The nicotinic acetylcholine receptor CHRNA5/A3/B4 gene cluster: dual role in nicotine addiction and lung cancer

Contribution of the α5 nAChR Subunit and α5SNP to Nicotine-Induced Proliferation and Migration of Human Cancer Cells

Nicotine in tobacco is known to induce tumor-promoting effects and cause chemotherapy resistance through the activation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). Many studies have associated the α5 nicotinic receptor subunit (α5), and a specific polymorphism in this subunit, with (i) nicotine administration, (ii) nicotine dependence, and (iii) lung cancer. The α5 gene CHRNA5 mRNA is upregulated in several types of cancer, including lung, prostate, colorectal, and stomach cancer, and cancer severity is correlated with smoking. In this study, we investigate the contribution of α5 in the nicotine-induced cancer hallmark functions proliferation and migration, in breast, colon, and prostate cancer cells. Nine human cell lines from different origins were used to determine nAChR subunit expression levels. Then, selected breast (MCF7), colon (SW480), and prostate (DU145) cancer cell lines were used to investigate the nicotine-induced effects mediated by α5. Using pharmacological and siRNA-based experiments, we show that α5 is essential for nicotine-induced proliferation and migration. Additionally, upon downregulation of α5, nicotine-promoted expression of EMT markers and immune regulatory proteins was impaired. Moreover, the α5 polymorphism D398N (α5SNP) caused a basal increase in proliferation and migration in the DU145 cell line, and the effect was mediated through G-protein signaling. Taken together, our results indicate that nicotine-induced cancer cell proliferation and migration are mediated via α5, adding to the characterization of α5 as a putative therapeutical target.

The rs16969968 Tobacco Smoking-Related Single-Nucleotide Variant Is Associated with Clinical Markers in Patients with Severe COVID-19

Tobacco smoking is the leading risk factor for many respiratory diseases. Several genes are associated with nicotine addiction, such as CHRNA5 and ADAM33. This research aims to evaluate the association of the polymorphisms rs16969968 (CHRNA5) and rs3918396 (ADAM33) in patients who developed severe COVID-19. We included 917 COVID-19 patients hospitalized with critical disease and oxygenation impairment. They were divided into two groups, tobacco-smoking (n = 257) and non-smoker (n = 660) patients. The genotype and allele frequencies of two single nucleotide variants, the rs16969968 (CHRNA5) and rs3918396 (ADAM33), were evaluated. The rs3918396 in ADAM33 does not show a significative association. We analyzed the study population according to the rs16969968 genotype (GA + AA, n = 180, and GG, n = 737). The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) shows statistical differences; the GA + AA group had higher values than the GG group (p = 0.038, 32 vs. 26 mm/h, respectively). The smoking patients and GA or AA genotype carriers had a high positive correlation (p < 0.001, rho = 0.753) between fibrinogen and C-reactive protein. COVID-19 patients and smokers carriers of one or two copies of the risk allele (rs16969968/A) have high ESR and a positive correlation between fibrinogen and C-reactive protein.

SARS-CoV-2 spike ectodomain targets α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

Virus entry into animal cells is initiated by attachment to target macromolecules located on host cells. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) trimeric spike glycoprotein targets host angiotensin converting enzyme 2 to gain cellular access. The SARS-CoV-2 glycoprotein contains a neurotoxin-like region that has sequence similarities to the rabies virus and the HIV glycoproteins, as well as to snake neurotoxins, which interact with nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subtypes via this region. Using a peptide of the neurotoxin-like region of SARS-CoV-2 (SARS-CoV-2 glycoprotein peptide [SCoV2P]), we identified that this area moderately inhibits α3β2, α3β4, and α4β2 subtypes, while potentiating and inhibiting α7 nAChRs. These nAChR subtypes are found in target tissues including the nose, lung, central nervous system, and immune cells. Importantly, SCoV2P potentiates and inhibits ACh-induced α7 nAChR responses by an allosteric mechanism, with nicotine enhancing these effects. Live-cell confocal microscopy was used to confirm that SCoV2P interacts with α7 nAChRs in transfected neuronal-like N2a and human embryonic kidney 293 cells. The SARS-CoV-2 ectodomain functionally potentiates and inhibits the α7 subtype with nanomolar potency. Our functional findings identify that the α7 nAChR is a target for the SARS-CoV-2 glycoprotein, providing a new aspect to our understanding of SARS-CoV-2 and host cell interactions, in addition to disease pathogenesis.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subtype expression, function, and pharmacology: Therapeutic potential of α-conotoxins

The pentameric nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are typically classed as muscle- or neuronal-type, however, the latter has also been reported in non-neuronal cells. Given their broad distribution, nAChRs mediate numerous physiological and pathological processes including synaptic transmission, presynaptic modulation of transmitter release, neuropathic pain, inflammation, and cancer. There are 17 different nAChR subunits and combinations of these subunits produce subtypes with diverse pharmacological properties. The expression and role of some nAChR subtypes have been extensively deciphered with the aid of knock-out models. Many nAChR subtypes expressed in heterologous systems are selectively targeted by the disulfide-rich α-conotoxins. α-Conotoxins are small peptides isolated from the venom of cone snails, and a number of them have potential pharmaceutical value.

Integrative genomic profiling reveals characteristics of lymph node metastasis in small cell lung cancer

Background

Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is the most aggressive lung cancer subtype, with more than 70% of patients having metastatic disease and a poor prognosis. However, no integrated multi-omics analysis has been performed to explore novel differentially expressed genes (DEGs) or significantly mutated genes (SMGs) associated with lymph node metastasis (LNM) in SCLC.

Methods

In this study, whole-exome sequencing (WES) and RNA-sequencing were performed on tumor specimens to investigate the association between genomic and transcriptome alterations and LNM in SCLC patients with (N+, n=15) or without (N0, n=11) LNM.

Results

The results of WES revealed that the most common mutations occurred in TTN (85%) and TP53 (81%). The SMGs, including ZNF521, CDH10, ZNF429, POLE, and FAM135B, were associated with LNM. Cosmic signature analysis showed that mutation signatures 2, 4, and 7 were associated with LNM. Meanwhile, DEGs, including MAGEA4, FOXI3, RXFP2, and TRHDE, were found to be associated with LNM. Furthermore, we found that the messenger RNA (mRNA) levels of RB1 (P=0.0087), AFF3 (P=0.058), TDG (P=0.05), and ANKRD28 (P=0.042) were significantly correlated with copy number variants (CNVs), and ANKRD28 expression was consistently lower in N+ tumors than in N0 tumors. Further validation in cBioPortal revealed a significant correlation between LNM and poor prognosis in SCLC (P=0.014), although there was no significant correlation between LNM and overall survival (OS) in our cohort (P=0.75).

Conclusions

To our knowledge, this is the first integrative genomics profiling of LNM in SCLC. Our findings are particularly important for early detection and the provision of reliable therapeutic targets.

Viral Tracing Confirms Paranigral Ventral Tegmental Area Dopaminergic Inputs to the Interpeduncular Nucleus Where Dopamine Release Encodes Motivated Exploration

Midbrain dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) are engaged by rewarding stimuli and encode reward prediction error to update goal-directed learning. However, recent data indicate that VTA DAergic neurons are functionally heterogeneous with emerging roles in aversive signaling, salience, and novelty, based in part on anatomic location and projection, highlighting a need to functionally characterize the repertoire of VTA DAergic efferents in motivated behavior. Previous work identifying a mesointerpeduncular circuit consisting of VTA DAergic neurons projecting to the interpeduncular nucleus (IPN), a midbrain area implicated in aversion, anxiety-like behavior, and familiarity, has recently come into question. To verify the existence of this circuit, we combined presynaptic targeted and retrograde viral tracing in the dopamine transporter-Cre mouse line. Consistent with previous reports, synaptic tracing revealed that axon terminals from the VTA innervate the caudal IPN; whereas, retrograde tracing revealed DAergic VTA neurons, predominantly in the paranigral region, project to the nucleus accumbens shell, as well as the IPN. To test whether functional DAergic neurotransmission exists in the IPN, we expressed the genetically encoded DA sensor, dLight 1.2, in the IPN of C57BL/6J mice and measured IPN DA signals in vivo during social and anxiety-like behavior using fiber photometry. We observed an increase in IPN DA signal during social investigation of a novel but not familiar conspecific and during exploration of the anxiogenic open arms of the elevated plus maze. Together, these data confirm VTA DAergic neuron projections to the IPN and implicate this circuit in encoding motivated exploration.

Pharmacological characterization of 5-iodo-A-85380, a β2-selective nicotinic receptor agonist, in mice

BACKGROUND

Because of their implications in several pathological conditions, α4β2* nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are potential targets for the treatment of nicotine dependence, pain, and many psychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases. However, they exist in various subtypes, and finding selective tools to investigate them has proved challenging. The nicotinic receptor agonist, 5-iodo-A-85380 (5IA), has helped in delineating the function of β2-containing subtypes in vitro; however, much is still unknown about its behavioral effects. Furthermore, its effectiveness on α6-containing subtypes is limited.

AIMS

To investigate the effects of 5IA on nociception (formalin, hot-plate, and tail-flick tests), locomotion, hypothermia, and conditioned reward after acute and repeated administration, and to examine the potential role of β2 and α6 nAChR subunits in these effects. Lastly, its selectivity for expressed low sensitivity (LS) and high sensitivity (HS) α4β2 receptors is investigated.

RESULTS

5IA dose-dependently induced hypothermia, locomotion suppression, conditioned place preference, and antinociception (only in the formalin test but not in the hot-plate or tail-flick tests). Furthermore, these effects were mediated by β2 but not α6 nicotinic subunits. Finally, we show that 5-iodo-A-85380 potently activates both stoichiometries of α4β2 nAChRs with differential efficacies, being a full agonist on HS α4(2)β2(3) nAChRs, and a partial agonist on LS α4(3)β2(2) nAChRs and α6-containing subtypes as well.

CHRNA5 rs16969968 and CHRNA3 rs578776 polymorphisms are associated with multiple nicotine dependence phenotypes in Bangladeshi smokers

Background

A recent study has identified the role of CHRNA5-A3-B4 gene cluster variants rs16969968 and rs578776 of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) on smoking status in Bengali ethnicity. The aim of the current study was to investigate whether these rs16969968-rs578776-rs11072768 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of CHRNA5-A3-B4 gene cluster were associated with nicotine dependence (ND) and related phenotypes.

Methods

The Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND) and Cigarette Dependence Scale (CDS-12) were used to assess the degree of ND, and genotyping was done using the polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) method on a cohort of 129 male smokers participating in a structured questionnaire-based survey.

Results

Smokers with AA genotype of CHRNA5 rs16969968 SNP were at significantly increased risk of developing ND compared to its wild type variant with odds ratio (ORs) of 1.20 (FTND: 95% CI 0.25–5.37, p = 0.253) and 2.48 (CDS-12: 95% CI 0.46–13.26, p = 0.081), respectively. Conversely, smokers with AA genotype of CHRNA3 rs578776 variant had a strong protective effect against ND development (ORs = 0.27, 95% CI 0.09–0.80, p = 0.076). There was no such link reported in CHRNB4 rs11072768 variant carriers. Similarly, G-A/G-A diplotype of rs16969968_rs578776 variants was discovered to be a protective factor against ND. Moreover, demographic features such as age, occupation and dwelling status were found to be significantly associated with ND.

Conclusion

Taken together, CHRNA5-A3-B4 gene cluster variants rs16969968 and rs578776 as well as specific demographic characteristics regulate ND and related smoking phenotypes in Bangladeshi male smokers. Further studies with large sample sizes are required to substantially validate the significance.

The Promise of Polygenic Risk Prediction in Smoking Cessation: Evidence From Two Treatment Trials

INTRODUCTION

Tobacco use disorder is a complex behavior with a strong genetic component. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) on smoking behaviors allow for the creation of polygenic risk scores (PRSs) to approximate genetic vulnerability. However, the utility of smoking-related PRSs in predicting smoking cessation in clinical trials remains unknown.

AIMS AND METHODS

We evaluated the association between polygenic risk scores and bioverified smoking abstinence in a meta-analysis of two randomized, placebo-controlled smoking cessation trials. PRSs of smoking behaviors were created using the GWAS and Sequencing Consortium of Alcohol and Nicotine use (GSCAN) consortium summary statistics. We evaluated the utility of using individual PRS of specific smoking behavior versus a combined genetic risk that combines PRS of all four smoking behaviors. Study participants came from the Transdisciplinary Tobacco Use Research Centers (TTURCs) Study (1091 smokers of European descent), and the Genetically Informed Smoking Cessation Trial (GISC) Study (501 smokers of European descent).

RESULTS

PRS of later age of smoking initiation (OR [95% CI]: 1.20, [1.04-1.37], p = .0097) was significantly associated with bioverified smoking abstinence at end of treatment. In addition, the combined PRS of smoking behaviors also significantly predicted bioverified smoking abstinence (OR [95% CI] 0.71 [0.51-0.99], p = .045).

CONCLUSIONS

PRS of later age at smoking initiation may be useful in predicting smoking cessation at the end of treatment. A combined PRS may be a useful predictor for smoking abstinence by capturing the genetic propensity for multiple smoking behaviors.

IMPLICATIONS

There is a potential for polygenic risk scores to inform future clinical medicine, and a great need for evidence on whether these scores predict clinically meaningful outcomes. Our meta-analysis provides early evidence for potential utility of using polygenic risk scores to predict smoking cessation amongst smokers undergoing quit attempts, informing further work to optimize the use of polygenic risk scores in clinical care.

Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors in the Respiratory Tract

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) are widely distributed in neuronal and non-neuronal tissues, where they play diverse physiological roles. In this review, we highlight the recent findings regarding the role of nAChR in the respiratory tract with a special focus on the involvement of nAChR in the regulation of multiple processes in health and disease. We discuss the role of nAChR in mucociliary clearance, inflammation, and infection and in airway diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and cancer. The subtype diversity of nAChR enables differential regulation, making them a suitable pharmaceutical target in many diseases. The stimulation of the α3β4 nAChR could be beneficial in diseases accompanied by impaired mucociliary clearance, and the anti-inflammatory effect due to an α7 nAChR stimulation could alleviate symptoms in diseases with chronic inflammation such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma, while the inhibition of the α5 nAChR could potentially be applied in non-small cell lung cancer treatment. However, while clinical studies targeting nAChR in the airways are still lacking, we suggest that more detailed research into this topic and possible pharmaceutical applications could represent a valuable tool to alleviate the symptoms of diverse airway diseases.

Unveiling the pathogenesis of perineural invasion from the perspective of neuroactive molecules

Perineural invasion (PNI) is characterized by an encounter between the cancer cells and neuronal fibers and holds an extremely poor prognosis for malignant tumors. The exact molecular mechanism behind PNI yet remains to be explored. However, it is worth-noting that an involvement of the neuroactive molecules plays a major part in this process. A complex signaling network comprising the interplay between immunological cascades and neurogenic molecules such as tumor-derived neurotrophins, neuromodulators, and growth factors constitutes an active microenvironment for PNI associated with malignancy. The present review aims at discussing the following points in relation to PNI: a) Communication between PNI and neuroplasticity mechanisms can explain the pathophysiology of poor, short and long-term outcomes in cancer patients; b) Neuroactive molecules can significantly alter the neurons and cancer cells so as to sustain PNI progression; c) Finally, careful manipulation of neurogenic pathways and/or their crosstalk with the immunological molecules implicated in PNI could provide a potential breakthrough in cancer therapeutics.

Repurposing dextromethorphan and metformin for treating nicotine-induced cancer by directly targeting CHRNA7 to inhibit JAK2/STAT3/SOX2 signaling

Smoking is one of the most impactful lifestyle-related risk factors in many cancer types including esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). As the major component of tobacco and e-cigarettes, nicotine is not only responsible for addiction to smoking but also a carcinogen. Here we report that nicotine enhances ESCC cancer malignancy and tumor-initiating capacity by interacting with cholinergic receptor nicotinic alpha 7 subunit (CHRNA7) and subsequently activating the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway. We found that aberrant CHRNA7 expression can serve as an independent prognostic factor for ESCC patients. In multiple ESCC mouse models, dextromethorphan and metformin synergistically repressed nicotine-enhanced cancer-initiating cells (CIC) properties and inhibited ESCC progression. Mechanistically, dextromethorphan non-competitively inhibited nicotine binding to CHRNA7 while metformin downregulated CHRNA7 expression by antagonizing nicotine-induced promoter DNA hypomethylation of CHRNA7. Since dextromethorphan and metformin are two safe FDA-approved drugs with minimal undesirable side-effects, the combination of these drugs has a high potential as either a preventive and/or a therapeutic strategy against nicotine-promoted ESCC and perhaps other nicotine-sensitive cancer types as well.

The α5 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Subunit Differentially Modulates α4β2* and α3β4* Receptors

Nicotine, the principal reinforcing compound in tobacco, acts in the brain by activating neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). This review summarizes our current knowledge regarding how the α5 accessory nAChR subunit, encoded by the CHRNA5 gene, differentially modulates α4β2^* and α3β4^* receptors at the cellular level. Genome-wide association studies have linked a gene cluster in chromosomal region 15q25 to increased susceptibility to nicotine addiction, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and peripheral arterial disease. Interestingly, this gene cluster contains a non-synonymous single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the human CHRNA5 gene, causing an aspartic acid (D) to asparagine (N) substitution at amino acid position 398 in the α5 nAChR subunit. Although other SNPs have been associated with tobacco smoking behavior, efforts have focused predominantly on the D398 and N398 variants in the α5 subunit. In recent years, significant progress has been made toward understanding the role that the α5 nAChR subunit—and the role of the D398 and N398 variants—plays on nAChR function at the cellular level. These insights stem primarily from a wide range of experimental models, including receptors expressed heterologously in Xenopus oocytes, various cell lines, and neurons derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), as well as endogenous receptors in genetically engineered mice and—more recently—rats. Despite providing a wealth of available data, however, these studies have yielded conflicting results, and our understanding of the modulatory role that the α5 subunit plays remains incomplete. Here, we review these reports and the various techniques used for expression and analysis in order to examine how the α5 subunit modulates key functions in α4β2^* and α3β4^* receptors, including receptor trafficking, sensitivity, efficacy, and desensitization. In addition, we highlight the strikingly different role that the α5 subunit plays in Ca²⁺ signaling between α4β2^* and α3β4^* receptors, and we discuss whether the N398 α5 subunit variant can partially replace the D398 variant.

Validation of a nicotine vapor self-administration model in rats with relevance to electronic cigarette use

The debate about electronic cigarettes is dividing healthcare professionals, policymakers, manufacturers, and communities. A key limitation in our understanding of the cause and consequences of vaping is the lack of animal models of nicotine vapor self-administration. Here, we developed a novel model of voluntary electronic cigarette use in rats using operant behavior. We found that rats voluntarily exposed themselves to nicotine vapor to the point of reaching blood nicotine levels that are similar to humans. The level of responding on the active (nicotine) lever was similar to the inactive (air) lever and lower than the active lever that was associated with vehicle (polypropylene glycol/glycerol) vapor, suggesting low positive reinforcing effects and low nicotine vapor discrimination. Lever pressing behavior with nicotine vapor was pharmacologically prevented by the α4β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist and α7 receptor full agonist varenicline in rats that self-administered nicotine but not vehicle vapor. Moreover, 3 weeks of daily (1 h) nicotine vapor self-administration produced addiction-like behaviors, including somatic signs of withdrawal, allodynia, anxiety-like behavior, and relapse-like behavior after 3 weeks of abstinence. Finally, 3 weeks of daily (1 h) nicotine vapor self-administration produced cardiopulmonary abnormalities and changes in α4, α3, and β2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit mRNA levels in the nucleus accumbens and medial prefrontal cortex. These findings validate a novel animal model of nicotine vapor self-administration in rodents with relevance to electronic cigarette use in humans and highlight the potential addictive properties and harmful effects of chronic nicotine vapor self-administration.

Advances in smoking cessation pharmacotherapy: Non-nicotinic approaches in animal models

The landscape of worldwide tobacco use is changing, with a decrease in traditional smoking and an exponential rise in electronic cigarette use. No new nicotine cessation pharmacotherapies have come to market in the last 10 years. The current therapies that have been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration for nicotine cessation include nicotine replacement therapy, varenicline, a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist, and the atypical antidepressant bupropion. Nicotine replacement therapy and varenicline both act on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Bupropion inhibits the dopamine transporter, the norepinephrine transporter, and the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors to inhibit smoking behavior. Notwithstanding these treatments, rates of successful nicotine cessation in clinical trials remain low. Recent pharmacological approaches to improve nicotine cessation rates in animal models have turned their focus away from activating nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. The present review focuses on such pharmacological approaches, including nicotine vaccines, anti-nicotine antibodies, nicotine-degrading enzymes, cannabinoids, and metformin. Both immunopharmacological and enzymatic approaches rely on restricting and degrading nicotine within the periphery, thus preventing psychoactive effects of nicotine on the central nervous system. In contrast, pharmacologic inhibition of the enzymes which degrade nicotine could affect smoking behavior. Cannabinoid receptor agonists and antagonists interact with the dopamine reward pathway and show efficacy in reducing nicotine addiction-like behaviors in preclinical studies. Metformin is currently approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of diabetes. It activates specific intracellular kinases that may protect against the lower metabolism, higher oxidation, and inflammation that are associated with nicotine withdrawal. Further studies are needed to investigate non-nicotinic targets to improve the treatment of tobacco use disorder. This article is part of the special issue on 'Contemporary Advances in Nicotine Neuropharmacology'.

Genetic susceptibility to nicotine addiction: Advances and shortcomings in our understanding of the CHRNA5/A3/B4 gene cluster contribution

Over the last decade, robust human genetic findings have been instrumental in elucidating the heritable basis of nicotine addiction (NA). They highlight coding and synonymous polymorphisms in a cluster on chromosome 15, encompassing the CHRNA5, CHRNA3 and CHRNB4 genes, coding for three subunits of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR). They have inspired an important number of preclinical studies, and will hopefully lead to the definition of novel drug targets for treating NA. Here, we review these candidate gene and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and their direct implication in human brain function and NA-related phenotypes. We continue with a description of preclinical work in transgenic rodents that has led to a mechanistic understanding of several of the genetic hits. We also highlight important issues with regards to CHRNA3 and CHRNB4 where we are still lacking a dissection of their role in NA, including even in preclinical models. We further emphasize the use of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived models for the analysis of synonymous and intronic variants on a human genomic background. Finally, we indicate potential avenues to further our understanding of the role of this human genetic variation. This article is part of the special issue on 'Contemporary Advances in Nicotine Neuropharmacology'.

α5-nAChR modulates melanoma growth through the Notch1 signaling pathway

The roles of α5-nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (α5-nAChRs) in various types of solid cancer have been reported; however, its role in melanoma remains unknown. We knocked down α5-nAChR expression in melanoma cells to investigate the role of α5-nAChR in the proliferation, migration, and invasion of melanoma cells, and its effect on downstream signaling pathways. Using immunohistochemical analysis, we determined that α5-nAChR expression is significantly increased in human melanoma tissues and cell lines compared with normal human skin tissues. Knocking down α5-nAChR expression in melanoma cells in culture significantly inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasiveness of melanoma cell lines. Specifically, knockdown of α5-nAChR inhibited PI3K-AKT and ERK1/2 signaling activity. Moreover, we confirmed that the Notch1 signaling pathway is the downstream target of α5-nAChR in melanoma. Our findings suggest that α5-nAChR plays a critical role in melanoma development and progression, and that targeting α5-nAChR may be a strategy for melanoma treatment.

A Review of the Cholinergic System and Therapeutic Approaches to Treat Brain Disorders

Since its identification over a hundred years ago, the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) has proven to play an essential role in supporting many diverse functions. Some well-characterized functions include: chemical transmission at the neuromuscular junction; autonomic function in the peripheral nervous system; and, sustained attention, sleep/wake regulation, and learning and memory within the central nervous system. Within the brain, major cholinergic projection pathways from the basal forebrain and the brainstem support these centrally mediated processes, and dysregulation of the cholinergic system is implicated in cognitive decline associated with aging and dementias including Alzheimer's disease. ACh exerts its effects by binding to two different membrane-bound receptor classes: (1) G‑protein coupled muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs), and (2) ligand-gated nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). These receptor systems are described in detail within this chapter along with discussion on the successes and failures of synthetic ligands designed to selectively target receptor subtypes for treating brain disorders. New molecular approaches and advances in our understanding of the target biology combined with opportunities to re-purpose existing cholinergic drugs for new indications continue to highlight the exciting opportunities for modulating this system for therapeutic purposes.

Solanine Attenuates Hepatocarcinoma Migration and Invasion Induced by Acetylcholine

AIM

Evidence has provided an explanation of the correlation between the nervous system and the tumor microenvironment. Neurotransmitters may be involved in different aspects of cancer progression. The glycoalkaloid solanine has been reported to suppress neural signaling pathways and exists in numerous plants, including Solanum nigrum, which have been demonstrated to inhibit cancer cell proliferation.

METHODS

We evaluated the potentials of solanine on inhibiting acetylcholine-induced cell proliferation and migration in hepatocellular carcinoma cells.

RESULTS

The results indicated that solanine markedly attenuated cell proliferation and migration via inhibiting epithelial-mesenchymal transition and matrix metalloproteinases in acetylcholine-treated Hep G2 cells. In addition, exosomes derived from acetylcholine-treated Hep G2 cells were isolated, and solanine showed inhibiting effects of extrahepatic metastasis on blocking cell proliferation in exosome-treated A549 lung carcinoma cells through regulating microRNA-21 expression.

CONCLUSION

Solanine has strong potential for application in integrative cancer therapy.

Profound alteration in reward processing due to a human polymorphism in CHRNA5: a role in alcohol dependence and feeding behavior

Human genetic variation in the nicotinic receptor gene cluster CHRNA5/A3/B4, in particular the non-synonymous and frequent CHRNA5 variant rs16969968 (α5SNP), has an important consequence on smoking behavior in humans. A number of genetic association studies have additionally implicated the CHRNA5 gene in addictions to other drugs, and also body mass index (BMI). Here, we model the α5SNP, in a transgenic rat line, and establish its role in alcohol dependence, and feeding behavior. Rats expressing the α5SNP consume more alcohol, and exhibit increased relapse to alcohol seeking after abstinence. This high-relapsing phenotype is reflected in altered activity in the insula, linked to interoception, as established using c-Fos immunostaining. Similarly, relapse to food seeking is increased in the transgenic group, while a nicotine treatment reduces relapse in both transgenic and control rats. These findings point to a general role of this human polymorphism in reward processing, and multiple addictions other than smoking. This could pave the way for the use of medication targeting the nicotinic receptor in the treatment of alcohol use and eating disorders, and comorbid conditions in smokers.

Association Between Nicotine-dependent Gene Polymorphism and Smoking Cessation in Patients With Lung Cancer

BACKGROUND

Patients with lung cancer continue to smoke owing to complex factors. Failure to quit smoking (defined as nicotine dependence) is significantly associated with genetic status. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between polymorphisms in nicotine dependence genes and smoking status after the diagnosis of lung cancer.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A total of 240 patients with lung cancer were included from July 2017 to March 2018. According to the actual smoking condition after lung cancer diagnosis, eligible patients were divided into 3 groups: the never-smoking group, the failure to quit smoking group, and the successful smoking cessation group. Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence scores were used to evaluate the smoking status of each group. Three nicotine-dependent genes with 6 loci were detected.

RESULTS

Among the 240 patients, 86 were never-smokers, 51 failed to quit smoking, and 104 successfully quit smoking. The initial age of smoking in the failure to quit smoking group was significantly younger than those in the successful smoking cessation group (P = .001). There was a significant difference in the GG and AG and AA genotype distributions of CHRNA3 (rs578776) among the 3 groups (P = .003). There was also a significant difference in the distribution of CHRNA4 (rs2229959) genotypes among the 3 groups (P = .003). However, there was no significant difference in the genotype distribution of CHRNA5 (rs588765) among the 3 groups (P = .277).

CONCLUSIONS

Gene polymorphisms of CHRNA3 (rs578776) and CHRNA4 (rs1044396 and rs2229959) were associated with the success of smoking cessation after the diagnosis of lung cancer, which should be considered in the management of smoking cessation after patients are diagnosed with lung cancer.

Cholinergic Receptor Nicotinic Alpha 5 (CHRNA5) RNAi is associated with cell cycle inhibition, apoptosis, DNA damage response and drug sensitivity in breast cancer

Cholinergic Receptor Nicotinic Alpha 5 (CHRNA5) is an important susceptibility locus for nicotine addiction and lung cancer. Depletion of CHRNA5 has been associated with reduced cell viability, increased apoptosis and alterations in cellular motility in different cancers yet not in breast cancer. Herein we first showed the expression of CHRNA5 was variable and positively correlated with the fraction of total genomic alterations in breast cancer cell lines and tumors indicating its potential role in DNA damage response (DDR). Next, we demonstrated that silencing of CHRNA5 expression in MCF7 breast cancer cell line by RNAi affected expression of genes involved in cytoskeleton, TP53 signaling, DNA synthesis and repair, cell cycle, and apoptosis. The transcription profile of CHRNA5 depleted MCF7 cells showed a significant positive correlation with that of A549 lung cancer cell line while exhibiting a negative association with the CHRNA5 co-expression profile obtained from Cancer Cell Line Encylopedia (CCLE). Moreover, it exhibited high similarities with published MCF7 expression profiles obtained from exposure to TP53 inducer nutlin-3a and topoisomerase inhibitors. We then demonstrated that CHRNA5 siRNA treatment reduced cell viability and DNA synthesis indicating G1 arrest while it significantly increased apoptotic sub-G1 cell population. Accordingly, we observed lower levels of phosphorylated RB (Ser807/811) and an increased BAX/BCL2 ratio in RNAi treated MCF7 cells. We also showed that CHRNA5 RNAi transcriptome correlated negatively with DDR relevant gene expression profile in breast cancer gene expression datasets while the coexposure to topoisomerase inhibitors in the presence of CHRNA5 RNAi enhanced chemosensitivity potentially due to reduced DDR. CHRNA5 RNAi consistently lowered total CHEK1 mRNA and protein levels as well as phosphorylated CHEK1 (Ser345) in MCF7 cells. We also detected a significant positive correlation between the expression levels of CHRNA5 and CHEK1 in CCLE, TCGA and METABRIC breast cancer datasets. Our study suggests CHRNA5 RNAi is associated with cell cycle inhibition, apoptosis as well as reduced DDR and increased drug sensitivity in breast cancer yet future studies are warranted since dose- and cell line-specific differences exist in response to CHRNA5 depletion. Gene expression microarray data can be accessed from GEO database under the accession number GSE89333.

Positional integration of lung adenocarcinoma susceptibility loci with primary human alveolar epithelial cell epigenomes

AIM

To identify functional lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) risk SNPs.

MATERIALS & METHODS

Eighteen validated LUAD risk SNPs (p ≤ 5 × 10^-8) and 930 SNPs in high linkage disequilibrium (r² > 0.5) were integrated with epigenomic information from primary human alveolar epithelial cells. Enhancer-associated SNPs likely affecting transcription factor-binding sites were predicted. Three SNPs were functionally investigated using luciferase assays, expression quantitative trait loci and cancer-specific expression.

RESULTS

Forty-seven SNPs mapped to putative enhancers; 11 located to open chromatin. Of these, seven altered predicted transcription factor-binding motifs. Rs6942067 showed allele-specific luciferase expression and expression quantitative trait loci analysis indicates that it influences expression of DCBLD1, a gene that encodes an unknown membrane protein and is overexpressed in LUAD.

CONCLUSION

Integration of candidate LUAD risk SNPS with epigenomic marks from normal alveolar epithelium identified numerous candidate functional LUAD risk SNPs including rs6942067, which appears to affect DCBLD1 expression. Data deposition: Data are provided in GEO record GSE84273.

α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in lung cancer

Lung cancer has one of the highest mortality rates among malignancies globally, and smoking has been documented as the main cause of lung cancer. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) were initially identified as notable regulators of the nervous system. In addition to their function in the brain, accumulating evidence indicates that nAChRs perform a host of diverse functions in almost all non-neuronal mammalian cells. The homomeric α7nAChR, a subtype of nAChRs, is responsible for the proliferative, pro-angiogenic and pro-metastatic effects of nicotine in lung cancer. Provided the association of cigarette smoking with several disease types such as cardiovascular disease, the α7nAChR-mediated signaling pathway has been implicated in the pathophysiology of lung cancer. Currently, strategies that target the α7nAChR including α7nAChR antagonists are considered to be potentially useful anticancer drugs for therapeutic purposes. Thus, the present review assesses current understanding of the function and underlying molecular mechanisms of α7nAChR in lung cancer and evaluates how targeting α7nAChR may result in novel therapeutic methods.

Time to first cigarette and serum cholesterol levels

RATIONALE

Cigarette smoking is a primary cause of cardiovascular disease (CVD); however, prior research has rarely distinguished smoking behavior from nicotine dependence.

OBJECTIVE

The current study presents a novel investigation into whether time to first cigarette (TTFC), a reliable proxy for nicotine dependence, is associated with lipid cholesterol, a biomarker for CVD, after controlling for smoking behavior and other risk factors.

METHODS

In total, 3903 current adult smokers were drawn from four consecutive cross-sectional waves (2005-06, 2007-08, 2009-10, and 2011-12) of the National Health and Nutrition Survey (NHANES). Weighted regressions were used to examine whether earlier TTFC is associated with differences in a) numeric values; b) guideline-based binary outcomes of total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and the LDL/HDL ratio; and c) 10-year risk scores for CVD.

RESULTS

Earlier TTFC (within 5, 30, or 60 min vs. >60 min) was significantly (p < 0.05) associated with lower HDL (2-3 mg/dL) and a lower odds ratio (OR = 0.70) of having optimal HDL levels, and a lower LDL/HDL ratio (0.14-0.32); these results were consistent across three models (unadjusted, adjusted for smoking behavior, and also adjusted for demographics and other CVD risk factors). Earlier TTFC was also associated (p < 0.05) with higher odds of having sub-optimal total cholesterol levels (OR = 1.55) and higher LDL values (8 mg/dL), but only in the models adjusting for smoking behavior. However, the association of TTFC with 10-year CVD risk scores did not reach significance (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

More "addicted" smokers, as indicated by earlier TTFC, have less favorable lipid profiles, even after accounting for current and lifetime smoking history and other CVD risk factors. Future research should further explore whether TTFC could be a useful tool for refining clinically significant CVD risk among smokers.

Human polymorphisms in nicotinic receptors: a functional analysis in iPS-derived dopaminergic neurons

Tobacco smoking is a public health problem, with ∼5 million deaths per year, representing a heavy burden for many countries. No effective therapeutic strategies are currently available for nicotine addiction, and it is therefore crucial to understand the etiological and pathophysiological factors contributing to this addiction. The neuronal α5 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunit is critically involved in nicotine dependence. In particular, the human polymorphism α5D398N corresponds to the strongest correlation with nicotine dependence risk found to date in occidental populations, according to meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies. To understand the specific contribution of this subunit in the context of nicotine addiction, an efficient screening system for native human nAChRs is needed. We have differentiated human induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells into midbrain dopaminergic (DA) neurons and obtained a comprehensive characterization of these neurons by quantitative RT-PCR. The functional properties of nAChRs expressed in these human DA neurons, with or without the polymorphism in the α5 subunit, were studied with the patch-clamp electrophysiological technique. Our results in human DA neurons carrying the polymorphism in the α5 subunit showed an increase in EC₅₀, indicating that, in the presence of the polymorphism, more nicotine or acetylcholine chloride is necessary to obtain the same effect. This human cell culturing system can now be used in drug discovery approaches to screen for compounds that interact specifically with human native and polymorphic nAChRs.-Deflorio, C., Blanchard, S., Carisì, M. C., Bohl, D., Maskos, U. Human polymorphisms in nicotinic receptors: a functional analysis in iPS-derived dopaminergic neurons.

Can Stopping Nerves, Stop Cancer?

The nervous system is viewed as a tissue affected by cancer and as a conduit for the transmission of cancer pain and perineural invasion. Here, we review recent studies that indicate a more direct role. Several studies have shown that reducing stress or suppressing sympathetic drive correlates with improved outcomes and prolonged survival. Recent studies using animal models of visceral and somatic cancer further support a role for the nervous system in cancer progression. Specifically, nerve ablation had a profound impact on disease progression, including delayed development of precancerous lesions, and decreased tumor growth and metastasis. In this review, we summarize new evidence and discuss how future studies may address the role of neural signaling in the modulation of tumorigenesis.

Alterations in alpha5* nicotinic acetylcholine receptors result in midbrain- and hippocampus-dependent behavioural and neural impairments

RATIONALE

Evidence links alterations in α5-containing nicotinic receptors (α5*-nAChRs) to nicotine addiction. Notably, the rs16969968 polymorphism in the α5 gene (α5SNP) increases the risk for heavy smoking and impairs nicotine-rewarding properties in mice. Additional work is needed to understand how native and polymorphic α5*-nAChRs contribute to processes associated with the risk for nicotine addiction.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed at understanding the contribution of α5*-nAChRs to endophenotypes like increased responses to novelty and anxiety, known to promote vulnerability to addiction, and to the response of the dopamine and serotonin systems to nicotine.

METHODS

Behavioural phenotypes were investigated in mice lacking the α5 gene (α5(-/-)). Nicotine injections were performed to test the consequences of nicotine exposure on the phenotypes identified. Dopamine and serotonin signalling were assessed using in vivo microdialysis and electrophysiology. We used lentiviral vectors to compare the consequences of re-expressing either the α5 wild-type allele or the α5SNP in specific brain areas of α5(-/-) mice.

RESULTS

α5(-/-) mice did not exhibit high responses to novelty but showed decreased novelty-induced rearing behaviour together with high anxiety. Exposure to high doses of nicotine rescued these phenotypes. We identified altered spontaneous and nicotine-elicited serotonin and dopamine activity in α5(-/-) mice. Re-expression of α5 in the ventral tegmental area and hippocampus rescued rearing and anxiety levels in α5(-/-) mice, respectively. When expressing the α5SNP instead, this resulted in a knockout-like phenotype for both behaviours.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose that altered α5*-nAChR cholinergic signalling contributes to emotional/behavioural impairments that may be alleviated by nicotine consumption.

Nicotine Inhibits Cisplatin-Induced Apoptosis via Regulating α5-nAChR/AKT Signaling in Human Gastric Cancer Cells

Gastric cancer incidence demonstrates a strong etiologic association with smoking. Nicotine, the major component in tobacco, is a survival agonist that inhibits apoptosis induced by certain chemotherapeutic agents, but the precise mechanisms involved remain largely unknown. Recently studies have indicated that α5-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α5-nAChR) is highly associated with lung cancer risk and nicotine dependence. Nevertheless, no information has been available about whether nicotine also affects proliferation of human gastric cancer cells through regulation of α5-nAChR. To evaluate the hypothesis that α5-nAChR may play a role in gastric cancer, we investigated its expression in gastric cancer tissues and cell lines. The expression of α5-nAChR increased in gastric cancer tissue compared with para-carcinoma tissues. In view of the results, we proceeded to investigate whether nicotine inhibits cisplatin-induced apoptosis via regulating α5-nAChR in gastric cancer cell. The results showed that nicotine significantly promoted cell proliferation in a dose and time-dependent manner through α5-nAChR activation in human gastric cells. Furthermore, nicotine inhibited apoptosis induced by cisplatin. Silence of α5-nAChR ablated the protective effects of nicotine. However, when co-administrating LY294002, an inhibitor of PI3K/AKT pathway, an increased apoptosis was observed. This effect correlated with the induction of Bcl-2, Bax, Survivin and Caspase-3 by nicotine in gastric cell lines. These results suggest that exposure to nicotine might negatively impact the apoptotic potential of chemotherapeutic drugs and that α5-nAChR/AKT signaling plays a key role in the anti-apoptotic activity of nicotine induced by cisplatin.

Apoptosis Activation in Human Lung Cancer Cell Lines by a Novel Synthetic Peptide Derived from Conus californicus Venom

Lung cancer is one of the most common types of cancer in men and women and a leading cause of death worldwide resulting in more than one million deaths per year. The venom of marine snails Conus contains up to 200 pharmacologically active compounds that target several receptors in the cell membrane. Due to their diversity and specific binding properties, Conus toxins hold great potential as source of new drugs against cancer. We analyzed the cytotoxic effect of a 17-amino acid synthetic peptide (s-cal14.1a) that is based on a native toxin (cal14.1a) isolated from the sea snail Conus californicus. Cytotoxicity studies in four lung cancer cell lines were complemented with measurement of gene expression of apoptosis-related proteins Bcl-2, BAX and the pro-survival proteins NFκB-1 and COX-2, as well as quantification of caspase activity. Our results showed that H1299 and H1437 cell lines treated with s-call4.1a had decreased cell viability, activated caspases, and reduced expression of the pro-survival protein NFκB-1. To our knowledge, this is the first report describing activation of apoptosis in human lung cancer cell lines by s-cal14.1a and we offer insight into the possible mechanism of action.

Response to Transdermal Selegiline Smoking Cessation Therapy and Markers in the 15q24 Chromosomal Region

INTRODUCTION

Current treatments for smoking cessation have limited efficacy. A potential pharmaceutical treatment for smoking cessation is selegiline, a selective and irreversible monoamine oxidase B inhibitor. A few clinical trials have been carried out using selegiline but the results have been mixed. We sought to determine if genetic markers in cholinergic loci in the 15q24 chromosomal region predict response to smoking cessation therapy with selegiline.

METHODS

We performed an 8-week double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of the selegiline transdermal system in heavy smokers, with follow-up at weeks 25 and 52. Eight single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the 15q24 region, which contains the genes for the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits CHRNA5, CHRNA3, and CHRNB4, were investigated for association with treatment response.

RESULTS

The CHRNB4 promoter SNP rs3813567 was associated with both point prevalence abstinence and post-quit craving. Carriers of the minor C allele treated with selegiline showed lower rates of abstinence and higher levels of craving than selegiline-treated non-carriers, indicating that the rs3813567 C allele adversely affects abstinence in selegiline-treated smokers. This effect was not present among placebo-treated smokers. Selegiline-treated smokers with the CHRNA5 rs680244 GG genotype had lower post-quit craving, and unlike placebo-treated GG-carrying smokers, did not experience a post-quit increase in depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Variants in genes encoding cholinergic receptors affect abstinence, craving and mood in selegiline-treated smokers. Selegiline primarily affects dopamine levels in the brain, but cholinergic input affects nicotine-induced dopaminergic activity. These markers may have value in identifying those likely to respond to selegiline for smoking cessation.

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors induce c-Kit ligand/Stem Cell Factor and promote stemness in an ARRB1/ β-arrestin-1 dependent manner in NSCLC

Lung cancer remains the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. β-arrestin-1 (ARRB1), a scaffolding protein involved in the desensitization of signals arising from activated G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), has been shown to play a role in invasion and proliferation of cancer cells, including nicotine-induced proliferation of human non–small cell lung cancers (NSCLCs). In this study, we identified genes that are differentially regulated by nicotine in an ARRB1/β-arrestin-1 dependent manner in NSCLC cells by microarray analysis. Among the identified genes, SCF (Stem cell factor) strongly differentiated smokers from non-smokers in the Director's Challenge Set expression data and its high expression correlated with poor prognosis. SCF, a major cytokine is the ligand for the c-Kit proto-oncogene and was found to be over expressed in human lung adenocarcinomas, but not squamous cell carcinomas. Data presented here show that transcription factor E2F1 can induce SCF expression at the transcriptional level and depletion of E2F1 or ARRB1/β-arrestin-1 could not promote self-renewal of SP cells. These studies suggest that nicotine might be promoting NSCLC growth and metastasis by inducing the secretion of SCF, and raise the possibility that targeting signalling cascades that activate E2F1 might be an effective way to combat NSCLC.

UBXN2A regulates nicotinic receptor degradation by modulating the E3 ligase activity of CHIP

Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) containing the α3 subunit are known for their prominent role in normal ganglionic transmission while their involvement in the mechanisms underlying nicotine addiction and smoking-related disease has been emerging only in recent years. The amount of information available on the maturation and trafficking of α3-containing nAChRs is limited. We previously showed that UBXN2A is a p97 adaptor protein that facilitates the maturation and trafficking of α3-containing nAChRs. Further investigation of the mechanisms of UBXN2A actions revealed that the protein interacts with CHIP (carboxyl terminus of Hsc70 interacting protein), whose ubiquitin E3 ligase activity regulates the degradation of several disease-related proteins. We show that CHIP displays E3 ligase activity toward the α3 nAChR subunit and contributes to its ubiquitination and subsequent degradation. UBXN2A interferes with CHIP-mediated ubiquitination of α3 and protects the nicotinic receptor subunit from endoplasmic reticulum associated degradation (ERAD). UBXN2A also cross-talks with VCP/p97 and HSC70/HSP70 proteins in a complex where α3 is likely to be targeted by CHIP. Overall,we identify CHIP as an E3 ligase for α3 and UBXN2A as a protein that may efficiently regulate the stability of CHIP's client substrates.

α5-nAChR modulates nicotine-induced cell migration and invasion in A549 lung cancer cells

Cigarette smoking is the most important risk factor in the development of human lung cancer. Nicotine, the major component in tobacco, not only contributes to carcinogenesis but also promotes tumor metastasis. By binding to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), nicotine induces the proliferation and migration of non-small cell lung cancer. Recently studies have indicated that α5-nAChR is highly associated with lung cancer risk and nicotine dependence. Nevertheless, it is unclear whether nicotine promotes the migration and invasion through activation of α5-nAChR in lung cancer. In the present study, A549 cell was exposed to 1μN nicotine for 8, 24 or 48h. Wound-healing assay and transwell assay were used to evaluate the capability of A549 cell migration and cell invasion, respectively. Silencing of α5-nAChR was done by siRNA. Western blotting and PCR were used to detect α5-nAChR expression. Nicotine can induce activation of α5-nAChR in association with increased migration and invasion of human lung cancer A549 cell. Treatment of cells with α5-nAChR specific siRNA blocks nicotine-stimulated activation of α5-nAChR and suppresses A549 cell migration and invasion. Reduction of α5-nAChR resulted in upregulation of E-cadherin, consistent with E-cadherin being inhibitive of cancer cell invasion. These findings suggest that nicotine-induced migration and invasion may occur in a mechanism through activation of α5-nAChR, which can contribute to metastasis or development of human lung cancer.

Noribogaine reduces nicotine self-administration in rats

Noribogaine, a polypharmacological drug with activities at opioid receptors, ionotropic nicotinic receptors, and serotonin reuptake transporters, has been investigated for treatment of substance abuse-related disorders. Smoking cessation has major benefits for both individuals and society, therefore the aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of noribogaine for use as a treatment for nicotine dependence. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were trained to self-administer nicotine intravenous. After initial food pellet training, followed by 26 sessions of nicotine self-administration training, the rats were administered noribogaine (12.5, 25 or 50 mg/kg orally), noribogaine vehicle, varenicline or saline using a within-subject design with a Latin square test schedule. Noribogaine dose-dependently decreased nicotine self-administration by up to 64% of saline-treated rats' levels and was equi-effective to 1.7 mg/kg intraperitoneal varenicline. Noribogaine was less efficient at reducing food pellets self-administration than at nicotine self-administration, inhibiting the nondrug reinforcing effects of palatable pellets by 23% at the highest dose. These results suggest that noribogaine dose-dependently attenuates drug-taking behavior for nicotine, attenuates the reinforcing effects of nicotine and is comparable to varenicline power in that regard. The findings from the present study hold promise for a new therapy to aid smoking cessation.

Determination of Nicotine in Tobacco by Chemometric Optimization and Cation-Selective Exhaustive Injection in Combination with Sweeping-Micellar Electrokinetic Chromatography

Nicotine is a potent chemical that excites the central nervous system and refreshes people. It is also physically addictive and causes dependence. To reduce the harm of tobacco products for smokers, a law was introduced that requires tobacco product containers to be marked with the amount of nicotine as well as tar. In this paper, an online stacking capillary electrophoresis (CE) method with cation-selective exhaustive injection sweeping-micellar electrokinetic chromatography (CSEI-sweeping-MEKC) is proposed for the optimized analysis of nicotine in tobacco. A higher conductivity buffer (160 mM phosphate buffer (pH 3)) zone was injected into the capillary, allowing for the analytes to be electrokinetically injected at a voltage of 15 kV for 15 min. Using 50 mM sodium dodecyl sulfate and 25% methanol in the sweeping buffer, nicotine was detected with high sensitivity. Thus, optimized conditions adapted from a chemometric approach provided a 6000-fold increase in the nicotine detection sensitivity using the CSEI-sweeping-MEKC method in comparison to normal CZE. The limits of detection were 0.5 nM for nicotine. The stacking method in combination with direct injection which matrix components would not interfere with assay performance was successfully applied to the detection of nicotine in tobacco samples.

Differential Gene Expression Profile in the Rat Caudal Vestibular Nucleus is Associated with Individual Differences in Motion Sickness Susceptibility

OBJECTIVE

To identify differentially expressed genes associated with motion sickness (MS) susceptibility in the rat caudal vestibular nucleus.

METHODS

We identified MS susceptible (MSS) and insusceptible (inMSS) rats by quantifying rotation-induced MS symptoms: defecation and spontaneous locomotion activity. Microarray analysis was used to screen differentially expressed genes in the caudal vestibular nucleus (CVN) after rotation. Plasma stress hormones were identified by radioimmunoassay. Candidate genes were selected by bioinformatics analysis and the microarray results were verified by real-time quantitative-PCR (RT-qPCR) methods. By using Elvax implantation, receptor antagonists or recombinant adenovirus targeting the candidate genes were applied to the CVN to evaluate their contribution to MS susceptibility variability. Validity of gene expression manipulation was verified by RT-qPCR and western blot analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 304 transcripts were differentially expressed in the MSS group compared with the inMSS group. RT-qPCR analysis verified the expression pattern of candidate genes, including nicotinic cholinergic receptor (nAchR) α3 subunit, 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 4 (5-HT4R), tachykinin neurokinin-1 (NK1R), γ-aminobutyric acid A receptor (GABAAR) α6 subunit, olfactory receptor 81 (Olr81) and homology 2 domain-containing transforming protein 1 (Shc1). In MSS animals, the nAchR antagonist mecamylamine significantly alleviated rotation-induced MS symptoms and the plasma β-endorphin response. The NK1R antagonist CP99994 and Olr81 knock-down were effective for the defecation response, while the 5-HT4R antagonist RS39604 and Shc1 over-expression showed no therapeutic effect. In inMSS animals, rotation-induced changes in spontaneous locomotion activity and the plasma β-endorphin level occurred in the presence of the GABAAR antagonist gabazine.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggested that the variability of the CVN gene expression profile after motion stimulation might be a putative molecular basis for individual differences in MS susceptibility and provide information for the development of new therapeutic strategies for MSS individuals.

Alanine scan of α-conotoxin RegIIA reveals a selective α3β4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist

Activation of the α3β4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subtype has recently been implicated in the pathophysiology of various conditions, including development and progression of lung cancer and in nicotine addiction. As selective α3β4 nAChR antagonists, α-conotoxins are valuable tools to evaluate the functional roles of this receptor subtype. We previously reported the discovery of a new α4/7-conotoxin, RegIIA. RegIIA was isolated from Conus regius and inhibits acetylcholine (ACh)-evoked currents mediated by α3β4, α3β2, and α7 nAChR subtypes. The current study used alanine scanning mutagenesis to understand the selectivity profile of RegIIA at the α3β4 nAChR subtype. [N11A] and [N12A] RegIIA analogs exhibited 3-fold more selectivity for the α3β4 than the α3β2 nAChR subtype. We also report synthesis of [N11A,N12A]RegIIA, a selective α3β4 nAChR antagonist (IC50 of 370 nM) that could potentially be used in the treatment of lung cancer and nicotine addiction. Molecular dynamics simulations of RegIIA and [N11A,N12A]RegIIA bound to α3β4 and α3β2 suggest that destabilization of toxin contacts with residues at the principal and complementary faces of α3β2 (α3-Tyr(92), Ser(149), Tyr(189), Cys(192), and Tyr(196); β2-Trp(57), Arg(81), and Phe(119)) may form the molecular basis for the selectivity shift.

Discovery of a new subclass of α-conotoxins in the venom of Conus australis

Cone snails (Conus sp.) are poisonous animals that can be found in all oceans where they developed a venomous strategy to prey or to defend. The venom of these species contains an undeniable source of unique and potent pharmacologically active compounds. Their peptide compounds, called conotoxins, are not only interesting for the development of new pharmaceutical ligands, but they are also useful for studying their broad spectrum of targets. One conotoxin family in particular, the α-conotoxins, acts on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) which dysfunctions play important roles in pathologies such as epilepsy, myasthenic syndromes, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Here we define a new subclass of the α-conotoxin family. We purified the venom of a yet unexplored cone snail species, i.e. Conus australis, and we isolated a 16-amino acid peptide named α-conotoxin AusIA. The peptide has the typical α-conotoxin CC-Xm-C-Xn-C framework, but both loops (m/n) contain 5 amino acids, which has never been described before. Using conventional electrophysiology we investigated the response of synthetically made globular (I-III, II-IV) and ribbon (I-IV, II-III) AusIA to different nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. The α7 nAChR was the only receptor found to be blocked with a similar potency by both peptide-configurations. This suggests that both α5/5 conotoxin isomers might be present in the venom gland of C. australis. NMR spectroscopy showed that no secondary structures define the peptides' three-dimensional topology. Moreover, the ribbon configuration, which is generally considered to be non-native, is more stable than the globular isomer. Accordingly, our findings show relevancy concerning the α-conotoxin classification which might be helpful in the design of novel therapeutic compounds.

Conotoxins targeting nicotinic acetylcholine receptors: an overview

Marine snails of the genus Conus are a large family of predatory gastropods with an unparalleled molecular diversity of pharmacologically active compounds in their venom. Cone snail venom comprises of a rich and diverse cocktail of peptide toxins which act on a wide variety of ion channels such as voltage-gated sodium- (Na_V), potassium- (K_V), and calcium- (Ca_V) channels as well as nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) which are classified as ligand-gated ion channels. The mode of action of several conotoxins has been the subject of investigation, while for many others this remains unknown. This review aims to give an overview of the knowledge we have today on the molecular pharmacology of conotoxins specifically interacting with nAChRs along with the structure–function relationship data.

NeuroD1 mediates nicotine-induced migration and invasion via regulation of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits in a subset of neural and neuroendocrine carcinomas

Nicotine up-regulates NeuroD1 in bronchial epithelial cells and certain undifferentiated carcinomas. NeuroD1 enhances expression of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits. Increased invasion in Matrigel depends on these receptor subunits. Nicotine may induce positive feedback through NeuroD1 and increased expression of its own receptor.

Cigarette smoking is a major risk factor for acquisition of small cell lung cancer (SCLC). A role has been demonstrated for the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor NeuroD1 in the pathogenesis of neural and neuroendocrine lung cancer, including SCLC. In the present study we investigate the possible function of NeuroD1 in established tumors, as well as actions early on in pathogenesis, in response to nicotine. We demonstrate that nicotine up-regulates NeuroD1 in immortalized normal bronchial epithelial cells and a subset of undifferentiated carcinomas. Increased expression of NeuroD1 subsequently leads to regulation of expression and function of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit cluster of α3, α5, and β4. In addition, we find that coordinated expression of these subunits by NeuroD1 leads to enhanced nicotine-induced migration and invasion, likely through changes in intracellular calcium. These findings suggest that aspects of the pathogenesis of neural and neuroendocrine lung cancers may be affected by a nicotine- and NeuroD1-induced positive feedback loop.

Axonal guidance signaling pathway interacting with smoking in modifying the risk of pancreatic cancer: a gene- and pathway-based interaction analysis of GWAS data

Cigarette smoking is the best established modifiable risk factor for pancreatic cancer. Genetic factors that underlie smoking-related pancreatic cancer have previously not been examined at the genome-wide level. Taking advantage of the existing Genome-wide association study (GWAS) genotype and risk factor data from the Pancreatic Cancer Case Control Consortium, we conducted a discovery study in 2028 cases and 2109 controls to examine gene-smoking interactions at pathway/gene/single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) level. Using the likelihood ratio test nested in logistic regression models and ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA), we examined 172 KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) pathways, 3 manually curated gene sets, 3 nicotine dependency gene ontology pathways, 17 912 genes and 468 114 SNPs. None of the individual pathway/gene/SNP showed significant interaction with smoking after adjusting for multiple comparisons. Six KEGG pathways showed nominal interactions (P < 0.05) with smoking, and the top two are the pancreatic secretion and salivary secretion pathways (major contributing genes: RAB8A, PLCB and CTRB1). Nine genes, i.e. ZBED2, EXO1, PSG2, SLC36A1, CLSTN1, MTHFSD, FAT2, IL10RB and ATXN2 had P interaction < 0.0005. Five intergenic region SNPs and two SNPs of the EVC and KCNIP4 genes had P interaction < 0.00003. In IPA analysis of genes with nominal interactions with smoking, axonal guidance signaling $$\left(P=2.12\times 1{0}^{-7}\right)$$ and α-adrenergic signaling $$\left(P=2.52\times 1{0}^{-5}\right)$$ genes were significantly overrepresented canonical pathways. Genes contributing to the axon guidance signaling pathway included the SLIT/ROBO signaling genes that were frequently altered in pancreatic cancer. These observations need to be confirmed in additional data set. Once confirmed, it will open a new avenue to unveiling the etiology of smoking-associated pancreatic cancer.

Medial habenula output circuit mediated by α5 nicotinic receptor-expressing GABAergic neurons in the interpeduncular nucleus

The Chrna5 gene encodes the α5 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit, an "accessory" subunit of pentameric nicotinic receptors, that has been shown to play a role in nicotine-related behaviors in rodents and is genetically linked to smoking behavior in humans. Here we have used a BAC transgenic mouse line, α5(GFP), to examine the cellular phenotype, connectivity, and function of α5-expressing neurons. Although the medial habenula (MHb) has been proposed as a site of α5 function, α5(GFP) is not detectable in the MHb, and α5 mRNA is expressed there only at very low levels. However, α5(GFP) is strongly expressed in a subset of neurons in the interpeduncular nucleus (IP), median raphe/paramedian raphe (MnR/PMnR), and dorsal tegmental area (DTg). Double-label fluorescence in situ hybridization reveals that these neurons are exclusively GABAergic. Transgenic and conventional tract tracing show that α5(GFP) neurons in the IP project principally to the MnR/PMnR and DTg/interfascicular dorsal raphe, both areas rich in serotonergic neurons. The α5(GFP) neurons in the IP are located in a region that receives cholinergic fiber inputs from the ventral MHb, and optogenetically assisted circuit mapping demonstrates a monosynaptic connection between these cholinergic neurons and α5(GFP) IP neurons. Selective inhibitors of both α4β2- and α3β4-containing nicotinic receptors were able to reduce nicotine-evoked inward currents in α5(GFP) neurons in the IP, suggesting a mixed nicotinic receptor profile in these cells. Together, these findings show that the α5-GABAergic interneurons form a link from the MHb to serotonergic brain centers, which is likely to mediate some of the behavioral effects of nicotine.

Association between a 15q25 gene variant, nicotine-related habits, lung cancer and COPD among 56,307 individuals from the HUNT study in Norway

Genetic studies have shown an association between single-nucleotide polymorphisms on chromosome 15q25 and smoking-related traits and diseases, such as quantity of smoking, lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). A discussion has centred on the variants and their effects being directly disease related or indirect via nicotine addiction. To address these discrepancies, we genotyped the single-nucleotide polymorphism rs16969968 in the CHRNA5/A3/B4 gene cluster at chromosome 15q25, in 56 307 individuals from a large homogenous population-based cohort, the North Trøndelag Health Study (HUNT) in Norway. The variant was examined in relation to four different outcomes: lung cancer, loss of lung function equivalent to that of COPD, smoking behaviour and the use of smokeless tobacco (snus). Novel associations were found between rs16969968 and the motivational factor for starting to use snus, and the quantity of snus used. Our results also confirm and extend previous findings for associations between rs16969968 and lung cancer, loss of lung function equivalent to that of COPD, and smoking quantity. Our data suggest a role for rs16969968 in nicotine addiction, and the novel association with snus strengthens this observation.

Identifying key amino acid residues that affect α-conotoxin AuIB inhibition of α3β4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

α-Conotoxin AuIB is a selective α3β4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subtype inhibitor. Its analgesic properties are believed to result from it activating GABAB receptors and subsequently inhibiting CaV2.2 voltage-gated calcium channels. The structural determinants that mediate diverging AuIB activity at these targets are unknown. We performed alanine scanning mutagenesis of AuIB and α3β4 nAChR, homology modeling, and molecular dynamics simulations to identify the structural determinants of the AuIB·α3β4 nAChR interaction. Two alanine-substituted AuIB analogues, [P6A]AuIB and [F9A]AuIB, did not inhibit the α3β4 nAChR. NMR and CD spectroscopy studies demonstrated that [F9A]AuIB retains its native globular structure, so its activity loss is probably due to loss of specific toxin-receptor residue pairwise contacts. Compared with AuIB, the concentration-response curve for inhibition of α3β4 by [F9A]AuIB shifted rightward more than 10-fold, and its subtype selectivity profile changed. Homology modeling and molecular dynamics simulations suggest that Phe-9 of AuIB interacts with a two-residue binding pocket on the β4 nAChR subunit. This hypothesis was confirmed by site-directed mutagenesis of the β4-Trp-59 and β4-Lys-61 residues of loop D, which form a putative binding pocket. AuIB analogues with Phe-9 substitutions corroborated the finding of a binding pocket on the β4 subunit and gave further insight into how AuIB Phe-9 interacts with the β4 subunit. In summary, we identified critical residues that mediate interactions between AuIB and its cognate nAChR subtype. These findings might help improve the design of analgesic conopeptides that selectively "avoid" nAChR receptors while targeting receptors involved with nociception.

Functional characterization of SNPs in CHRNA3/B4 intergenic region associated with drug behaviors

The cluster of human neuronal nicotinic receptor genes (CHRNA5/A3/B4) (15q25.1) has been associated with a variety of smoking and drug-related behaviors, as well as risk for lung cancer. CHRNA3/B4 intergenic single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) rs1948 and rs8023462 have been associated with early initiation of alcohol and tobacco use, and rs6495309 has been associated with nicotine dependence and risk for lung cancer. An in vitro luciferase expression assay was used to determine whether these SNPs and surrounding sequences contribute to differences in gene expression using cell lines either expressing proteins characteristic of neuronal tissue or derived from lung cancers. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSAs) were performed to investigate whether nuclear proteins from these cell lines bind SNP alleles differentially. Results from expression assays were dependent on cell culture type and haplotype. EMSAs indicated that rs8023462 and rs6495309 bind nuclear proteins in an allele-specific way. Additionally, GATA transcription factors appeared to bind rs8023462 only when the minor/risk allele was present. Much work has been done to describe the rat Chrnb4/a3 intergenic region, but few studies have examined the human intergenic region effects on expression; therefore, these studies greatly aid human genetic research as it relates to observed nicotine phenotypes, lung cancer risk and potential underlying genetic mechanisms. Data from these experiments support the hypothesis that SNPs associated with human addiction-related phenotypes and lung cancer risk can affect gene expression, and are potential therapeutic targets. Additionally, this is the first evidence that rs8023462 interacts with GATA transcription factors to influence gene expression.