Recent advances in the separation and purification of lactic acid from fermentation broth

Study on Lacticaseibacillus casei TCS fermentation kinetic models and high-density culture strategy

This study enhanced the production efficiency of Lacticaseibacillus casei TCS by optimizing medium composition and fermentation conditions for high-density culture. Initially, single-factor and orthogonal experimental designs and the response surface methodology were used to determine the optimal concentrations of medium. Subsequently, we applied the artificial neural network-genetic algorithm optimization method, which significantly increased the viable bacterial count. Fermentation kinetics were modeled using logistic growth and Luedeking-Piret models, which accurately predicted cell growth. Amberlite IRA 67, an anion exchange resin, effectively adsorbed lactic acid and maintained pH levels. Furthermore, the combined use of fed-batch fermentation and ion exchange alleviated the effects of acid inhibition, salt stress, and substrate limitation, resulting in a maximum cell density of 10.01 lg CFU/mL, a 9.3-fold increase over the basal medium. This study develops a robust and cost-effective strategy for the industrial production of L. casei TCS, significantly optimizing probiotic production processes. IMPORTANCE Lacticaseibacillus casei TCS possesses outstanding aromatic characteristics, making it suitable for producing fermented dairy products. The goal of cultivating Lacticaseibacillus casei TCS at high density is to increase production yields, overcome challenges related to acid inhibition, and optimize fermentation processes. This study employed an artificial neural network (ANN) and genetic algorithms (GA) to determine the ideal composition of the proliferation medium for Lactobacillus casei TCS. It constructed a dynamic model to track bacterial growth, product formation, and substrate consumption during fermentation, analyzing the process's dynamic patterns. Furthermore, by utilizing resin adsorption and fed-batch cultivation techniques, the production of lactic acid as a by-product was effectively minimized. This approach enabled Lactobacillus casei to multiply rapidly to high concentrations, laying a foundation for the industrial production of high-yield aroma starters. This advancement supports the bacterium's application in various sectors, including dairy processing and functional food production.

Carboxylic Acid Concentration in Downstream Bioprocessing Using High-Pressure Reverse Osmosis

During the production of many bio-based chemicals from fermentation and enzymatic processes, product separations frequently represent the most expensive and energy-intensive unit operations in an integrated process, often due to the low concentrations of target bioproducts. In this study, we integrated high-pressure reverse osmosis (HPRO) to concentrate an exemplary fermentation product, butyric acid, prior to downstream extraction. Through both modeling and experimental measurements, we identified the major factors limiting the maximum achievable concentration factor (CF) of 4.0 for butyric acid concentration with an HPRO membrane compared to the 2.6-3.2 range for conventional reverse osmosis (RO) membranes. The resulting concentrated aqueous stream underwent liquid-liquid extraction with an organic solvent and distillation for butyric acid purification and solvent recycling. The integration of HPRO product concentration into an in situ product recovery (ISPR) process leads to >5-fold increase in the final butyric acid concentration in the organic phase, and a concomitant 76% reduction in organic solvent usage. These improvements lead to an estimated 53 and 46% reduction in ISPR butyric acid production cost and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, respectively, considerably exceeding the process performance when integrating conventional RO product concentration. Overall, the integration of an HPRO membrane for product concentration enables more economical and sustainable bioproduct recovery from dilute aqueous streams.

Efficient downstream processing of second-generation lactic acid from lignocellulosic waste using aqueous two-phase extraction

The utilization of low-cost, waste-derived lignocellulosic biomass for biotechnological lactic acid production is an area of significant interest. Although numerous attempts have been made to develop novel processes using second-generation feedstocks, the downstream recovery processes for second-generation lactic acid are still relatively uncharted. In this context, this study explores a two-step method for retrieving second-generation lactic acid from a fermented olive leaves medium. The initial step involves an aqueous two-phase extraction using an ethanol/ammonium sulfate system, a method first applied here to lactic acid derived from second-generation raw materials. This is followed by a purification step using activated carbon. The process succeeded in extracting second-generation lactic acid with a yield of 70.02 ± 2.29% in the first extraction stage, followed by a yield of 88.91 ± 0.49% in the second purification step. The lactic acid purity level at the end of the downstream process was 90.17 ± 1.55%, as confirmed by the HPLC data. Furthermore, the study examined the feasibility of direct lactic acid extraction from unfiltered, fermented olive leaves medium, revealing that up to 95.23 ± 0.42% of bacterial cells could be eliminated. The purified lactic acid underwent qualitative identification through FT-IR and 1H-NMR analysis, with the spectra showing a high degree of similarity to a standard reference substance, thus demonstrating the use of low-cost waste lignocellulosic biomass for the biotechnological production of lactic acid is a topic of great interest.

4-O-Methylglucaric Acid Production from Xylan with Uronic Acid Oxidase and Comparison to Glucaric Acid from Glucose

This study describes an enzymatic pathway to produce high purity 4-O-methylglucaric acid from xylan, an underutilized fraction of lignocellulosic biomass. Beechwood xylan was enzymatically hydrolysed using a commercial xylanase and an α-glucuronidase from Amphibacillus xylanus to form 4-O-methylglucuronic acid, which was then purified by anion exchange chromatography and subsequently oxidized to 4-O-methylglucaric acid using a recombinantly produced uronic acid oxidase from Citrus sinensis. Enzymatic oxidation with uronic acid oxidase afforded 95 % yield in 72 hours which is considerably higher than yields previously achieved using a glucooligosaccharide oxidase from Sarocladium strictum. 4-O-methylglucaric acid was isolated by precipitation and purified by recrystallization. Characterization by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy confirmed product identity and high purity (97.8 % w/w). 4-O-methylglucaric acid's performance as a detergent builder was compared to commercial glucaric acid. At 10 : 1 molar ratios of detergent builder to calcium, 4-O-methylglucaric acid provided similar calcium sequestration performance to glucaric acid (less than 5 % difference) at pH 7 and pH 10 in the presence of surfactants, including sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate. Given their similar calcium sequestration performance, 4-O-methylglucaric acid could effectively substitute for glucaric acid in detergent formulations.

Where Biology Meets Engineering: Scaling Up Microbial Nutraceuticals to Bridge Nutrition, Therapeutics, and Global Impact

The global nutraceutical industry is experiencing a paradigm shift, driven by an increasing demand for functional foods and dietary supplements that address malnutrition and chronic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular conditions, and cancer. Traditional plant- and animal-derived nutraceuticals face limitations in scalability, cost, and environmental impact, paving the way for microbial biotechnology as a sustainable alternative. Microbial cells act as bio-factories, converting nutrients like glucose and amino acids into valuable nutraceutical products such as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), peptides, and other bioactive compounds. By harnessing their natural metabolic capabilities, microorganisms efficiently synthesize these bioactive compounds, making microbial production a sustainable and effective approach for nutraceutical development. This review explores the transformative role of microbial platforms in the production of nutraceuticals, emphasizing advanced fermentation techniques, synthetic biology, and metabolic engineering. It addresses the challenges of optimizing microbial strains, ensuring product quality, and scaling production while navigating regulatory frameworks. Furthermore, the review highlights cutting-edge technologies such as CRISPR/Cas9 for genome editing, adaptive evolution for strain enhancement, and bioreactor innovations to enhance yield and efficiency. With a focus on sustainability and precision, microbial production is positioned as a game-changer in the nutraceutical industry, offering eco-friendly and scalable solutions to meet global health needs. The integration of omics technologies and the exploration of novel microbial sources hold the potential to revolutionize this field, aligning with the growing consumer demand for innovative and functional bioactive products.

Lactic acid production from food waste: Advances in microbial fermentation and separation technologies

China generates over 100 million tons of food waste annually, leading to significant environmental pollution and health risks if not managed properly. Converting FW into a high-value-added platform molecule, lactic acid (LA), through fermentation offers a promising approach for both waste treatment and resource recovery. This paper presents a comprehensive review of recent advancements in LA production from FW, focusing on pure strains fermentation and open fermentation technologies, metabolic mechanisms, and problems in fermentation. It also assesses purification methods, including molecular distillation, adsorption, membrane separation, precipitation, esterification and hydrolysis, solvent extraction, and in-situ separation, analyzing their efficiency, advantages, and disadvantages. However, current research encounters several challenges, including low LA yield, low optical purity of L-(+)-LA, and difficulties in the separation and purification of LA. The integration of in-situ separation technology coupled with multiple separation methods is highlighted as a promising direction for future advancements.

Bioplastic derived from corn stover: Life cycle assessment and artificial intelligence-based analysis of uncertainty and variability

Exploring feasible and renewable alternatives to reduce dependency on traditional fossil-based plastics is critical for sustainable development. These alternatives can be produced from biomass, which may have large uncertainties and variabilities in the feedstock composition and system parameters. This study develops a modeling framework that integrates cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment (LCA) with a rigorous process model and artificial intelligence (AI) models to conduct uncertainty and variability analyses, which are highly time-consuming to conduct using only the process model. This modeling framework examines polylactic acid (PLA) produced from corn stover in the U.S. An analysis of uncertainty and variability was conducted by performing a Monte Carlo simulation to show the detailed result distributions. Our Monte Carlo simulation results show that the mean life-cycle Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 1 kg PLA is 4.3 kgCO2eq (P5-P95 4.1-4.4) for composting PLA with natural gas combusted for the biorefinery, 3.7 kgCO2eq (P5-P95 3.4-3.9) for incinerating PLA for electricity with natural gas combusted for the biorefinery, and 1.9 kgCO2eq (P5-P95 1.6-2.1) for incinerating PLA for electricity with wood pellets combusted for the biorefinery. Tradeoffs for different environmental impact categories were identified. Based on feedstock composition variations, two AI models were trained: random forest and artificial neural networks. Both AI models demonstrated high prediction accuracy; however, the random forest performed slightly better.

Bioprocesses for lactic acid production from organic wastes toward industrialization-a critical review

Lactic acid (LA) is a crucial chemical which has been widely used for industrial application. Microbial fermentation is the dominant pathway for LA production and has been regarded as the promising technology. In recent years, many studies on LA production from various organic wastes have been published, which provided alternative ways to reduce the LA production cost, and further recycle organic wastes. However, few researchers focused on industrial application of this technology due to the knowledge gap and some uncertainties. In this review, the recent advances, basic knowledge and limitations of LA fermentation from organic wastes are discussed, the challenges and suitable envisaged solutions for enhancing LA yield and productivity are provided to realize industrial application of this technology, and also some perspectives are given to further valorize the LA fermentation processes from organic wastes. This review can be a useful guidance for industrial LA production from organic wastes on a sustainable view.

Separation and purification of nylon 54 salts from fermentation broth by an integrated process involving microfiltration, ultrafiltration, and ion exchange

Nylon 54 is a novel, biodegradable polyamide with excellent thermal resistance and water absorption properties. It can be polymerized using bio-based cadaverine and succinic acid as monomers. Traditional separation methods isolate individual monomers from the fermentation broth through acidification or alkalization, resulting in significant amounts of waste salts; however, synchronous separation of dibasic acids and diamines has not been reported. This study investigated an integrated process for the separation and extraction of nylon 54 salts from a co-fermentation broth without acidification or alkalization. We meticulously optimized the operational parameters of the integrated process to achieve maximum separation efficiency. Following microfiltration, ultrafiltration, and decolorization, the bacterial eliminating rate was ≥99.83%, and the protein concentration was ≤40 mg/L. The absorbance of the decolorized solution was ≤0.021 at 430 nm, and the recovery rate of nylon 54 salt reached 97%. Then, the pretreated solution was passed through sequential chromatographic columns, which effectively removed organic acid by-products (such as acetic acid and lactic acid), SO4 2-, and NH4 + from the fermentation broth, resulting in a cadaverine yield of 98.01% and a succinic acid yield of 89.35%. Finally, by concentrating and crystallizing the eluent, the simulated fermentation broth yielded nylon 54 salt with a purity of 99.16% and a recovery rate of 58%, and the real fermentation broth yielded nylon 54 salt with a purity of 98.10% and a recovery rate of 56.21%. This integrated process offers a sustainable and environmentally friendly pathway for the complete biosynthesis of nylon 54 salt and has the potential to be extended to the preparation of other nylon salts.

A Novel Bio-Purification Process Employing an Engineered E. coli Strain for Downstream Processing of Lactic Acid Solutions from the Fermentation of Agro-Industrial by-Products

This study aims to integrate a novel bio-purification process employing an engineered E. coli strain in the downstream processing of lactic acid (LA) fermentation broths from low-cost renewable biological feedstocks. Fermentation broth of candy waste and digestate mixture was used as a real biological feedstock. An engineered E. coli strain that selectively catabolize impurities without catabolizing LA was initially adapted on the biological feedstock, followed by shake flask experiments to prove the bio-purification concept. Scale-up and validation in a bench-scale bioreactor followed, before developing a semi-continuous membrane bioreactor (MBR) bio-purification process. The MBR bio-purification was assessed with biological feedstocks which simulated ultrafiltration or nanofiltration permeates. Incomplete removal of impurities and increased fouling was observed in the case of the ultrafiltration permeate. Contrarily, the nanofiltration permeate was successfully treated with MBR bio-purification, since low membrane fouling, 100% maltose and acetic acid removal, and no LA catabolism was achieved. MBR bio-purification as a post-treatment step in the downstream processing of LA was demonstrated as a promising technology for increasing the purity of LA solutions.

Eco-Friendly Approach for the Recovery of Lactic Acid by Complex Extraction

To meet the growing demand for high-purity lactic acid (LA) for biocompatible and biodegradable polymers, LA recovery by green techniques has been attracting the attention. This study focuses on the evaluation of vegetable oils as organic phase diluents in complex extraction of LA with an aliphatic tertiary amine extractant, trioctylamine (TOA). Eight vegetable oils were tested, and their performances were evaluated individually and compared with those obtained using 1-octanol. Extraction yields with these oils were similar; however, efficiencies with safflower oil (SFO) were slightly higher than those obtained with other oils tested. Efficiency with SFO + TOA varied inversely with temperature and pH; however, it increased with higher LA and TOA concentrations. Within the ranges of parameters investigated, the highest yield in SFO was 66% and was achieved at the highest TOA (1.0 M) and LA (1.5 M) concentrations. The efficiency obtained in 1-octanol under the identical conditions was 76%. Thus, the yields obtained with SFO + TOA and 1-octanol + TOA were comparable under most of the conditions tested, especially at the higher LA concentrations, which is preferred for commercial production. Following that, >99% of the LA was transferred from the organic phase to the (second) aqueous phase using NaOH (1.0 M) as a stripping agent. The organic phase was tested in subsequent extractions, and yields comparable to those obtained in the first uses were achieved. This study demonstrated that vegetable oils have the potential to be used as organic phase diluents during complex extraction of LA.

Hydrocarbon Extraction with Ionic Liquids

Separation and reaction processes are key components employed in the modern chemical industry, and the former accounts for the majority of the energy consumption therein. In particular, hydrocarbon separation and purification processes, such as aromatics extraction, desulfurization, and denitrification, are challenging in petroleum refinement, an industrial cornerstone that provides raw materials for products used in human activities. The major technical shortcomings in solvent extraction are volatile solvent loss, product entrainment leading to secondary pollution, low separation efficiency, and high regeneration energy consumption due to the use of traditional organic solvents with high boiling points as extraction agents. Ionic liquids (ILs), a class of designable functional solvents or materials, have been widely used in chemical separation processes to replace conventional organic solvents after nearly 30 years of rapid development. Herein, we provide a systematic and comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art progress in ILs in the field of extractive hydrocarbon separation (i.e., aromatics extraction, desulfurization, and denitrification) including (i) molecular thermodynamic models of IL systems that enable rapid large-scale screening of IL candidates and phase equilibrium prediction of extraction processes; (ii) structure-property relationships between anionic and cationic structures of ILs and their separation performance (i.e., selectivity and distribution coefficients); (iii) IL-related extractive separation mechanisms (e.g., the magnitude, strength, and sites of intermolecular interactions depending on the separation system and IL structure); and (iv) process simulation and design of IL-related extraction at the industrial scale based on validated thermodynamic models. In short, this Review provides an easy-to-read exhaustive reference on IL-related extractive separation of hydrocarbon mixtures from the multiscale perspective of molecules, thermodynamics, and processes. It also extends to progress in IL analogs, deep eutectic solvents (DESs) in this research area, and discusses the current challenges faced by ILs in related separation fields as well as future directions and opportunities.

High titer (>200 g/L) lactic acid production from undetoxified pretreated corn stover

Lignocellulosic biomass is a reliable feedstock for lactic acid fermentation, low product titers hamper the scale production of cellulosic lactic acid. In this study, a Densifying Lignocellulosic biomass with Chemicals (sulfuric acid) pretreatment based cellulosic lactic acid biorefinery system was developed and demonstrated from multi-dimensions of producing bacteria, fermentation modes, corn stover solid loadings, fermentation vessels, and product purification. Results suggested that several lactic acid bacteria exhibited high fermentation activity in high solid loading corn stover hydrolysates. Remarkably, simultaneous saccharification co-fermentation performed in 100-mL flasks enabled 210.1 g/L lactic acid from 40% solid loading corn stover hydrolysate. When simultaneous saccharification co-fermentation was performed in 3-L bioreactors, 157.4 g/L lactic acid was obtained from 35% solid loading corn stover hydrolysate. These obtained lactic acid titers are the highest reports until now when lignocellulosic biomasses are used as substrates, making it efficient for scale production of cellulosic lactic acid.

Metal ion removal using a low-cost coconut shell activated carbon bioadsorbent in the recovery of lactic acid from the fermentation broth

Downstream recovery and purification of lactic acid from the fermentation broth using locally available, low-cost materials derived from agricultural residues was demonstrated herein. Surface modification of coconut shell activated carbon (CSAC) was performed by grafting with carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) using citric acid (CA) as the crosslinking agent. A proper ratio of CMC and CA to CSAC and grafting time improved the surface functionalization of grafted nanostructured CMC-CSAC while the specific surface area and porosity remained unchanged. Lactic acid was partially purified (78%) with the recovery percentage of lactic acid at 96% in single-stage adsorption at room temperature and pH 6 with a 10:1 ratio of cell-free broth to CMC-CSAC bioadsorbent. A thermodynamic study revealed that the adsorption was exothermic and non-spontaneous while the Langmuir isotherm model explained the adsorption phenomena. The results in this study represented the potential of waste utilization as solid adsorbents in green and low-cost adsorption technology.

Expansion of carbon source utilization range of Shewanella oneidensis for efficient azo dye wastewater treatment through co-culture with Lactobacillus plantarum

Shewanella oneidensis has demonstrated excellent potential for azo dye decolorization and degradation. However, in anaerobic environments, S. oneidensis has a narrow carbon source spectrum, which requires additional electron donors, such as sodium lactate. This increases the practical application costs for wastewater treatment. Here, we aimed to expand the carbon source utilization range of S. oneidensis FJAT-2478 by co-culturing it with Lactobacillus plantarum FJAT-7926, leveraging their commensalism relationship to develop a metabolic chain. Results showed that a 1:2 initial ratio of L. plantarum FJAT-7926 to S. oneidensis FJAT-2478 achieved a 97.16% decolorization rate of methyl orange when glucose served as the sole carbon source. This co-culture system achieved a decolorization rate comparable to that obtained using sodium lactate as an electron donor and was significantly higher than that achieved by L. plantarum FJAT-7926 (7.88%) or S. oneidensis FJAT-2478 (6.89%) alone. After undergoing five cycles, the co-culture system continued to exhibit effective decolorization. It was demonstrated that the co-culture system could use common and inexpensive carbon sources, such as starch, molasses, sucrose, and maltose, to decolorize azo dyes. For instance, 100 mg/L methyl orange could be degraded by over 98.05% within 24 h. The results indicated that the degradation rates of methyl orange were higher when L. plantarum was inoculated first, followed by a subsequent inoculation of S. oneidensis after 2 h. The co-culturing of L. plantarum FJAT-7926 and S. oneidensis FJAT-2478 proved to be an effective strategy in treating azo dye wastewater, expanding the potential practical applications of S. oneidensis.

Nondairy food applications of whey and milk permeates: Direct and indirect uses

Permeates are generated in the dairy industry as byproducts from the production of high-protein products (e.g., whey or milk protein isolates and concentrates). Traditionally, permeate was disposed of as waste or used in animal feed, but with the recent move toward a "zero waste" economy, these streams are being recognized for their potential use as ingredients, or as raw materials for the production of value-added products. Permeates can be added directly into foods such as baked goods, meats, and soups, for use as sucrose or sodium replacers, or can be used in the production of prebiotic drinks or sports beverages. In-direct applications generally utilize the lactose present in permeate for the production of higher value lactose derivatives, such as lactic acid, or prebiotic carbohydrates such as lactulose. However, the impurities present, short shelf life, and difficulty handling these streams can present challenges for manufacturers and hinder the efficiency of downstream processes, especially compared to pure lactose solutions. In addition, the majority of these applications are still in the research stage and the economic feasibility of each application still needs to be investigated. This review will discuss the wide variety of nondairy, food-based applications of milk and whey permeates, with particular focus on the advantages and disadvantages associated with each application and the suitability of different permeate types (i.e., milk, acid, or sweet whey).

A review on biodegradable polylactic acid (PLA) production from fermentative food waste - Its applications and degradation

Due to its low carbon footprint and environmental friendliness, polylactic acid (PLA) is one of the most widely produced bioplastics in the world. Manufacturing attempts to partially replace petrochemical plastics with PLA are growing year over year. Although this polymer is typically used in high-end applications, its use will increase only if it can be produced at the lowest cost. As a result, food wastes rich in carbohydrates can be used as the primary raw material for the production of PLA. Lactic acid (LA) is typically produced through biological fermentation, but a suitable downstream separation process with low production costs and high product purity is also essential. The global PLA market has been steadily expanding with the increased demand, and PLA has now become the most widely used biopolymer across a range of industries, including packaging, agriculture, and transportation. Therefore, the necessity for an efficient manufacturing method with reduced production costs and a vital separation method is paramount. The primary goal of this study is to examine the various methods of lactic acid synthesis, together with their characteristics and the metabolic processes involved in producing lactic acid from food waste. In addition, the synthesis of PLA, possible difficulties in its biodegradation, and its application in diverse industries have also been discussed.

Utilization of bamboo as biorefinery feedstock: Co-production of xylo-oligosaccharide with succinic acid and lactic acid

Herein, we investigated the possibility of co-producing xylo-oligosaccharides (XOSs) from bamboo, as value-added products, along with succinic and lactic acids, as platform chemicals. Xylan was extracted from bamboo using the alkali method under mild conditions. From xylan, XOSs were produced by partial enzymatic hydrolysis at a conversion rate of 83.9%, and all reaction conditions resulted in similar degrees of polymerization. Hydrogen peroxide-acetic acid (HPAC) pretreatment effectively removed lignin from NaOH-treated bamboo, and the enzymatic hydrolytic yield of NaOH and HPAC-treated bamboo was 84.3% of the theoretical yield. The production of succinic and lactic acids from the hydrolysate resulted in conversion rates of approximately 63.2% and 91.3% of the theoretical yield using Corynebacterium glutamicum Δldh and Actinobacillus succinogenes, respectively, under facultative anaerobic conditions. This study demonstrates that bamboo has a high potential to produce value-added products using a biorefinery process and is an alternative resource for compounds typically derived from petroleum.

The Performance of Microfiltration Process for Purifying Lactic Acid in the Fermented Broth of Kitchen Waste

Fermentation broth is plentiful with lactic acid, an important chemical applied in many fields, such as food processing, the chemical industry, and cosmetics. However, the purification of the lactic acid from the broth is still troublesome, when considering the economy. This study first investigated the purification performance of microfiltration (MF) membrane technology for a fermentation broth from kitchen waste. The effect of operation pressure, broth pH, and membrane flushing mode on the membrane filtration performance were investigated. In addition, the change in filtration performance over the increase in cycle time was also investigated. The results showed that under the optimum pressure of 100 KPa, pH of 6.0, and a backflushing mode with deionized water for 3 min, the best performance was achieved, with chroma removal, turbidity removal, protein removal and total sugar removal efficiencies of 60, 92.8, 57.64 and 32.93%, respectively. The results indicated that the MF process could be a desirable broth purification process to some extent, and it is promising in actual application. The MF process combined with other post-purification processes will form the ideal process system, which should be explored in future research.

Separation, purification, and crystallization of 1,5-pentanediamine hydrochloride from fermentation broth by cation resin

1,5-Pentanediamine hydrochloride (PDAH) was an important raw material for the preparation of bio-based pentamethylene diisocyanate (PDI). PDI has shown excellent properties in the application of adhesives and thermosetting polyurethane. In this study, PDAH was recovered from 1,5-pentanediamine (PDA) fermentation broth using a cation exchange resin and purified by crystallization. D152 was selected as the most suitable resin for purifying PDAH. The effects of solution pH, initial temperature, concentration of PDA, and adsorption time were studied by the static adsorption method. The equilibrium adsorption data were well fitted to Langmiur, Freundlich, and Temkin-Pyzhev adsorption isotherms. The adsorption free energy, enthalpy, and entropy were calculated. The experimental data were well described by the pseudo first-order kinetics model. The dynamic experiment in the fixed bed column showed that under optimal conditions, the adsorption capacity reached 96.45 mg g-1, and the recovery proportion of the effective section reached 80.16%. In addition, the crystallization of the PDAH solution obtained by elution proved that the crystal product quality of resin eluting solution was highest. Thus, our research will contribute to the industrial scale-up of the separation of PDAH.

Computational Insights into the Esterification of Palmitic Acid with Methanol in Water

This work provides quantified explanations for the thermodynamic and kinetic characteristics of esterification in aqueous phase, and how phase transfer catalysts improve water phase esterification of fatty acids in a computational-experimental way. Self-catalyzed reaction mode with or without solvation effects, water participated reaction mode, and catalytic reaction mode (catalyzed by p-dodecyl benzene sulfonic acid, DBSA) are discussed. Our results show that the initial self-catalytic reaction mode undergoes the energy barrier of 100.1 kJ/mol, and rises to 148.9 kJ/mol when water molecule is involved, which hinders the esterification reaction. With the DBSA catalyst, this energy barrier will drop to 97.5 kJ/mol and the water phase esterification is successfully promoted with the yield of 81%. The key kinetic factor of binding energy is discussed as that water molecule has a strong reactant binding competitiveness (with the binding energy of -57.9 kJ/mol, and the value for the non-aqueous phase mode is 3.0 kJ/mol) and DBSA has the binding energy with the value of -45.3 kJ/mol, so it can compete with water to form reactant complexes. This work is a successful practice of a computation-experiment combined scheme, and provides a quantitative basis for the improvement of phase transfer catalysts on water phase esterification reactions. The calculation mode and method of aqueous esterification make it possible to convert bio-based fatty acids into fatty acid esters in fermentation broth.

An innovative approach for reducing the water and alkali consumption in the lactic acid fermentation via the reuse of pretreated liquid

This study focuses on enhancing lactic acid (LA) production and declining water and alkali consumption by reusing the pretreated liquid (PL) of spent mushroom substance (SMS) in the co-fermentation of food waste (FW) and SMS. First, the compositions of PL are identified, and the effects of the PL inhibitors on enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation are explored. The PL phenol concentrations exceeded 2 g/L, which affected LA fermentation. Therefore, PL phenols were removed by adjusting the pH value, and the detoxified PL (DPL) phenol concentrations were 70.3% lower than those of PL. Different PL:DPL ratios were established to reuse in the fermentation process, and the LA concentration in the 50% PL + 50% DPL group was the highest (56.7 g/L). Then, pretreated SMS was not water-washed, and a neutralizer was prepared with the PL, LA production remained unchanged. Water and NaOH consumption decreased by 84.6% and 52.0%, respectively, and no wastewater was produced.

Pervaporation as a Successful Tool in the Treatment of Industrial Liquid Mixtures

Pervaporation is one of the most active topics in membrane research, and it has time and again proven to be an essential component for chemical separation. It has been employed in the removal of impurities from raw materials, separation of products and by-products after reaction, and separation of pollutants from water. Given the global problem of water pollution, this approach is efficient in removing hazardous substances from water bodies. Conventional processes are based on thermodynamic equilibria involving a phase transition such as distillation and liquid-liquid extraction. These techniques have a relatively low efficacy and nowadays they are not recommended because it is not sustainable in terms of energy consumption and/or waste generation. Pervaporation emerged in the 1980s and is now becoming a popular membrane separation technology because of its intrinsic features such as low energy requirements, cheap separation costs, and good quality product output. The focus of this review is on current developments in pervaporation, mass transport in membranes, material selection, fabrication and characterization techniques, and applications of various membranes in the separation of chemicals from water.

Fermentative Lactic Acid Production From Lignocellulosic Feedstocks: From Source to Purified Product

The second (lignocellulosic biomass and industrial wastes) and third (algal biomass) generation feedstocks gained substantial interest as a source of various value-added chemicals, produced by fermentation. Lactic acid is a valuable platform chemical with both traditional and newer applications in many industries. The successful fractionation, separation, and hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass result in sugars' rich raw material for lactic acid fermentation. This review paper aims to summarize the investigations and progress in the last 5 years in lactic acid production from inexpensive and renewable resources. Different aspects are discussed-the type of raw materials, pretreatment and detoxification methods, lactic acid-producers (bacteria, fungi, and yeasts), use of genetically manipulated microorganisms, separation techniques, different approaches of process organization, as well as main challenges, and possible solutions for process optimization.

Potential utilization of dairy industries by-products and wastes through microbial processes: A critical review

The dairy industry generates excessive amounts of waste and by-products while it gives a wide range of dairy products. Alternative biotechnological uses of these wastes need to be determined to aerobic and anaerobic treatment systems due to their high chemical oxygen demand (COD) levels and rich nutrient (lactose, protein and fat) contents. This work presents a critical review on the fermentation-engineering aspects based on defining the effective use of dairy effluents in the production of various microbial products such as biofuel, enzyme, organic acid, polymer, biomass production, etc. In addition to microbial processes, techno-economic analyses to the integration of some microbial products into the biorefinery and feasibility of the related processes have been presented. Overall, the inclusion of dairy wastes into the designed microbial processes seems also promising for commercial approaches. Especially the digestion of dairy wastes with cow manure and/or different substrates will provide a positive net present value (NPV) and a payback period (PBP) less than 10 years to the plant in terms of biogas production.

Increasing Acid Tolerance of an Engineered Lactic Acid Bacterium Pediococcus acidilactici for L-Lactic Acid Production

Acid tolerance of the lactic acid bacterium (LAB) is crucially important for the production of free lactic acid as a chemical monomer by simplified purification steps. This study conducts both metabolic modification and adaptive evolution approaches on increasing the acid tolerance of an engineered Pediococcus acidilactici strain. The overexpression of the genes encoding lactate dehydrogenase, recombinase, chaperone, glutathione and ATPase did not show the observable changes in acid tolerance. On the other hand, the low pH adaptive evolution showed clear improvement. The L-lactic acid generation and cell viability of the adaptively evolved P. acidilactici were doubled at low pH up to 4.0 when wheat straw was used as carbohydrate feedstock. However, the further decrease in pH value close to the pKa (3.86) of lactic acid led to a dramatic reduction in L-lactic acid generation. This result shows a partially successful approach on improving the acid tolerance of the lactic acid bacterium P. acidilactici.

State of the Art on the Microbial Production of Industrially Relevant Organic Acids

The industrial relevance of organic acids is high; because of their chemical properties, they can be used as building blocks as well as single-molecule agents with a huge annual market. Organic acid chemical platforms can derive from fossil sources by petrochemical refining processes, but most of them also represent natural metabolites produced by many cells. They are the products, by-products or co-products of many primary metabolic processes of microbial cells. Thanks to the potential of microbial cell factories and to the development of industrial biotechnology, from the last decades of the previous century, the microbial-based production of these molecules has started to approach the market. This was possible because of a joint effort of microbial biotechnologists and biochemical and process engineers that boosted natural production up to the titer, yield and productivity needed to be industrially competitive. More recently, the possibility to utilize renewable residual biomasses as feedstock not only for biofuels, but also for organic acids production is further augmenting the sustainability of their production, in a logic of circular bioeconomy. In this review, we briefly present the latest updates regarding the production of some industrially relevant organic acids (citric fumaric, itaconic, lactic and succinic acid), discussing the challenges and possible future developments of successful production.

Recent advances in lignocellulosic biomass white biotechnology for bioplastics

Lignocellulosic biomass has great potential as an inedible feedstock for bioplastic synthesis, although its use is still limited compared to current edible feedstocks of glucose and starch. This review focuses on recent advances in the production of biopolymers and biomonomers from lignocellulosic feedstocks with downstream processing and chemical polymer syntheses. In microbial production, four routes composed of existing poly (lactic acid) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) and the emerging biomonomers of itaconic acid and aromatic compounds were presented to review present challenges and future perspectives, focusing on the use of lignocellulosic feedstocks. Recently, advances in purification technologies decreased the number of processes and their environmental burden. Additionally, the unique structures and high-performance of emerging lignocellulose-based bioplastics have expanded the possibilities for the use of bioplastics. The sequence of processes provides insight into the emerging technologies that are needed for the practical use of bioplastics made from lignocellulosic biomass.

Valorization of municipal organic waste into purified lactic acid

Municipal organic waste (biowaste) consists of food derived starch, protein and sugars, and lignocellulose derived cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and pectin. Proper management enables nutrient recycling and sustainable production of platform chemicals such as lactic acid (LA). This review gathers the most important information regarding use of biowaste for LA fermentation covering pre-treatment, enzymatic hydrolysis, fermentation and downstream processing to achieve high purity LA. The optimal approach was found to treat the two biowaste fractions separately due to different pre-treatment and enzyme needs for achieving enzymatic hydrolysis and to do continues fermentation to achieve high cell density and high LA productivity up to 12 g/L/h for production of both L and D isomers. The specific productivity was 0.4 to 0.5 h^-1 but with recalcitrant biomass, the enzymatic hydrolysis was rate limiting. Novel purification approaches included reactive distillation and emulsion liquid membrane separation yielding purities sufficient for polylactic acid production.

Biorefinery potential of chemically enhanced primary treatment sewage sludge to representative value-added chemicals - A de novo angle for wastewater treatment

Chemically enhanced primary treatment (CEPT) is an emerging sewage treatment strategy due to its high efficiency and small land requirement. CEPT sludge can be easily dewatered and used for energy recovery through incineration. However, with large amount of reusable nutrients (40% organic carbon, 23% lipids, and 17% protein), the value of CEPT sludge may have been underestimated. In this study, the biorefinery potential of CEPT sludge has been proven via production of 28.9 g/L ethanol or 50.3 g/L lactic acid (LA) or 1.43 filter paper unit (FPU)/mL cellulase from 10 g of CEPT sludge experiment. Inhibition on cell growth and potential inhibitors from plasticizers, pharmaceuticals, and surfactants were determined. Nevertheless, production titer was not affected or performed even better than the non-inhibitors controls. CEPT sludge showed significant potential in biochemical conversion, and the related products may offer an opportunity to support wastewater treatment toward sustainability and carbon neutrality.

A Review of the Recent Developments in the Bioproduction of Polylactic Acid and Its Precursors Optically Pure Lactic Acids

Lactic acid (LA) is an important organic acid with broad industrial applications. Considered as an environmentally friendly alternative to petroleum-based plastic with a wide range of applications, polylactic acid has generated a great deal of interest and therefore the demand for optically pure l- or d-lactic acid has increased accordingly. Microbial fermentation is the industrial route for LA production. LA bacteria and certain genetic engineering bacteria are widely used for LA production. Although some fungi, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, are not natural LA producers, they have recently received increased attention for LA production because of their acid tolerance. The main challenge for LA bioproduction is the high cost of substrates. The development of LA production from cost-effective biomasses is a potential solution to reduce the cost of LA production. This review examined and discussed recent progress in optically pure l-lactic acid and optically pure d-lactic acid fermentation. The utilization of inexpensive substrates is also focused on. Additionally, for PLA production, a complete biological process by one-step fermentation from renewable resources is also currently being developed by metabolically engineered bacteria. We also summarize the strategies and procedures for metabolically engineering microorganisms producing PLA. In addition, there exists some challenges to efficiently produce PLA, therefore strategies to overcome these challenges through metabolic engineering combined with enzyme engineering are also discussed.

Lactic acid production by Carnobacterium sp. isolated from a maritime Antarctic lake using eucalyptus enzymatic hydrolysate

Carnobacterium sp., a lactic acid bacterium isolated from a maritime Antarctic lake, was evaluated for lactic acid production from a lignocellulosic hydrolysate. Eucalyptus sawdust, a residue from pulp and paper industries, was subjected to alkaline pretreatment to enhance its enzymatic hydrolysis. Fermentations were performed without and with pH control using eucalyptus enzymatic hydrolysate containing a mixture of glucose and xylose sugars. The sugars were successfully converted into lactic acid in 24 h, resulting in 7.6 g/L of lactic acid and a product yield of 0.50 g/g for pH controlled at 6.5. Fed-batch fermentation performed at a controlled pH of 6.5 improved both the lactic acid production (30 g/L) and the biomass growth (4.2 g/L). l-lactic acid optical purity higher than 95 % was obtained. These results demonstrated the potential usage of Carnobacterium sp in l-lactic acid production from eucalyptus.