW264.7 cells). Lancemaside A significantly suppressed the inflammatory functions of lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) treated RAW264.7 cells by suppressing the production of nitric oxide (NO), the expression of the NO-producing enzyme inducible NO synthase (iNOS), the upregulation of the costimulatory molecule CD80, and the morphological changes induced by LPS exposure. In addition, lancemaside A diminished the phagocytic activity of RAW264.7 cells and boosted the neutralizing capacity of these cells when treated with the radical generator sodium nitroprusside (SNP). Interestingly, lancemaside A strongly blocked the adhesion activity of RAW264.7 cells to plastic culture plates, inhibited the cell-cell and cell-fibronectin (FN) adhesion of U937 cells that was triggered by treatment with an anti-β1-integrin (CD29) antibody and immobilized FN, respectively. By evaluating the activation of various intracellular signaling pathways and the levels of related nuclear transcription factors, lancemaside A was found to block the activation of inhibitor of κB kinase (IKK) and p65/nuclear factor- (NF-) κB. Taken together, our findings strongly suggest that the anti-inflammatory function of lancemaside A is the result of its strong antioxidative and IKK/NF-κB inhibitory activities.

The effect of PN-1, a Traditional Chinese Prescription, on the Learning and Memory in a Transgenic Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is a complete medical system that has been practiced for more than 3000 years. Prescription number 1 (PN-1) consists of several Chinese medicines and is designed according to TCM theories to treat patients with neuropsychiatric disorders. The evidence of clinical practice suggests the benefit effects of PN-1 on cognitive deficits of dementia patients. We try to prove and explain this by using contemporary methodology and transgenic animal models of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The behavioral studies were developed to evaluate the memory of transgenic animals after intragastric administration of PN-1 for 3 months. Amyloid beta-protein (A β ) neuropathology was quantified using immunohistochemistry and ELISA. The western blotting was used to detect the levels of plasticity associated proteins. The safety of PN-1 on mice was also assessed through multiple parameters. Results showed that PN-1 could effectively relieve learning and memory impairment of transgenic animals. Possible mechanisms showed that PN-1 could significantly reduce plaque burden and A β levels and boost synaptic plasticity. Our observations showed that PN-1 could improve learning and memory ability through multiple mechanisms without detectable side effects on mice. We propose that PN-1 is a promising alternative treatment for AD in the future.

Lancemaside A inhibits microglial activation via modulation of JNK signaling pathway

Microglial activation plays an important role in neurodegenerative diseases. Thus, controlling microglial activation is considered to be a promising therapeutic target for neurodegenerative diseases. In the present study, we found that lancemaside A, a triterpenoid saponin isolated from Codonopsislanceolata, inhibited iNOS and proinflammatory cytokines in LPS-stimulated BV2 microglial cells. By analyzing molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory effects of lancemaside A, we found that lancemaside A selectively inhibited LPS-induced JNK phosphorylation among the three types of MAP kinases. A JNK-specific inhibitor, SP600125, like lancemaside A, significantly inhibited not only NO, TNF-α, and IL-6 productions, but also NF-κB and AP-1 activities, suggesting that JNK inhibition is largely involved in the anti-inflammatory mechanism of lancemaside A. Interestingly, both the lancemaside A and SP600125 inhibited ROS production by suppressing the expression and/or phosphorylation of NADPH oxidase subunit proteins, such as p47(phox), p67(phox), and gp91(phox). The antioxidant effects of lancemaside A and SP600125 appear to be related with an increase of hemeoxygenase-1 expression by both agents. Finally, we demonstrated the neuroprotective effects of lancemaside A and SP600125 in microglia-neuron coculture systems. Collectively, our data suggest that JNK pathway plays a key role mediating anti-inflammatory effects of lancemaside A in LPS-stimulated microglia.