Growth temperature influences postharvest glucosinolate concentrations and hydrolysis product formation in first and second cuts of rocket salad

Advancing vegetable genetics with gene editing: a pathway to food security and nutritional resilience in climate-shifted environments

As global populations grow and climate change increasingly disrupts agricultural systems, ensuring food security and nutritional resilience has become a critical challenge. In addition to grains and legumes, vegetables are very important for both human and animals because they contain vitamins, minerals, and fibre. Enhancing the ability of vegetables to withstand climate change threats is essential; however, traditional breeding methods face challenges due to the complexity of the genomic clonal multiplication process. In the postgenomic era, gene editing (GE) has emerged as a powerful tool for improving vegetables. GE can help to increase traits such as abiotic stress tolerance, herbicide tolerance, and disease resistance; improve agricultural productivity; and improve nutritional content and shelf-life by fine-tuning key genes. GE technologies such as Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (CRISPR-Cas9) have revolutionized vegetable breeding by enabling specific gene modifications in the genome. This review highlights recent advances in CRISPR-mediated editing across various vegetable species, highlighting successful modifications that increase their resilience to climatic stressors. Additionally, it explores the potential of GE to address malnutrition by increasing the nutrient content of vegetable crops, thereby contributing to public health and food system sustainability. Additionally, it addresses the implementation of GE-guided breeding strategies in agriculture, considering regulatory, ethical, and public acceptance issues. Enhancing vegetable genetics via GE may provide a reliable and nutritious food supply for an expanding global population under more unpredictable environmental circumstances.

Climate Change and Plant Foods: The Influence of Environmental Stressors on Plant Metabolites and Future Food Sources

Climate change is reshaping global agriculture by altering temperature regimes and other environmental conditions, with profound implications for food security and agricultural productivity. This review examines how key environmental stressors-such as extreme temperatures, water scarcity, increased salinity, UV-B radiation, and elevated concentrations of ozone and CO2-impact the nutritional quality and bioactive compounds in plant-based foods. These stressors can modify the composition of essential nutrients, particularly phytochemicals, which directly affect the viability of specific crops in certain regions and subsequently influence human dietary patterns by shifting the availability of key food resources. To address these challenges, there is growing interest in resilient plant species, including those with natural tolerance to stress and genetically modified variants, as well as in alternative protein sources derived from plants. Additionally, unconventional food sources, such as invasive plant species and algae, are being explored as sustainable solutions for future nutrition.

Glucosinolates and Their Hydrolytic Products-A Love Story of Environmental, Biological, and Chemical Conditions

BACKGROUND

Glucosinolates (GSL) play an important role in providing defense to plants and helping them to cope with various biotic, as well as abiotic, stresses. Many living beings including humans and animals, including some herbivores, have adapted themselves to use this defense mechanism for their own use. More than 120 glucosinolates are distributed within a large number of plants. Many factors are known to influence the GSL composition in a plant. Among these, cofactors, myrosinase isozymes, heavy metals and the environmental conditions such as light, CO2 and temperature are important in regulation. These factors ensure that different glucosinolate compositions can be produced by the plants, thus impacting the defense mechanism.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the current review is to highlight the importance of the factors responsible for affecting glucosinolate composition and concentration.

METHODS

The review has been compiled using accessible literature from Pubmed, Scopus, and Google scholar. Efforts have been made to restrict the literature to the last 5 years (2018-2023), with some exceptions.

RESULTS

The current critical review acts as a resource for all the researchers working on these essential compounds. It provides information on the factors that may influence glucosinolate production. It also gives them an opportunity to modify the glucosinolate composition of a plant using the given information.

CONCLUSIONS

Glucosinolates have long been an ignored class of biomolecule. The plethora of biological activities of the compounds can be useful. Though there are some harmful components such as goitrin and progoitrin, these can be easily removed by modulating some of the factors highlighted in the review.

HIGHLIGHTS

The current review has covered most of the factors that have the ability to modify glucosinolate composition and concentration. The mechanistic action of these factors has also been discussed using the current available literature.

Nutrient-efficient catfish-based aquaponics for producing lamb's lettuce at two light intensities

BACKGROUND

Aquaponic systems are sustainable processes of managing water and nutrients for food production. An innovate nutrient-efficient catfish-based (Clarias gariepinus) aquaponics system was implemented for producing two cultivars of two leafy vegetables largely consumed worldwide: lamb's lettuce (Valerianella locusta var. Favor and Valerianella locusta var. de Hollande) and arugula (Eruca vesicaria var. sativa and Eruca sativa). Different growing treatments (4 × 2 factorial design) were applied to plants of each cultivar, grown at two light intensities (120 and 400 μmol m-2 s-1). During growth, several morphological characteristics (root length, plant height, leaf number, foliage diameter and biggest leaf length) were measured. At harvest, plants were weighed and examined qualitatively in terms of greenness and health status. Additionally, leaf extracts were obtained and used to determine total phenolic contents, antioxidant capacities, and levels of cytotoxicity to Caco-2 intestinal model cells.

RESULTS

After a 5-week growth period, both lamb's lettuce cultivars presented high levels of greenness and health status, at both light intensities, particularly the var. de Hollande that also showed higher average performance in terms of plant morphology. In turn, arugula cultivars showed lower levels of greenness and health status, especially the cultivar E. vesicaria var. sativa submitted to direct sunlight during growth. In addition, plant specimens submitted to higher levels of light intensity showed higher contents in antioxidants/polyphenols. Cultivars with a higher content in antioxidants/polyphenols led to higher Caco-2 cell viability.

CONCLUSION

For successful industrial implementation of the aquaponics technology, different and optimized acclimatizing conditions must be applied to different plant species and cultivars. © 2024 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Profiling the Bioactive Compounds in Broccoli Heads with Varying Organ Sizes and Growing Seasons

Broccoli is a rich source of diverse bioactive compounds, but how their contents are influenced by different growing seasons and variations in broccoli head sizes remains elusive. To address this question, we quantified sixteen known bioactive compounds and seven minerals in broccoli with varying head sizes obtained in two different growing seasons. Our results suggest that the contents of vitamin C, total phenols, carotenoids, and glucoraphanin were significantly higher in samples from the summer-autumn season, showing increases of 157.46%, 34.74%, 51.80%, and 17.78%, respectively, compared with those from the winter-spring season. Moreover, chlorogenic acid is a phenolic compound with relatively high contents among the six detected, while beta-sitosterol is the sterol with relatively high contents. Further, principal component analysis was conducted to rank the comprehensive scores of the profiles of phenolic compounds, phytosterols, and minerals, demonstrating that the broccoli samples grown during the summer-autumn season achieved the highest composite scores. Our results indicate that broccoli heads from the summer-autumn season are richer in a combination of bioactive compounds and minerals than those from the winter-spring season based on the composite score. This study extends our understanding of the nutrition profiles in broccoli and also lays the foundation for breeding broccoli varieties with improved nutrition quality.

In vitro application of Eruca vesicaria subsp. sativa leaf extracts and associated metabolites reduces the growth of Oomycota species involved in Kiwifruit Vine Decline Syndrome

This study aimed to determine whether leaf extracts from seven Eruca vesicaria subsp. sativa cultivars and their biochemically active compounds (glucosinolates and downstream-derived products) inhibit mycelia growth of three well-known pathogenic oomycetes, Phytopythium chamaehyphon, Phytopythium vexans and Phytophthora citrophthora; being the most significant in the development of Kiwifruit Vine Decline Syndrome (KVDS). Leaf extract quantity of 10, 20 and 30 mg were inoculated in Petri dish (90 mm Ø, each 22 mL of liquid medium - Potato Dextrose Agar), for in vitro bioassays. A pathogen plug was placed in the centre of each plate and the Oomycota colony perimeter was marked 5 days after inoculation. Radial colony growth was measured from 4 marks per plate 5, 10, and 15 days after inoculation, further elaborated with Image J software image analysis. Growth rates for all strains were inhibited by around 67% after 15 days. This was most pronounced when applying the highest concentration of leaf extract. By using Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) and Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), fifteen glucosinolate compounds, of which glucosativin was found in the highest quantity, were identified. Concentrations of hydrolysis products produced by leaves (erucin and sativin) were also investigated, and were significantly associated with colony radial growth, especially towards Pp. chamaehyphon and Pp. vexans. Three downstream products of glucosinolates (two pure isothiocyanates, AITC and PEITC; and one indole I3C; all commonly present in Brassicaceae) were also tested, and a statistically significant inhibition of growth was observed at the highest concentration (0.6 µL).

Genotypes of Eruca vesicaria subsp. sativa grown in contrasting field environments differ on transcriptomic and metabolomic levels, significantly impacting nutritional quality

Rocket (Eruca vesicaria subsp. sativa) is a source of sulfur-containing glucosinolates (GSLs). GSLs and their breakdown hydrolysis products (GHPs) are responsible for health-related benefits, such as anti-cancer and anti-neurodegenerative properties. Understanding how phytochemical composition changes between cultivation environments is key to developing cultivars with improved nutritional quality. Two consecutive harvests (first and second regrowth) of crops, grown in both Italy and the UK, were used to determine the phytochemical and transcriptomic differences between six lines of Eruca. Samples were taken upon delivery from field sites (D0) and after five days of cold storage (D5) for each location. Leaves were analysed for sulfur content, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), GSLs, GHPs, and sugars. Transcriptome data were associated with metabolite profiles to identify differentially expressed genes between plants grown in the two environments. VOC compounds (carbon disulfide, methyl thiocyanate) were associated with growth environment and with differences in sulfur metabolism gene expression (APR2, LSU2, LSU3, SDI1, SiR), GSL biosynthesis (MYB28, FMOGS-OX2) and GHP formation (ESM1, TGG1, TGG2). The concentrations of sugars were an order of magnitude greater in UK grown samples (up to 29.9 mg g-1 dry weight; dw). Sulfur content was significantly higher in the Italy plant samples (11.4 - 20.1 mg g-1 dw), which was in turn associated with higher concentrations of GSLs (pentyl GSL, up to 15.8 μmol g-1 dw; sinigrin, up to 0.005 μmol g-1 dw; glucoraphanin, up to 5.1 μmol g-1 dw; glucorucolamine, up to 23.6 μmol g-1 dw; neoglucobrassicin, up to 5.3 μmol g-1 dw) and hydrolysis products (sativin, up to 13.5 μmol g-1 dw; erucin, up to 1 μmol g-1 dw; sulforaphane, up to 34.7 μmol g-1 dw). VOC profiles of plants cultivated in the UK were distinct from Italy grown plants, with higher relative abundances of alkanes and esters in second cut and shelf-life (D5) samples. The data indicate a significant interaction of cultivar response with environment, highlighting the difficulty of producing Eruca crops with consistent phytochemical and postharvest traits. Genes with differential expression between plants grown in Italy and the UK could be used as markers of phytochemical quality and composition.

Mineral concentrations in milk from cows fed seaweed (Saccharina latissima) under different basal protein supplementation

Sixteen multiparous Holstein cows in four blocks of 4 × 4 Latin square over 4-week experimental periods were used to study the effects of seaweed (Saccharina latissima) supplement (with/without) and protein source (rapeseed meal (RSM)/wheat distiller's grain (WDG)) on milk mineral concentrations. Dietary treatments did not affect milk production and basic composition. Feeding seaweed slightly decreased milk Ca and Cu concentrations; whilst increased (by 3.3-fold) milk iodine (I) concentration, due to a higher dietary I supply. Substitution of WDG with RSM increased feed-to-milk transfer of Ca, Na, and Se and decreased that of Mg, P, Fe, and Mn; but only reduced milk Mn and I concentrations (the latter by 27 % as a potential result of increased glucosinolate intake). Seaweed supplement can improve milk I content when cows' I supply/availability is limited, but care should be taken to avoid excess milk I contents that may pose nutritional risks for young children.

Concurrent anthropogenic air pollutants enhance recruitment of a specialist parasitoid

Air pollutants-such as nitrogen oxides, emitted in diesel exhaust, and ozone (O3)-disrupt interactions between plants, the insect herbivore pests that feed upon them and natural enemies of those herbivores (e.g. parasitoids). Using eight field-based rings that emit regulated quantities of diesel exhaust and O3, we investigated how both pollutants, individually and in combination, altered the attraction and parasitism rate of a specialist parasitoid (Diaeretiella rapae) on aphid-infested and un-infested Brassica napus plants. Individual effects of O3 decreased D. rapae abundance and emergence by 37% and 55%, respectively, compared with ambient (control) conditions. When O3 and diesel exhaust were emitted concomitantly, D. rapae abundance and emergence increased by 79% and 181%, respectively, relative to control conditions. This attraction response occurred regardless of whether plants were infested with aphids and was associated with an increase in the concentration of aliphatic glucosinolates, especially gluconapin (3-butenyl-glucosinolate), within B. napus leaves. Plant defensive responses and their ability to attract natural aphid enemies may be beneficially impacted by pollution exposure. These results demonstrate the importance of incorporating multiple air pollutants when considering the effects of air pollution on plant-insect interactions.

Quantitative trait loci analysis of glucosinolate, sugar, and organic acid concentrations in Eruca vesicaria subsp. sativa

Eruca vesicaria subsp. sativa is a leafy vegetable of the Brassicaceae family known for its pungency. Variation in growing conditions, leaf age, agronomic practices, and variety choice lead to inconsistent quality, especially in content of isothiocyanates (ITCs) and their precursor glucosinolates (GSLs). We present the first linkage and Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) map for Eruca, generated using a population of 139 F4 lines. A significant environmental effect on the abundance of primary and secondary metabolites was observed, with UK-grown plants containing significantly higher concentrations of glucoraphanin, malic acid, and total sugars. Italian-grown plants were characterized by higher concentrations of glucoerucin, indolic GSLs, and low monosaccharides. 20 QTL were identified and associated with robust SNP markers. Five genes putatively associated with the synthesis of the GSL 4-methoxyglucobrassicin (4MGB) were identified as candidate regulators underlying QTL. Analysis revealed that orthologs of MYB51, IGMT1 and IGMT4 present on LG1 are associated with 4MGB concentrations in Eruca. This research illustrates the utility of the map for identifying genes associated with nutritional composition in Eruca and its value as a genetic resource to assist breeding programs for this leafy vegetable crop.

Biosynthesis, distribution, nutritional and organoleptic properties of bitter compounds in fruit and vegetables

Compounds that confer a bitter taste on fruits and vegetables (FAVs) play crucial roles in both plant defense and health promotion. This review details the current knowledge of the distribution, properties (toxicity, pharmacological effects and receptors) and environmental plant responses relating to the biosynthesis, catabolism and transcriptional regulation of 53 bitter plant metabolites in diverse species of FAVs. Some bitter compounds, such as flavonoids, are common in all plant species and make a minor contribution to bitter flavor, but many are synthesized only in specific taxa. They make major contributions to the bitter taste of the corresponding species and some also have significant pharmacological effects. Levels of bitter metabolites are genetically determined, but various environmental cues can affect their final concentration during preharvest development and postharvest storage processes. Molecular approaches are helping to unravel the mechanisms of biosynthesis and regulation of bitter compounds in diverse crop species. This review not only discusses the theoretical basis for utilizing breeding programs and other agricultural technologies to produce FAVs with improved safety, favorable taste and healthier profiles, but also suggests new directions for the utilization of bitter compounds in FAVs for the development of natural pesticides and health-promoting medicines.

The Impact of Domestic Cooking Methods on Myrosinase Stability, Glucosinolates and Their Hydrolysis Products in Different Cabbage (Brassica oleracea) Accessions

Glucosinolate hydrolysis products are responsible for the health-promoting properties of Brassica vegetables. The impact of domestic cooking on the myrosinase stability, glucosinolates and hydrolysis products in 18 cabbage accession was investigated. Cabbages were steamed, microwaved, and stir-fried before analysis. Cooking significantly affected myrosinase stability and glucosinolate concentrations within and between cabbage morphotypes. Myrosinase was most stable after stir-frying, with up to 65% residual activity. Steaming and microwaving resulted in over 90% loss of myrosinase activity in some accessions. Stir-frying resulted in the greatest decrease in glucosinolate concentration, resulting in up to 70% loss. Steamed cabbages retained the highest glucosinolates after cooking (up to 97%). The profile and abundance of glucosinolate hydrolysis products detected varied across all cooking methods studied. Cooking reduced the amounts of nitriles and epithionitriles formed compared to raw samples. Steaming led to a significant increase in the concentration of beneficial isothiocyanates present in the cabbage and a significantly lower level of nitriles compared to other samples. Microwaving led to a reduction in the concentrations of both nitriles and isothiocyanates when compared to other cooking methods and raw cabbage. The results obtained help provide information on the optimal cooking methods for cabbage, suggesting that steaming may be the best approach to maximising beneficial isothiocyanate production.

Influence of Cabbage (Brassica oleracea) Accession and Growing Conditions on Myrosinase Activity, Glucosinolates and Their Hydrolysis Products

Glucosinolates are secondary plant metabolites present in Brassica vegetables. The endogenous enzyme myrosinase is responsible for the hydrolysis of glucosinolates, yielding a variety of compounds, including health-promoting isothiocyanates. The influence of cabbage accession and growing conditions on myrosinase activity, glucosinolates (GSL) and their hydrolysis products (GHPs) of 18 gene-bank cabbage accessions was studied. Growing conditions, cabbage morphotype and accession all significantly affected myrosinase activity and concentration of glucosinolates and their hydrolysis products. In general, cabbages grown in the field with lower growth temperatures had significantly higher myrosinase activity than glasshouse samples. Profile and concentration of glucosinolates and their hydrolysis products differed across the accessions studied. Aliphatic glucosinolates accounted for more than 60 % of total glucosinolates in most of the samples assessed. Nitriles and epithionitriles were the most abundant hydrolysis products formed. The results obtained showed that consumption of raw cabbages might reduce the amount of beneficial hydrolysis products available to the consumer, as more nitriles were produced from hydrolysis compared to beneficial isothiocyanates. However, red and white cabbages contained high concentrations of glucoraphanin and its isothiocyanate, sulforaphane. This implies that careful selection of accessions with ample concentrations of certain glucosinolates can improve the health benefits derived from raw cabbage consumption.

High Glucosinolate Content in Rocket Leaves (Diplotaxis tenuifolia and Eruca sativa) after Multiple Harvests Is Associated with Increased Bitterness, Pungency, and Reduced Consumer Liking

Rocket (Diplotaxis tenuifolia and Eruca sativa) leaves delivered to the UK market are variable in appearance, taste, and flavour over the growing season. This study presents sensory and consumer analyses of rocket produce delivered to the UK over the course of one year, and evaluated the contribution of environmental and cultivation factors upon quality traits and phytochemicals called glucosinolates (GSLs). GSL abundance was positively correlated with higher average growth temperatures during the crop cycle, and perceptions of pepperiness, bitterness, and hotness. This in turn was associated with reduced liking, and corresponded to low consumer acceptance. Conversely, leaves with greater sugar content were perceived as more sweet, and had a higher correlation with consumer acceptance of the test panel. First cut leaves of rocket were favoured more by consumers, with multiple leaf cuts associated with low acceptance and higher glucosinolate concentrations. Our data suggest that the practice of harvesting rocket crops multiple times reduces consumer acceptability due to increases in GSLs, and the associated bitter, hot, and peppery perceptions some of their hydrolysis products produce. This may have significant implications for cultivation practices during seasonal transitions, where leaves typically receive multiple harvests and longer growth cycles.

The Relationship between Glucosinolates and the Sensory Characteristics of Steamed-Pureed Turnip (Brassica Rapa subsp. Rapa L.)

Glucosinolates (GSLs) are phytochemical compounds that can be found in Brassica vegetables. Seven separate batches of steamed-pureed turnip were assessed for GSL content using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and for sensory attributes by sensory profiling (carried out by a trained sensory panel). Twelve individual GSLs, which included 7 aliphatic, 4 indole and 1 arylaliphatic GSL, were identified across all batches. There were significant differences in individual GSL content between batches, with gluconasturtiin as the most abundant GSL. The total GSL content ranged from 16.07 to 44.74 μmol g^-1 dry weight (DW). Sensory profiling concluded there were positive correlations between GSLs and bitter taste and negative correlations between GSLs (except glucobrassicanapin) and sweet taste. The batches, which had been purchased across different seasons, all led to cooked turnip that contained substantial levels of GSLs which were subsequently all rated as bitter.

Seasonal Variation of Glucosinolate Hydrolysis Products in Commercial White and Red Cabbages (Brassica oleracea var. capitata)

Brassica vegetables contain glucosinolates, which are well-known for their potential to form health-promoting isothiocyanates. Among those crucifers, white and red cabbage are commonly consumed vegetables, exhibiting different glucosinolate and hydrolysis profiles thereof. Regarding the health beneficial effects from these vegetables, more information, especially concerning the seasonal variation of glucosinolate profiles and the formation of their bioactive hydrolysis products in commercial cabbages, is needed. In this study, glucosinolates and glucosinolate hydrolysis product profiles in red and white cabbages from three different food retailers were monitored over six different sampling dates across the selling season in autumn. For the first time, it was shown that, while glucosinolate profiles were similar in each cabbage variety, glucosinolate hydrolysis product profiles and hydrolysis behavior varied considerably over the season. The highest total isothiocyanate concentrations were observed in conventional red (1.66 μmol/g FW) and organic white (0.93 μmol/g FW) cabbages purchased at the first sampling date in September. Here, red cabbage was with up to 1.06 μmol/g FW of 4-(methylsulfinyl)butyl isothiocyanate (sulforaphane), an excellent source for this health-promoting isothiocyanate. Cabbages purchased 11 weeks later in autumn released lower levels of isothiocyanates, but mainly nitriles and epithionitriles. The results indicate that commercial cabbages purchased in early autumn could be healthier options than those purchased later in the year.