Setting priorities for non-regulatory animal health in Ireland: Results from an expert Policy Delphi study and a farmer priority identification survey

A Delphi Study to Determine International and National Equestrian Expert Opinions on Domains and Sub-Domains Essential to Managing Sporthorse Health and Welfare in the Olympic Disciplines

The public is increasingly questioning equestrianism's social license to operate. While the focus historically centered on horseracing, increased scrutiny is now being placed on how dressage, showjumping, and eventing are addressing equine management and welfare concerns. Nominated equestrian federation and equestrian organization experts (n = 104) directly involved in international and/or national-level horse sports took part in a four-stage, iterative Delphi to obtain consensus on what factors should be considered essential to manage sporthorse health and welfare. Five core domains were agreed as essential: training management, competition management, young horse management, health status and veterinary management, and the horse-human relationship. Two further domains: stable and environmental management, and welfare assessment were rated as important but not essential, as most respondents felt that these areas were already managed well. Participants felt increased education and guidance combined with further policy development and regulation are needed to support stakeholders to optimize sporthorse management. An appetite to engage with research to generate evidence that promotes sporthorse welfare was evident. The development of a sporthorse welfare charter and evidence-based guidelines to inform the management and monitoring of sporthorses' health and welfare are recommended to provide horses with a good life and to safeguard the future of equestrian sports.

Farmers' knowledge of Johne's disease and opinions of the Irish Johne's Control Programme: results of an online survey answered mostly by young farmers

A voluntary control programme for Johne's disease, the Irish Johne's Control Programme (IJCP) has been implemented in Ireland since 2017. The objective of this observational study was to assess Irish beef and dairy farmers' Johne's disease knowledge, implemented management practices and IJCP opinions. A questionnaire open to dairy and beef farmers was distributed via social media and email. In total 126 responses were used for this study; these responses came from mostly young farmers (18-25 years old) and represent a small proportion of the total number of dairy and beef farmers in Ireland whose average age is 55.Most respondents claimed to know what Johne's disease was (73%; 92/126) and associated the disease to loss of body condition (68%; 78/114) and diarrhoea (59%; 67/114). Twenty-eight respondents (mostly dairy farmers; 22/28) reported positive cases in their premises. And 38% reported to implement management practices to prevent Johne's disease transmission within or into their herd (i.e. management of milk for calf consumption and isolation of Johne's test-positive or newly purchased stock; 47/124).Eighteen percent (22/125) of respondents were, at the time of questionnaire or previously, members of the IJCP. The main benefits reported by some of the participating farmers were identification of positive cases (29%; 4/14), and management of milk for calf consumption (21%; 3/14). While the main disadvantage was inaccurate testing methods (50%; 10/20). The main reasons reported for the lack of participation in the IJCP were not being aware of the programme (52%; 53/102) and not having a Johne's disease problem on the farm (48%; 49/102).In conclusion, this study suggests that while young farmers are aware of Johne's disease, their participation in the IJCP is limited and could benefit from further promotion. Studies representing the wider farming community in Ireland are warranted to gather non-biased input and contribute to Johne's disease control in Ireland.

Approaches for disease prioritization and decision-making in animal health, 2000-2021: a structured scoping review

This scoping review identifies and describes the methods used to prioritize diseases for resource allocation across disease control, surveillance, and research and the methods used generally in decision-making on animal health policy. Three electronic databases (Medline/PubMed, Embase, and CAB Abstracts) were searched for articles from 2000 to 2021. Searches identified 6, 395 articles after de-duplication, with an additional 64 articles added manually. A total of 6, 460 articles were imported to online document review management software (sysrev.com) for screening. Based on inclusion and exclusion criteria, 532 articles passed the first screening, and after a second round of screening, 336 articles were recommended for full review. A total of 40 articles were removed after data extraction. Another 11 articles were added, having been obtained from cross-citations of already identified articles, providing a total of 307 articles to be considered in the scoping review. The results show that the main methods used for disease prioritization were based on economic analysis, multi-criteria evaluation, risk assessment, simple ranking, spatial risk mapping, and simulation modeling. Disease prioritization was performed to aid in decision-making related to various categories: (1) disease control, prevention, or eradication strategies, (2) general organizational strategy, (3) identification of high-risk areas or populations, (4) assessment of risk of disease introduction or occurrence, (5) disease surveillance, and (6) research priority setting. Of the articles included in data extraction, 50.5% had a national focus, 12.3% were local, 11.9% were regional, 6.5% were sub-national, and 3.9% were global. In 15.2% of the articles, the geographic focus was not specified. The scoping review revealed the lack of comprehensive, integrated, and mutually compatible approaches to disease prioritization and decision support tools for animal health. We recommend that future studies should focus on creating comprehensive and harmonized frameworks describing methods for disease prioritization and decision-making tools in animal health.

Invited review: Bovine neonatal morbidity and mortality-Causes, risk factors, incidences, sequelae and prevention

The neonatal period may be defined as the first month of the calf's life; it may be considered part of the fourth trimester. It is the most hazardous due to the immaturity of the neonate's immune system and the environmental challenge from infections, the main causes of both bovine neonatal morbidity and mortality. The five most common morbidities causing mortality in neonatal calves are, in descending order, gastrointestinal infections, respiratory infections, abomasal disorders, umbilical infections and developmental abnormalities. This review describes the aetiology, incidence, risk factors and sequelae of these common morbidities and highlights current preventive strategies both at farm and national levels.

Testing and Refining the Ethical Framework for the Use of Horses in Sport

In 2021, in response to an acknowledged need for universal, consistent ethics to guide decision making in the horse sport sector, Campbell published a theoretical ethical framework for the use of horses in competitive sport. The research reported here tested the applied usefulness of that theoretical ethical framework through stakeholder engagement in a three-round modified Delphi study and refined it to develop a practical decision-making tool which can be applied consistently across multiple equestrian disciplines. Stakeholders from a broad range of equestrian competitive disciplines participated in the research. Participants were required to apply the ethical framework to a pre-determined ethical dilemma, individually (Rounds 1 and 2) and within a group (Round 3), and at the end of each round to complete a questionnaire designed to gauge opinion and user experience. At the completion of each round of testing, the theoretical framework was refined based on stakeholder feedback. Results showed that participants perceived useability and application of the framework to generally increase with each round. Qualitative content analysis identified key concepts, including cognition (e.g., broadens/deepens thinking) and application (e.g., considers multiple angles from a variety of information sources, needs to be a short/simple process). Results suggested that the refined framework is beneficial for group decision making across a wide variety of ethical issues and equestrian competitive disciplines. The framework thus has the potential to improve equine welfare through facilitating consistent ethical decision making in which the interests of the horse are prioritized.

Recording of calf diseases for potential use in breeding programs: a case study on calf respiratory illness and diarrhea

Calf diseases remain a challenge for dairy producers from both an economic and welfare perspective. Genetically selecting for disease resistance in calves is a promising approach that could contribute to sustainable dairy farming. Genetic evaluations, however, require well-defined and consistently recorded phenotypes to be successful. Therefore, this study aimed to understand the current state of calf disease recording on Ontario farms. Calf disease records of respiratory illness and diarrhea were available from the national milk recording organization (Lactanet Canada, Guelph, Ontario, Canada) from 2009 to 2020. A case study was conducted to describe calf disease diagnoses and recording practices by surveying a subset of 13 Ontario dairy producers. The percentage of milk recorded farms that recorded calf respiratory illness and calf diarrhea increased from 2.6% in 2009 to 11.1% in 2020. Potential sources of data loss were identified along the information chain from farm to genetic evaluation database. Clear definitions and thresholds to diagnose calf disease, standard operating procedures for data recording, as well as a data transfer pipeline, which includes exchange formats, are needed to facilitate the inclusion of calf health traits in genetic evaluations.

Development of a bovine continuing education program for early-career veterinarians to address clinical service shortage

There is currently a shortage of production animal veterinarians worldwide. Access to adequate continuing education (CE) increases retention of health-care workers in rural areas. However, little information is available about the preferences of bovine veterinarians in their first years after graduation. Our objective was to design a readily available CE program tailored for recent veterinary graduates working in bovine medicine. For this, we conducted a cross-sectional survey to identify early-career bovine veterinarian needs and their preferences to access CE conducted while practicing full time. Subsequently, we conducted a second survey to triangulate their responses with the opinions of experienced veterinarians, where the experienced veterinarians ranked the relevance of the CE topics that resulted from the early-career veterinarian survey. We received a total of 132 valid responses from US veterinarians in their first 5 years after graduation, and 32 responses associated with bovine veterinarians with 10 or more years of experience. Our results showed that a combination of distance education and workshops to practice hands-on skills was the preferred method for accessing CE among early-career veterinarians. Furthermore, recent graduates were willing to commit 1 to 2 h/wk to distance education. From the list of 20 topics identified by early-career veterinarians, the experienced veterinarians ranked "calf/heifer management" and "immunology and vaccinology" as the most relevant ones for practice. With the information gathered from these surveys, we designed, implemented, and piloted a 180-h CE program on bovine health management that is delivered over 2 yr through asynchronous distance education and annual hands-on workshops. Participant feedback has been very positive. Overall, the survey results will serve to develop CE programs targeted to bovine veterinarians in their first years of practice. Future research is needed to evaluate this program's success in retaining the bovine veterinary workforce within the United States, particularly in rural underserved areas.

Lessons learned for animal health governance from bovine viral diarrhea eradication schemes in Scotland and Ireland

This paper explores lessons learned for animal health governance from bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) eradication schemes in Scotland and Ireland, drawing on qualitative key stakeholder interviews. Bovine viral diarrhea is an endemic cattle disease that causes animal health and welfare problems, as well as financial losses to farmers. Initial voluntary industry-led schemes to eradicate BVD were introduced in both countries in the 2010s, followed by compulsory phases involving legislation. The paper uses a theoretical framework of co-productive governance to analyze stakeholder views on how well the design and execution of the eradication schemes worked and what can be learned to inform future directions of animal health governance. The term “co-productive governance” comes from the field of environmental governance and was developed to describe how science and politics influence each other in a context where governance is carried out by multiple actors working collaboratively. The results of key stakeholder interviews are analyzed using the concepts of vision, context, knowledge, and process. In relation to vision, the results show the importance of creating a clear narrative about the goal of disease eradication schemes, which may incorporate or replace existing vet or farmer “narratives” about a disease. With regard to context, it is difficult to engage all actors in biosecurity governance, when initiatives are developed with the legacy of existing relationships and tensions. In relation to knowledge, the results showed the importance but political complexity of basing decisions on scientific research. One of the lessons learned was the benefit of involving industry stakeholders in setting scientific questions to inform the design of the scheme. Additionally, with reference to the process, while interviewees were enthusiastic about future prospects for industry and government working together to achieve biosecurity goals co-productive governance is not a panacea for enrolling all actors in biosecurity goals. The results also highlighted that farmers and other actors might object to an eradication scheme, whether it is run by government or private industry. Thus, it is useful to keep questions about who benefits in what way from biosecurity governance open.

Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis infection in cattle - a review in the context of seasonal pasture-based dairy herds

Johne’s disease is an infectious disease affecting cattle, other ruminants and non-ruminant wildlife worldwide, caused by Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP). This review provides an up-to-date concise overview of the pathogenesis of MAP, the significance of Johne’s disease in cattle and the use of diagnostic testing at both animal and herd level in the context of seasonal pasture-based herds. While MAP can only replicate intracellularly, the bacterium is sufficiently robust to survive for months in the environment. Transmission of MAP is mostly via the faecal-oral route, however in-utero transmission in also possible. The bacteria evade the immune system by persisting in macrophages in the small intestine submucosa, with this latent stage of infection lasting, in most cases, for at least two years before bacterial shedding and clinical signs begin. The slowly progressive nature of MAP infection, poor performance of diagnostic tests and management systems that expose susceptible calves to infection make control of Johne’s disease challenging, particularly in seasonal calving herds. Testing of individual animals provides little assurance for farmers and vets due to the poor sensitivity and, in the case of ELISA, imperfect specificity of the available tests. Repeated herd-level testing is utilised by the IJCP to detect infected herds, identify high risk animals, and provide increasing confidence that test-negative herds are free of infection. The IJCP aims to control the spread of Johne’s disease in cattle in Ireland, in order to protect non-infected herds, limit the economic and animal health impact of the disease, improve calf health and reassure markets of Johne’s disease control in Ireland.

Association between a genetic index for lameness resistance and the incidence of claw horn lesions in Holstein cows

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to determine the association between the lameness advantage genetic index and four outcomes: sole haemorrhage (SH), sole ulcers (SU), white line lesions (WL), and lameness during mobility scoring.

METHODS

We enrolled 2352 Holstein cows from four predominantly housed dairy herds in the UK. Cows were mobility scored and foot lesions recorded at four time points from before calving to late lactation. Cows were genotyped and genetic indexes were assigned to each cow following national genetic evaluations. Lameness records and genetic indexes were matched for 2107 cows. Four separate multivariable logistic regression models, which included farm and parity as covariables, were used to quantify the association between the lameness advantage index and whether animals were affected by SH, SU, WL, or lameness.

RESULTS

The odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) for one-point increases in the lameness advantage index were 0.79 (0.72-0.86), 0.68 (0.59-0.78), 0.94 (0.84-1.04), and 0.82 (0.74-0.91) for SH, SU, WL, and lameness, respectively. The same trends were present when the sire's lameness advantage index was evaluated in place of the animal's own, although the strength of this association was generally weaker.

CONCLUSION

The lameness advantage index is associated with SH, SU, and lameness, therefore selection on the lameness advantage index could be considered in herds aiming to reduce lameness. Where genomic testing of heifers is not conducted, sire lameness advantage index may still be effective to reduce SH and SU incidence.

Genome-Wide Association Study Candidate Genes on Mammary System-Related Teat-Shape Conformation Traits in Chinese Holstein Cattle

In the dairy industry, mammary system traits are economically important for dairy animals, and it is important to explain their fundamental genetic architecture in Holstein cattle. Good and stable mammary system-related teat traits are essential for producer profitability in animal fitness and in the safety of dairy production. In this study, we conducted a genome-wide association study on three traits—anterior teat position (ATP), posterior teat position (PTP), and front teat length (FTL)—in which the FarmCPU method was used for association analyses. Phenotypic data were collected from 1000 Chinese Holstein cattle, and the GeneSeek Genomic Profiler Bovine 100K single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) chip was used for cattle genotyping data. After the quality control process, 984 individual cattle and 84,406 SNPs remained for GWAS work analysis. Nine SNPs were detected significantly associated with mammary-system-related teat traits after a Bonferroni correction (p < 5.92 × 10⁻⁷), and genes within a region of 200 kb upstream or downstream of these SNPs were performed bioinformatics analysis. A total of 36 gene ontology (GO) terms and 3 Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways were significantly enriched (p < 0.05), and these terms and pathways are mainly related to metabolic processes, immune response, and cellular and amino acid catabolic processes. Eleven genes including MMS22L, E2F8, CSRP3, CDH11, PEX26, HAL, TAMM41, HIVEP3, SBF2, MYO16 and STXBP6 were selected as candidate genes that might play roles in the teat traits of cows. These results identify SNPs and candidate genes that give helpful biological information for the genetic architecture of these teat traits, thus contributing to the dairy production, health, and genetic selection of Chinese Holstein cattle.

The Irish Johne's Control Programme

The Irish Johne's Control Programme (IJCP) provides a long-term approach to the voluntary control of Johne's disease (JD) in Ireland, strongly supported by Irish cattle industry leadership. It leverages the establishment of Animal Health Ireland for control of animal diseases not regulated by the European Union. The IJCP has four objectives: facilitate protection against spread of JD to uninfected farms; reduce the level of infection when present; assure markets of JD control in Ireland; and improve calf health and farm biosecurity. Key IJCP elements are an annual veterinary risk assessment and management plan (VRAMP), annual whole herd test (WHT) by ELISA on blood or milk samples with ancillary faecal PCR testing of ELISA reactors, and Targeted Advisory Service on Animal Health (TASAH) investigations of infected herds. There are pathways for assurance of herds with continuing negative tests and for management of test-positive herds. Herdowners are responsible for on-farm activities, and specifically-trained (approved) veterinary practitioners have a pivotal role as technical advisors and service providers. The programme is supported by training of veterinarians, performance of testing in designated laboratories, documentation of policies and procedures, innovative data management for herd and test activities and for programme administration, training, and broad communication and awareness activities. Tools and systems are refined to address emerging issues and enhance the value of the programme. An Implementation Group comprising industry, government and technical leaders sets strategic direction and policy, advised by a Technical Working Group. Shared funding responsibilities are agreed by key stakeholders until 2022 to support herds in the programme to complete requirements. Herd registrations have increased steadily to exceed 1,800. National bulk tank milk surveillance is also being deployed to identify and recruit test-positive herds with the expectation that they have a relatively high proportion of seropositive animals. The programme will continue to innovate and improve to meet farmer and industry needs.

Food and Religion in Sicily—A New Green Tourist Destination by an Ancient Route from the Past

The Francigena Way (Via Francigena) is a long international itinerary that was awarded recognition as a Culture Route of the Council of Europe. It starts in Canterbury (UK), touches 13 European regions and ends in Rome. An ancient track of this route is in Sicily (Southern Italy), and its name is Magna Via Francigena (Great Francigena Way). This track is a pilgrimage route that connects two ancient port cities, Palermo and Agrigento, passing through internal rural territories that now deal with the exodus of population from rural to urban areas. The route passes through the Sicilian territory named “Upper-Belìce corleonese”, a rural area around the city of Corleone (a little village known worldwide for the sad Mafia events) that includes a number of municipalities. In the past, this religious pilgrimage was a fundamental part of the expression of faith for Christians and now still represents for Sicilians a strong symbol of Christian identity. In recent decades, pilgrimage tourism around the world has grown significantly each year. The aim of the study is to know the pilgrims’ motivations for choosing the Magna Via Francigena pilgrimage as a vacation and any possible similarities between pilgrimage tourism and food and wine tourism, in the wider context of sustainable and slow tourism. The Policy Delphi method was applied to collect the opinions of the stakeholders involved. The study highlighted the strong link between religious motivations and local enogastronomy, culture, art and nature. Results will support policy-making in the development of integrated territorial tourist marketing strategies.

We Agree, Don't We? The Delphi Method for Health Environments Research

OBJECTIVE

This overview is intended to provide the process framework for built environment researchers to use the Delphi method. The article outlines the methodological criteria originally established for the Delphi method, as well as commonly accepted modifications, to advance guidance for evidence-based built environment considerations.

BACKGROUND

Increasingly used in healthcare research, the Delphi method is a process for gaining consensus through controlled feedback from a panel-a group made up of experts or individuals knowledgeable on the subject. The method is often used where there is limited or conflicting evidence, where participants may be geographically dispersed, and where anonymity is desired to control for dominant individuals. The Delphi method consists of panel selection, development of content surveys, and iterative stages of anonymous responses to gain consensus. Panelists receive feedback after each round in the form of a statistical representation of the overall group's response. The goal of multiple iterations in the Delphi method is to reduce the range of responses and gain expert consensus, which is often seen as more credible than conjecture or individual opinion.

CONCLUSION

With a geographic diversity of healthcare design expertise, and with so many aspects of healthcare design lacking a robust body of supporting empirical research, the Delphi method is well-suited to developing evidence-based design recommendations and considerations for healthcare built environments.

Calf health from birth to weaning - an update

Research on calf health and welfare has intensified in the past decades. This is an update on a review series on calf health from birth to weaning published ten years ago.

Good colostrum management is still recognised as the single most important factor to preventing calf morbidity and mortality, however, it is now known that immunoglobulins are only one of many components of colostrum that are vital for the calf’s development. Other non-nutrient factors like leucocytes, hormones and growth factors, oligosaccharides as well as microRNAs have significant effects on the development and maturation of the intestinal and systemic immune functions. They also promote the maturation and function of the intestine, thus enabling the calf to digest and absorb the nutrients provided with colostrum and milk. The improved energetic status of colostrum-fed neonates is reflected by an accelerated maturation of the somatotropic axis, which stimulates body growth and organ development. Colostrum oligosaccharides are presumed to play a major role in the development of a healthy intestinal flora.

A biologically normal (intensive) milk-feeding programme is subsequently necessary for optimal body growth, organ development and resistance to infectious diseases. Ad-libitum or close to ad-libitum feeding in the first three to four weeks of life also leaves calves less hungry thus improving calf welfare. Only calves fed intensively with colostrum and milk are able to reach their full potential for performance throughout their life.

Public interest in farm animal welfare is growing in past decades, which makes it necessary to have a closer look at contentious management practices in the dairy industry like early separation of the dairy calf from the dam with subsequent individual housing. Public objection to these practices cannot be mitigated through educational efforts. Contrary to common opinion there is no evidence that early cow-calf separation is beneficial for the health of calf or cow. There is evidence of behavioural and developmental harm associated with individual housing in dairy calves, social housing improves feed intake and weight gains, and health risks associated with grouping can be mitigated with appropriate management.

In conclusion, there are still many management practices commonly applied, especially in the dairy industry, which are detrimental to health and welfare of calves.

Development and Application of a Prioritization Tool for Animal Health Surveillance Activities in Ireland

Decisions around animal health management by stakeholders are often subject to resource limitation, therefore prioritization processes are required to evaluate whether effort is attributed appropriately. The objectives of this study were to develop and apply a surveillance prioritization process for animal health surveillance activities in Ireland. An exploratory sequential mixed research methods design was utilized. A prioritization tool was developed for surveillance activities and implemented over two phases. During the first phase, a survey was conducted which asked stakeholders to prioritize diseases/conditions by importance for Irish agriculture. In the second phase, experts identified the most important surveillance objectives, and allocated resources to the activities that they considered would best meet the surveillance objectives, for each disease/condition. This study developed a process and an accompanying user-friendly practical tool for animal disease surveillance prioritization which could be utilized by other competent authorities/governments. Antimicrobial resistance and bovine tuberculosis were ranked top of the endemic diseases/conditions in the Irish context, while African swine fever and foot and mouth disease were ranked top of the exotic diseases/conditions by the stakeholders. The study showed that for most of the diseases/conditions examined in the prioritization exercise, the respondents indicated a preference for a combination of active and passive surveillance activities. Future extensions of the tool could include prioritization on a per species basis.

Stakeholder perceptions of non-regulatory bovine health issues in Ireland: past and future perspectives

Background

In recent years, there have been multiple (political, environmental, cultural) drivers of change in Irish agriculture, including the establishment of Animal Health Ireland (AHI) in 2009, to provide leadership of non-regulatory livestock health issues (diseases and conditions of livestock that are endemic in Ireland but which are not currently subject to international legislation). In this study, we describe the opinion of stakeholders (farmers, veterinary practitioners and agricultural industry professional service providers), elicited by means of a survey, on their perceptions of changes in selected non-regulatory bovine health issues over the last 10 years and priority issues relevant to non-regulatory bovine health to be tackled over the next 10 years.

Results

A total of 673 individuals participated in the online questionnaire. For the majority of the non-regulatory bovine health issues, most participants felt there had been improvements over the last 10 years. However, professional service providers were generally more conservative in their response to improvements on-farm compared to farmers. Several issues, particularly BVD and udder health/milk quality, were viewed more positively by all relevant respondents. There was reasonable agreement between responses from different respondent types and sectors regarding the top three priorities relevant to non-regulatory bovine animal health for the next 10 years in Ireland, which included antimicrobial resistance (highlighting measures to reduce both on-farm usage and resistance), anthelmintic resistance, greenhouse emissions and calf welfare.

Conclusions

The results are encouraging, demonstrating a perception of improvement in a number of non-regulatory bovine health issues in Ireland over the last ten years. With respect to the next 10 years, stakeholders prioritised antimicrobial and anthelmintic resistance, greenhouse gas emissions and calf welfare, which aligns closely with broader societal concerns. This information is useful to AHI, particularly with respect to future priorities. However, these concerns are broad in scope and will require further considerations, including collaborations, between AHI and partnering organisations. Given that there were differences between farmers and professional service providers in responses, it is useful to consider how the aims and the benefits of future AHI programmes are framed and communicated to all stakeholders.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13620-020-00178-8.

Johne's disease in Irish dairy herds: considerations for an effective national control programme

The Irish dairy industry has established a reputation for the production of safe and healthy dairy products and is seeking to further expand its export market for high value dairy products. To support its reputation, stakeholders aim to control Johne’s disease. To assist decision-makers determine the most appropriate design for an Irish programme, a narrative review of the scientific literature on the epidemiology of Johne’s disease, and selected control programmes throughout the world was undertaken. Two modelling studies specifically commissioned by Animal Health Ireland to assess testing methods used to demonstrate confidence of freedom in herds and to evaluate a range of possible surveillance strategies provided additional information. The majority of control programmes tend to be voluntary, because of the unique epidemiology of Johne’s disease and limited support for traditional regulatory approaches. While acknowledging that test performance and sub-clinical sero-negative shedders contributes to the spread of infection, a range of socio-political issues also exist that influence programme activities. The paper provides a rationale for the inclusion of a Veterinary Risk Assessment and Management Plan (VRAMP), including voluntary whole herd testing to identify infected herds and to support assurance-based trading through repeated rounds of negative testing, national surveillance for herd-level case-detection, and improved understanding of biosecurity management practices. Identification and promotion of drivers for industry and producer engagement in Ireland is likely to guide the future evolution of the Irish Johne’s Control Programme (IJCP) and further enhance its success. The provision of training, education and extension activities may encourage farmers to adopt relevant farm management practices and help them recognize that they are ultimately responsible for their herd’s health and biosecurity.

Individual and herd-level milk ELISA test status for Johne's disease in Ireland after correcting for non-disease-associated variables

Antibody-detecting tests for Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis (MAP) have low sensitivity and imperfect specificity for detection of infection. Sensitivity increases as the disease progresses. Aside from infection status and stage of disease, several factors affect test performance. These factors have not yet been studied in dairy cows producing lower volumes of milk with higher solids concentration, such as those managed in low-input, pasture-based production systems. Furthermore, the effect of correcting for these associations on individual and herd test status is also unknown. The first objective of this study was to examine the relationship between MAP antibody response in milk and milk yield, somatic cell count (SCC), fat and protein contents, and stage of lactation in dairy cows enrolled in the national Johne's Disease Control Programme (JDCP) in Ireland. The second objective was to examine the effect of correcting the antibody response for these associations on the test status of individual cows and herds, given that individual tests are often used to define a herd's status. Data were extracted for herds in the JDCP from January 2014 to December 2015 inclusive, consisting of 42,657 milk recordings from 18,569 cows across 187 dairy herds. Two linear regression models were constructed to investigate the association between log-transformed MAP sample-to-positive ratio and milk recording data and in primi- and multiparous cows. Days in milk was modeled as a B-spline in each model, and cow and herd were included as random effects. Across both models, natural log-transformed MAP antibody response was negatively associated with milk yield, positively associated with protein and fat production, and had a curvilinear association with log-transformed SCC. The association between MAP antibody response and days in milk varied over the course of the lactation. However, when combined, these variables explained only 5.1% of the variation in the antibody response of the population. After correcting for these associations, 93 multiparous cows and 20 primiparous cows changed category (negative, suspect, or positive). When considered at the herd-test level, out of a total of 531 herd tests, 1 herd changed from negative to positive, and 5 herds changed from positive to negative. This study provides useful information to aid in the interpretation of antibody results for herds testing animals for the presence of MAP infection. At an overall population level, correction of the serological response for non-disease-associated factors has the potential to change the status of only a small number of cows. At the herd level, the proportion of herds changing status was minimal. However, depending on the implications of a herd-level serological diagnosis, consideration should be given to correcting for these non-disease-associated variables within the context of national JD control programs.

Importance of Viral Disease in Dairy Cow Fertility

Many viral diseases are endemic in cattle populations worldwide. The ability of many viruses to cross the placenta and cause abortions and fetal malformations is well understood. There is also significant evidence that viral infections have additional actions in dairy cows, which are reflected in reduced conception rates. These effects are, however, highly dependent on the time at which an individual animal first contracts the disease and are less easy to quantify. This paper reviews the evidence relating to five viruses that can affect fertility, together with their potential mechanisms of action. Acute infection with non-cytopathic bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) in mid-gestation increases abortion rates or causes the birth of persistently infected calves. BVDV infections closer to the time of breeding can have direct effects on the ovaries and uterine endometrium, which cause estrous cycle irregularities and early embryo mortality. Fertility may also be reduced by BVDV-induced immunosuppression, which increases the susceptibility to bacterial infections. Bovine herpesvirus (BHV)-1 is most common in pre-pubertal heifers, and can slow their growth, delay breeding, and increase the age at first calving. Previously infected animals subsequently show reduced fertility. Although this may be associated with lung damage, ovarian lesions have also been reported. Both BHV-1 and BHV-4 remain latent in the host following initial infection and may be reactivated later by stress, for example associated with calving and early lactation. While BHV-4 infection alone may not reduce fertility, it appears to act as a co-factor with established bacterial pathogens such as Escherichia coli and Trueperella pyogenes to promote the development of endometritis and delay uterine repair mechanisms after calving. Both Schmallenberg virus (SBV) and bluetongue virus (BTV) are transmitted by insect vectors and lead to increased abortion rates and congenital malformations. BTV-8 also impairs the development of hatched blastocysts; furthermore, infection around the time of breeding with either virus appears to reduce conception rates. Although the reductions in conception rates are often difficult to quantify, they are nevertheless sufficient to cause economic losses, which help to justify the benefits of vaccination and eradication schemes.

Perspectives From the Science-Policy Interface in Animal Health and Welfare

The aim of this paper is to present scientific perspectives from the science-policy interface in animal health and welfare, with an emphasis on factors critical to scientific effectiveness. While there is broad acceptance of the value of scientific information to inform policy-making, interactions at the science-policy interface are not without difficulties. The literature highlights the need for scientists to build policy relevance to the research focus from the outset, to engage with policy-makers and other stakeholders throughout, to use platforms to facilitate science-policy dialogue, and to disseminate research findings appropriately. In the author's experience, there are a range of factors linked with effectiveness at the science-policy interface in animal health and welfare including a passion for public interest research, scientific independence, a commitment to scientific quality and openness, the opportunities afforded from partnership and collaboration, and an interest in strategic thinking and systems change. In an increasingly complex and rapidly changing world, an objective evidence base for policy decision-making is more important than ever. There is a need for particular attention to the value of collaboration between the natural and social sciences, a recognition among scientists and policy-makers that science is not value-free, the importance of effective communications, and the need to assess and communicate uncertainty. Further, there are particular challenges with science conducted in support of policy development for industry. It is hoped that this paper will stimulate and contribute to discussion and debate, both among scientists and between scientists and policy-makers, to increase scientific effectiveness at the science-policy interface in animal health and welfare.

Validation of mouse welfare indicators: a Delphi consultation survey

This study aims to identify the most valid, reliable and practicable indicators of laboratory mouse welfare using the Delphi consultation technique. The effective assessment of laboratory mouse welfare is a fundamental legal and moral requirement as it is critical part of both maintaining and improving the welfare of the most widely used laboratory animal globally. Although many different welfare indicators are routinely used to assess mouse welfare, the validity, reliability and practicability of many of these measures remains unclear. The Delphi consultation technique is designed to gauge expert opinion through multiple rounds of surveys until a consensus is reached. Participants ranked 59 welfare indicators in terms their validity, reliability and practicability for either a half-day unit audit or a daily welfare assessment and for each scenario identified 10 key indicators. The Delphi consultation reached consensus at 72% for the overall list of indicators and over 60% for each individual indicator. From this consensus the key indicators for each mouse welfare scenario (half day audit and daily welfare assessment) were identified and used to create a welfare scoring system for each scenario.

Genetic parameters for variability in the birth of persistently infected cattle following likely in utero exposure to bovine viral diarrhea virus

Genetic selection is an inexpensive and complementary strategy to traditional methods of improving animal health and welfare. Nonetheless, endeavors to incorporate animal health and welfare traits in international breeding programs have been hampered by the availability of informative phenotypes. The recent eradication program for bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) in the Republic of Ireland has provided an opportunity to quantify the potential benefits that genetic selection could offer BVD eradication programs elsewhere, as well as inform possible eradication programs for other diseases in the Republic of Ireland. Using a dataset of 188,085 Irish calves, the estimated direct and maternal heritability estimates for the birth of persistently infected calves following likely in utero exposure to BVD virus ranged from not different from zero (linear model) to 0.29 (SE = 0.075; threshold model) and from essentially zero (linear model) to 0.04 (SE = 0.033; threshold model), respectively. The corresponding genetic SD for the direct and maternal effect of the binary trait (0, 1) ranged from 0.005 (linear model) to 0.56 (threshold model) units and ranged from 0.00008 (linear model) to 0.20 (threshold model) units, respectively. The coefficient of direct genetic variation based on the linear model was 2.56% indicating considerable genetic variation could be exploited. Based on results from the linear model in the present study, there is the potential to reduce the incidence of persistent infection in cattle by on average 0.11 percentage units per year which is cumulative and permanent. Therefore, genetic selection can contribute to reducing the incidence of persistent infection in cattle. Moreover, where populations are free from persistent infection, inclusion of the estimated genetic merit for BVD in national breeding indexes could contribute to a preservation of a BVD-free status. Results from the present study can be used to inform breeding programs of the potential genetic gains achievable. Moreover, the approaches used in the present study can be applied to other diseases when data become available.

Is There a Relationship Between Bovine Tuberculosis (bTB) Herd Breakdown Risk and Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis Status? An Investigation in bTB Chronically and Non-chronically Infected Herds

Background: Bovine tuberculosis (bTB; Mycobacterium bovis) remains a significant problem in a number of countries, and is often found where M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) is also present. In the United Kingdom, bTB has been difficult to eradicate despite long-term efforts. Co-infection has been proposed as one partial mechanism thwarting eradication.

Methods: A retrospective case-control study of 4,500 cattle herds in Northern Ireland, where serological testing of cattle for MAP, was undertaken (2004–2015). Blood samples were ELISA tested for MAP; infection of M. bovis was identified in herds by the comparative tuberculin test (CTT) and through post-mortem evidence of infection. Case-herds were those experiencing a confirmed bTB breakdown; control-herds were not experiencing a breakdown episode at the time of MAP testing. A second model included additional testing data of feces samples (culture and PCR results) to better inform herd MAP status. Multi-level hierarchical models were developed, controlling for selected confounders. A sensitivity analysis of the effect of MAP sample numbers per event and the prior timing of tuberculin-testing was undertaken.

Results: 45.2% (n = 250) of case observations and 36.0% (3,480) of control observations were positive to MAP by ELISA (45.8% and 36.4% when including ancillary fecal testing, respectively). Controlling for known confounders, the adjusted odds ratio (aOR) for this association was 1.339 (95%CI:1.085–1.652; including ancillary data aOR:1.356;95%CI:1.099–1.673). The size-effect of the association increased with the increasing number of samples per event used to assign herd MAP status (aOR:1.883 at >2 samples, to aOR:3.863 at >10 samples), however the estimated CI increased as N decreased. 41.7% of observations from chronic herds were MAP serology-positive and 32.2% from bTB free herds were MAP positive (aOR: 1.170; 95%ci: 0.481–2.849).

Discussion: Cattle herds experiencing a bTB breakdown were associated with increased risk of having a positive MAP status. Chronic herds tended to exhibit higher risk of a positive MAP status than bTB free herds, however there was less support for this association when controlling for repeated measures and confounding. MAP co-infection may be playing a role in the success of bTB eradiation schemes, however further studies are required to understand the mechanisms and to definitively establish causation.

Modeling of alternative testing strategies to demonstrate freedom from Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis infection in test-negative dairy herds in the Republic of Ireland

In light of the various adverse effects of Johne's disease on animal productivity and the debate on the role of its causative organism, Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis, in the etiology of Crohn's disease, major dairy-producing countries around the world have implemented national control programs aimed at reducing the prevalence of this infection in cattle. A pilot control program was initiated in Ireland in 2013, with a key objective to provide farmers with test-negative dairy herds with tools and knowledge to increase their confidence of freedom over time. The aim of this study was to estimate the confidence of freedom obtained in test-negative Irish dairy herds over time with various sampling scenarios and to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of alternative scenarios for achieving an acceptable level of confidence of freedom in herds with no evidence of infection. A stochastic model was developed to simulate repeated annual testing of individual animals using ELISA and confirmatory assays over a period of 20 yr. Two scenarios modeled the current herd-screening options, whereas 14 alternative scenarios explored the effect of varying parameters from the current testing strategies, such as the frequency of testing, the eligibility criteria for selecting animals, the type of assay, the probability of introduction, and the assay sensitivity. Results showed that the current testing strategy with milk twice a year or serum once a year in all animals over 2 yr old provided the highest annual herd sensitivity, with a median value of 55%. Although the median confidence of freedom increased over time for all scenarios, the time required to reach 90 and 95% confidence of freedom was highly variable between scenarios. Under the testing scenario where serum tests were used once a year, the confidence of freedom reached 90% after 4 yr and 95% after 7 yr of testing. Some of the alternative scenarios achieved an acceptable level of confidence of freedom in a reasonable timeframe and at lesser cost than the current testing strategies. The results of this work are used to provide recommendations for the next phases of the program.

Biosecurity messages are lost in translation to citizens: Implications for devolving management to citizens

The increasing focus of marine biosecurity agencies on transferring management responsibilities to citizens and industry begs the question whether devolved responsibility is a viable option for creating biosecurity outcomes. We examined recreational marine users’ self-declared awareness of non-indigenous marine species (NIMS) at six locations in Tasmania, Australia and evaluated the accuracy of their awareness through recognition of four well-known NIMS with active awareness campaigns. We also investigated whether the activities of recreational marine users influence the accuracy of their NIMS recognition skills. We generally found that respondents declare NIMS awareness (70.45%), yet we found their recognition accuracy was variable ranging from low to fair (<10% to 54.95%) and recreational activity did not influence accuracy. Based on our results, we conclude that marine users’ awareness does not predict accuracy and therefore devolved management of biosecurity without additional resources may pose a risky biosecurity management strategy.

Johne's disease in the eyes of Irish cattle farmers: A qualitative narrative research approach to understanding implications for disease management

Bovine Johne's Disease (JD) is a disease characterised by chronic granulomatous enteritis which manifests clinically as a protein-losing enteropathy causing diarrhoea, hypoproteinaemia, emaciation and, eventually death. Some research exists to suggest that the aetiologic pathogen Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis may pose a zoonotic risk. Nationally coordinated control programmes have been introduced in many of the major milk producing countries across the world. However, JD is challenging to control in infected herds owing to limitations of diagnostic tests and the long incubation period of the disease. Internationally, research increasingly recognises that improved understanding of farmers' subjective views and behaviours may inform and enhance disease management strategies and support the identification and implementation of best practice at farm level. The aim of this study was to use qualitative research methods to explore the values and knowledges of farmers relative to the control of JD at farm level. The Biographical Narrative Interpretive Method (BNIM) was used to generate data from both infected and presumed uninfected farms in Ireland. Qualitative analysis revealed that cultural and social capital informed farmers' decisions on whether to introduce control and preventive measures. Cultural capital refers to the pride and esteem farmers associate with particular objects and actions whereas social capital is the value that farmers associate with social relationships with others. On-farm controls were often evaluated by farmers as impractical and were frequently at odds with farmers' knowledge of calf management. Knowledge from farmers of infected herds did not disseminate among peer farmers. Owners of herds believed to be uninfected expressed a view that controls and preventive measures were not worthy of adoption until there was clear evidence of JD in the herd. These findings highlight important barriers and potential aids to prevention and control in both infected and uninfected herds.

DISCONTOOLS: a database to identify research gaps on vaccines, pharmaceuticals and diagnostics for the control of infectious diseases of animals

BACKGROUND

The public and private sector in the EU spend around €800 million per year on animal health and welfare related research. An objective process to identify critical gaps in knowledge and available control tools should aid the prioritisation of research in order to speed up the development of new or improved diagnostics, vaccines and pharmaceuticals and reduce the burden of animal diseases.

METHOD

Here, we describe the construction of a database based on expert consultation for 52 infectious diseases of animals.

RESULTS

For each disease, an expert group produced a disease and product analysis document that formed the basis for gap analysis and prioritisation. The prioritisation model was based on a closed scoring system, employing identical weights for six evaluation criteria (disease knowledge; impact on animal health and welfare; impact on public health; impact on wider society; impact on trade; control tools). The diseases were classified into three groups: epizootic diseases, food-producing animal complexes or zoonotic diseases.

DISCUSSION

The highly ranked diseases in the prioritisation model comprised mostly zoonotic and epizootic diseases with important gaps identified in vaccine development and pharmaceuticals, respectively. The most important outcome is the identification of key research needs by disease. The rankings and research needs by disease are provided on a public website ( www.discontools.eu ) which is currently being updated based on new expert consultations.

CONCLUSION

As such, it can become a reference point for funders of research including the European Commission, member states, foundations, trusts along with private industry to prioritise research. This will deliver benefits in terms of animal health and welfare but also public health, societal benefits and a safe and secure food supply.

Stakeholder perspectives on the use of pig meat inspection as a health and welfare diagnostic tool in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland; a SWOT analysis

Background

A SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis is a strategic management tool applied to policy planning and decision-making. This short report presents the results of a SWOT analysis, carried out with n = 16 stakeholders i) involved in the pig industry in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, and ii) in general animal welfare and food safety policy areas. As part of a larger study called PIGWELFIND, the analysis sought to explore the potential development of pig meat inspection as an animal welfare and diagnostic tool.

Findings

The final SWOT framework comprised two strengths, three opportunities, six weaknesses, and five threats. Issues around relationships and communication between producers and their veterinary practitioner, processors and producers were common to both the strengths and weakness clusters. Practical challenges within the processing plant were also named. Overall, the SWOT framework complements results reported in Devitt et al. (Ir Vet J 69:2, 2016) regarding problematic issues within the current system of information feedback on meat inspection especially within the Republic of Ireland, and the wider challenges of communication and problems of distrust.

Conclusion

The results of the SWOT analysis support the conclusions from Devitt et al. (Ir Vet J 69:2, 2016), that trust between all stakeholders across the supply chain will be essential for the development of an effective environment in which to realise the full diagnostic potential of MI data. Further stakeholder engagement could seek to apply the findings of the SWOT analysis to a policy Delphi methodology, as used elsewhere.

Identifying management and disease priorities of Canadian dairy industry stakeholders

The objective of this study was to identify the key management and disease issues affecting the Canadian dairy industry. An online questionnaire (FluidSurveys, http://fluidsurveys.com/) was conducted between March 1 and May 31, 2014. A total of 1,025 responses were received from across Canada of which 68% (n=698) of respondents were dairy producers, and the remaining respondents represented veterinarians, university researchers, government personnel, and other allied industries. Participants were asked to identify their top 3 management and disease priorities from 2 lists offered. Topics were subsequently ranked from highest to lowest using 3 different ranking methods based on points: 5-3-1 (5 points for first priority, 3 for second, and 1 for first), 3-2-1, and 1-1-1 (equal ranking). The 5-3-1 point system was selected because it minimized the number of duplicate point scores. Stakeholder groups showed general agreement with the top management issue identified as animal welfare and the number one health concern as lameness. Other areas identified as priorities were reproductive health, antibiotic use, bovine viral diarrhea, and Staphylococcus aureus mastitis with these rankings influenced by region, herd size, and stakeholder group. This is the first national comprehensive assessment of priorities undertaken in the Canadian dairy industry and will assist researchers, policymakers, program developers, and funding agencies make future decisions based on direct industry feedback.

Questionnaire identifying management practices surrounding calving on spring-calving dairy farms and their associations with herd size and herd expansion

Healthy calves are fundamental to any profitable dairy enterprise. Research to-date, has focused on year-round calving systems which experience many different challenges compared to spring-calving systems. The objective of the present study was to determine the on-farm dry cow, calving, and colostrum management practices of spring-calving dairy production systems, and quantify their associations with herd size and herd expansion status (i.e. expanding or not expanding). Information on these management practices was available from a survey of 262 Irish spring-calving dairy farmers, representative of the Irish national population. Herd expansion in the 2 years before, and the year that the survey was conducted was not associated with any of the management practices investigated. Fifty-three percent of respondents had an average calving season length of 10 to14 weeks with 35% of herds having a longer calving season. Previous research in cattle has documented that both colostrum source and feeding management are associated with the transmission of infectious disease from cow to calf. In the present study 60% of respondents fed calves colostrum from their own dam; however, 66% of those respondents allowed the calf to suckle the dam, 23% of survey respondents fed calves pooled colostrum. Larger herds were more likely (P<0.01) to use pooled colostrum supplies, while smaller herds were more likely (P<0.05) to allow the calf to suckle the dam. The majority (86%) of respondents had stored supplies of colostrum; average-sized herds had the greatest likelihood of storing colostrum (P<0.05), compared to other herd sizes; larger sized herds had a lesser likelihood (P<0.05) of storing colostrum in a freezer, compared to other herd sizes. Although freezing colostrum was the most common method used to store colostrum (54% of respondents), 17% of respondents stored colostrum at room temperature, 29% of which stored it at room temperature for greater than 4 days. The results from the present study indicate that a particular focus needs to be placed on calving and colostrum management because this study has highlighted a number of areas which are below international standards, and may have repercussions for calf health. Furthermore, management practices on larger farms could be improved and, as these represent the future of dairy farming, a focus needs to be placed on them. Expanding herds are not a particular concern as herd expansion, independent of herd size, does not seem to be associated with calving and colostrum management practices on Irish spring-calving dairy herds.

Stakeholder opinions on the practicality of management interventions to control bovine tuberculosis

Livestock disease control strategies are usually determined at national and international levels, yet their successful implementation is determined by stakeholders operating at local scales. Such stakeholders may also have detailed knowledge that would contribute to the development of disease control options suited to the socio-cultural and environmental conditions where management is undertaken. The aim of this study was to evaluate stakeholders' opinions of a list of potential bovine tuberculosis (TB) management interventions for South Central Spain. This area has high TB prevalence in wildlife and livestock, so veterinarians, livestock farmers and hunters are all key stakeholders in TB management. A literature review identified possible management activities. The effectiveness of each intervention was ranked by local experts, and practicality was ranked by hunters, cattle farmers and veterinarians, using a best-worst scaling exercise as part of a questionnaire. The most effective intervention, the banning of supplemental feeding of game species, was not considered practical by stakeholders. The most effective and practical interventions were the separation of wildlife and livestock access to waterholes, testing cattle every 3 months on farms with a recent positive TB case and removing gut-piles from the land after hunting events. Although all three of these options were well supported, each stakeholder group supported different approaches more strongly, suggesting that it might be effective to promote different disease management contributions in different stakeholder communities. This integrated approach contributes to the identification of the optimum combination of management tools that can be delivered effectively.

Disease screening profiles and colostrum management practices on 16 Irish suckler beef farms

Background

Calf output is a key element in determining the profitability of a suckler beef enterprise. Infectious agents such as Bovine Virus Diarrhoea (BVD) virus, colostrum management and parasitic challenge can all affect calf output. Prior to the national BVD eradication programme, there was little published information on either the prevalence or effect of BVD in Irish beef herds. There is little published information on colostrum management practices in Irish commercial beef herds and there have also been few studies published on the prevalence of liver fluke or rumen fluke infection in Irish beef herds. Sixteen farms participating in the Teagasc/Farmers Journal BETTER farm beef programme were used in this study. Fourteen herds were screened for the presence of BVD virus in 2010 using RT-PCR. In 13 herds, blood samples were collected from calves (2–14 days of age) in November 2011 - April 2012 to determine their passive immune status using the zinc sulphate turbidity (ZST) test, while in 12 herds, blood and faecal samples were taken in order to determine the level of exposure to gastrointestinal and hepatic helminths.

Results

The overall prevalence of BVD virus-positive cattle was 0.98% (range 0 - 3% per herd, range 0.6 - 3.0% per positive herd). Eighteen of the 82 calves (22%) sampled had ZST values less than 20 units (herd mean range 17.0 – 38.5 units) indicating a failure of passive transfer. The overall animal-level (herd-level) prevalence of liver fluke and rumen fluke infection in these herds was 40.5% (100%) and 20.8% (75%), respectively.

Conclusions

The potential costs associated with the presence of animals persistently infected with BVD virus through the increased use of antibiotics; the rate of failure of passive transfer of colostral immunoglobulins and the high prevalence of liver fluke infection in these herds highlight that some Irish suckler beef farms may not be realizing their economic potential due to a range of herd health issues. The use of farm-specific herd health plans should be further encouraged on Irish suckler beef farms.

A survey of management practices on Irish dairy farms with emphasis on risk factors for Johne's disease transmission

BACKGROUND

Johne's disease (JD) is a chronic granulomatous enteritis affecting ruminants. A number of farm management practices are associated with increased risk of JD transmission. The aim of the current study was to document JD-related management practices currently employed on Irish dairy farms. Survey questions focused on calving area (CA), calf and manure management. Independent variables (region, calving-season, enterprise type, herd size and biosecurity status) were used to examine influences on JD associated dependent variables (survey questions). Additionally general biosecurity practices were also examined.

RESULTS

Results showed management practices implemented by Irish dairy farmers pose a high risk of JD transmission. Of the farmers surveyed, 97% used the CA for more than one calving, 73.5% and 87.8% pooled colostrum and milk respectively, 33.7% never cleaned the CA between calving's, and 56.6% used the CA for isolating sick cows. Survey results also highlighted that larger herds were more likely to engage in high risk practices for JD transmission, such as pooling colostrum (OR 4.8) and overcrowding the CA (OR 7.8). Larger herds were also less likely than smaller herds to clean the CA (OR 0.28), a practice also considered of risk in the transmission of JD.

CONCLUSION

Many management practices associated with risk of JD transmission were commonly applied on Irish dairy farms. Larger herds were more likely to engage in high risk practices for JD transmission. Control programmes should incorporate educational tools outlining the pathogenesis and transmission of JD to highlight the risks associated with implementing certain management practices with regard to JD transmission.

Prioritisation of wildlife pathogens to be targeted in European surveillance programmes: Expert-based risk analysis focus on ruminants

This study attempted to develop a list of priority pathogens. It is part of a European Union (EU) project dedicated to the surveillance of emerging or re-emerging pathogens of wildlife. Partners of the consortium established an initial list of 138 pathogens of concern, which was reduced to a smaller list of 65 pathogens likely to affect ruminants (i.e., the most costly animal group in the EU over the last 15 years). These 65 pathogens underwent a two-step, expert-based risk analysis: 92 experts graded them with respect to their global importance for animal welfare, species conservation, trade/economic impacts and public health. In step 2, the top 15 pathogens from step 1 were assessed by 69 experts considering seven weighted epidemiological criteria (pathogen variability, host specificity, potential for contagion, speed of spread, presence in Europe, difficulty of surveillance in wildlife and persistence in the environment) for which four options were possible. The responses concerned a wide geographic coverage. The resulting top-list pathogens were ranked as follows: 1. Salmonella enterica, 2. Coxiella burnetii, 3. foot-and-mouth disease virus, 4. Mycobacterium bovis, 5. bluetongue virus, and 6. European tick-borne encephalitis virus. The influence of the characteristics of the respondents, the importance of the levels of uncertainty/variability and the implication of the results are discussed. This work highlights the relevance of developing such lists for preparedness.

Effects of physiological and/or disease status on the response of postpartum dairy cows to synchronization of estrus using an intravaginal progesterone device

Progesterone treatments are used to increase submission rates in postpartum dairy cows; however, in many cases the protocol is used as a blanket therapy for all cows without regard for physiological or disease state. The objective of this study was to identify the physiological or disease classes of cows that respond well (or not) to synchronization of estrus via progesterone. Dairy cows (n = 402) were monitored peri and postpartum to establish their physiological or disease status. Animals were classified as having negative energy balance, clinical lameness, uterine infection (UI), anovulatory anestrus, high somatic cell counts, and healthy (H). Blood samples were collected at five different time points and analyzed for metabolites. All animals received an 8-day controlled internal drug release protocol, which included GnRH at insertion and PGF2α the day before removal. Response to the protocol was determined by visual observation of estrus synchronization. Conception rate was determined by ultrasonography between Days 32 and 35 after artificial insemination. Animals without UI were 1.9 times more likely to respond and two times more likely to be confirmed pregnant than those with UI. There was no relationship between negative energy balance and clinical lameness in the visual estrous response, but both conditions were associated with reduced conception rates. Dairy cows in anovulatory anestrus responded successfully to the protocol in both estrous response and conception rates. High glutathione peroxidase concentrations had a positive effect on conception rates, whereas high non-esterified fatty acids and beta-hydroxybutyrate had a negative effect on the estrous response. In conclusion, disease and physiological states of dairy cows determined the response to progesterone-based synchronization. The more disease or physiological problems the cows had, the lower the estrous response and conception rates; cows with these problems were not ideal candidates for synchronization. Both anestrus and healthy dairy cows were good responders to progesterone-based synchronization.

Evaluation of a culture-based pathogen identification kit for bacterial causes of bovine mastitis

Accurate identification of mastitis-causing bacteria supports effective management and can be used to implement selective use of antimicrobials for treatment. The objectives of this study were to compare the results from a culture-based mastitis pathogen detection test kit ('VetoRapid', Vétoquinol) with standard laboratory culture and to evaluate the potential suitability of the test kit to inform a selective treatment programme. Overall 231 quarter milk samples from five UK dairy farms were collected. The sensitivity and specificity of the test kit for the identification of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci, Streptococcus uberis and Enterococcus spp. ranged from 17 per cent to 84 per cent and 92 per cent to 98 per cent, respectively. In total, 23 of 68 clinical samples were assigned as meeting the requirement for antimicrobial treatment (Gram-positive organism cultured) according to standard culture results, with the test kit results having sensitivity and specificity of 91 per cent and 78 per cent, respectively. Several occurrences of misidentification are reported, including S. aureus being misidentified as coagulase-negative staphylococci and vice versa. The test kit provides rapid preliminary identification of five common causes of bovine mastitis under UK field conditions and is likely to be suitable for informing selective treatment of clinical mastitis caused by Gram-positive organisms.

Patterns of antimicrobial resistance in pathogenic Escherichia coli isolates from cases of calf enteritis during the spring-calving season

Neonatal enteritis is a common condition of young calves and can be caused by pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli. We hypothesised that on-farm antimicrobial use would result in an increased frequency of resistance in these strains during the calving season. We also sought to determine if the frequency of resistance reflected on-farm antimicrobial use. Faecal samples were collected from cases of calf enteritis on 14 spring-calving dairy farms during two 3 week periods: Period 1 - February 11th through March 2nd 2008 and Period 2 - April 14th through May 5th 2008. E. coli were cultured from these samples, pathogenic strains were identified and antimicrobial susceptibility testing was carried out on these pathogenic isolates. Antimicrobial prescribing data were collected from each farm for the previous 12 months as an indicator of antimicrobial use. The correlation between antimicrobial use and resistance was assessed using Spearman's correlation coefficient. Logistic regression analysis was used to investigate the relationship between resistance, sampling period and pathotype. Penicillins and aminopenicillins, streptomycin, and tetracyclines were the most frequently prescribed antimicrobials and the greatest frequencies of resistance were detected to these 3 antimicrobial classes. A strong correlation (ρ=0.879) was observed between overall antimicrobial use and frequencies of antimicrobial resistance on farms. Sampling period was significant in the regression model for ampicillin resistance while pathotype was significant in the models for streptomycin, tetracycline and trimethoprim/sulphamethoxazole resistance. The frequencies of resistance observed have implications for veterinary therapeutics and prudent antimicrobial use. Resistance did not increase during the calving season and factors other than antimicrobial use, such as calf age and bacterial pathotype, may influence the occurrence of resistance in pathogenic E. coli.

Why Do So Many Calves Die on Modern Dairy Farms and What Can We Do about Calf Welfare in the Future?

Poor bovine neonatal survival rates are an international animal welfare issue. The key modifiable risk factors associated with such loss are age at first calving in primiparae, calf breed, gender and gestation length and calving management. The primary causes of mortality in the perinatal period are calving problems, in particular dystocia, defined as both difficult and abnormal calvings. Calf loss rates are rising on modern dairy farms in many countries internationally. High calf loss rates are often not recognised at national or at farm-level; recording needs to be improved. Improving bovine neonatal survival requires re-prioritization of this issue. Stakeholders need to be made cognisant of this prioritization. Actions to effect change need to occur at both national and farm-levels. National-level actions need firstly to address raising awareness of the issue. Farm-level actions need to focus on identifiable problem farms through targeted surveillance. Application of existing knowledge to alter modifiable risk factors is the key to improving calf welfare in the future. Research also has a role to play in filling knowledge gaps in particular about the 'unexplained stillbirth'.

Increased detection of mastitis pathogens by real-time PCR compared to bacterial culture

Rapid and accurate identification of mastitis pathogens is important for disease control. Bacterial culture and isolate identification is considered the gold standard in mastitis diagnosis but is time consuming and results in many culture-negative samples. Identification of mastitis pathogens by PCR has been proposed as a fast and sensitive alternative to bacterial culture. The results of bacterial culture and PCR for the identification of the aetiological agent of clinical mastitis were compared. The pathogen identified by traditional culture methods was also detected by PCR in 98 per cent of cases indicating good agreement between the positive results of bacterial culture and PCR. A mastitis pathogen could not be recovered from approximately 30 per cent of samples by bacterial culture, however, an aetiological agent was identified by PCR in 79 per cent of these samples. Therefore, a mastitis pathogen was detected in significantly more milk samples by PCR than by bacterial culture (92 per cent and 70 per cent, respectively) although the clinical relevance of PCR-positive culture-negative results remains controversial. A mixed infection of two or more mastitis pathogens was also detected more commonly by PCR. Culture-negative samples due to undetected Staphylococcus aureus infections were rare. The use of PCR technology may assist in rapid mastitis diagnosis, however, accurate interpretation of PCR results in the absence of bacterial culture remains problematic.

Priorities for research and control of cestode zoonoses in Asia

Globally, cestode zoonoses cause serious public health problems, particularly in Asia. Among all neglected zoonotic diseases, cestode zoonoses account for over 75% of global disability adjusted life years (DALYs) lost. An international symposium on cestode zoonoses research and control was held in Shanghai, China between 28th and 30th October 2012 in order to establish joint efforts to study and research effective approaches to control these zoonoses. It brought together 96 scientists from the Asian region and beyond to exchange ideas, report on progress, make a gap analysis, and distill prioritizing settings with a focus on the Asian region. Key objectives of this international symposium were to agree on solutions to accelerate progress towards decreasing transmission, and human mortality and morbidity caused by the three major cestode zoonoses (cystic echinococcosis, alveolar echinococcosis, and cysticercosis); to critically assess the potential to control these diseases; to establish a research and validation agenda on existing and new approaches; and to report on novel tools for the study and control of cestode zoonoses.