Morphological and molecular characterization of Ascaridia columbae in the domestic pigeon (Columba livia domestica) and the assessment of its immunological responses

Ascaridia hermaphrodita (Froelich, 1789) and Ascaridia columbae (Gmelin, 1780) in neotropical psittacine birds

Gastrointestinal parasites found in four Neotropical psittacine birds of the species Ara macao, Amazona aestiva, Amazona vinacea and Pionus maximiliani have been reported. The carcasses of the animals were received from commercial breeders and a rehabilitation center for necropsy. In total, 589 parasites were collected during the exams and submitted for morphological analysis and taxonomic identification. Twenty parasites from each host were cleaned with lactophenol and analyzed by light microscopy, while four parasites from each host were prepared for scanning electron microscopy. Tissue samples were forwarded for histological analysis in search of erratic larvae; however, none were found. Parasites from A. macao, A. aestiva and A. vinacea were identified as Ascaridia hermaphrodita, whereas parasites from P. maximiliani were identified as Ascaridia columbae, promoting the first report of A. columbae in P. maximiliani. All birds were kept in enclosures with access to the ground, facilitating parasitism. Pionus maximiliani and A. vinacea were kept together in the same enclosure with high population density. Additionally, synanthropic animals, such as Columbiformes, were observed in the same enclosure, facilitating infection with A. columbae. The identification of Ascaridia species that parasitizes psittacine birds helps to improve prevention and control measures, thus enhancing avian health and welfare.

Intestinal parasites of domestic pigeons (Columba livia Domestica) in Egypt: update on the prevalence and species diversity

Domestic pigeons are a significant protein source in Egypt, and are also used for racing, ornamentation, and exhibition. They are susceptible to various intestinal parasites, resulting in economic losses from disease and mortality, delayed growth, and reduced productivity. There is limited information available on intestinal parasitic infections in domestic pigeons in Egypt, and reports from some governorates, e.g., Dakahlia, are lacking. In the present study, intestines and faecal contents of 782 adult domestic pigeons (Columba livia domestica) were examined. These pigeons were clinically ill, i.e., had signs of emaciation, ruffled feathers, and general weakness, and were collected, over one year, from veterinary clinics as well as local bird markets in two Egyptian Nile Delta governorates; Dakahlia (n = 348) and Gharbia (n = 434). Overall, 23.53% of the tested pigeons were infected. Pigeons in Gharbia (28.57%) had a higher statistically significant (p-value < 0.001) prevalence than those in Dakahlia (17.24%). Four parasites were detected with statistically significant (p-value < 0.001) prevalence variations. Eimeria species was the most frequently detected (n = 136; 17.39%), and three species were identified; Eimeria labbeana-like (types A and B), Eimeria columbarum-like, and Eimeria kapotei-like oocysts. The roundworm Ascaridia columbae was detected in 85 (10.87%) pigeons, whereas the tapeworm Raillietina echinobothrida was detected in 24 (3.07%) pigeons. Eggs of Capillaria spp. were only detected in five pigeons (0.64%). Earlier reports on parasitic infections in pigeons from Egypt were reviewed. A brief taxonomic revision on oocysts of various Eimeria species was provided. Oocysts of several Eimeria species from pigeons display minimal differences, and have overlapping morphometrics, causing considerable confusion. Therefore, the classification of Eimeria species of Columbiformes should be thoroughly revised using both morphological and molecular data. This study emphasizes the importance of addressing pigeon parasites from a veterinary perspective in terms of proper diagnosis and control by providing essential data on intestinal parasitic infections in pigeons in Egypt based on current and published data aiming for decreased economic losses.

Alternatives to antibiotics against coccidiosis for poultry production: the relationship between immunity and coccidiosis management – a comprehensive review

Avian coccidiosis is a protozoan infection caused by numerous Eimeria parasitic species and mainly affects the bird’s gastrointestinal tract and results in a reduction of the bird ‘ability to absorb nutrients, slower growth, with a higher mortality rate. According to recent research, immune-based treatments, such as dietary immunomodulating feed additives and recombinant vaccines, can help the hosts protect themselves from intracellular parasites and reduce inflammatory reactions caused by parasites. Coccidiosis control in the post-antiparasitic stage requires thoroughly investigation of the intricate relationships between the parasites, host defense system, enteroendocrine system, and gut microbiome contributing to coccidian infections. To produce a vaccine, it is crucial to explore the defense mechanism of the intestine’s immune machinery and to identify many effector molecules that act against intracellular parasites. Due to the massive usage of chemical anticoccidial drugs, coccidiosis developed resistant against most commonly used anticoccidials; therefore, numerous researches focused on the usage of safe natural anticoccidials such as probiotics, prebiotics, organic acids, and essential oils to counteract such resistance problem. This review describes how host immunity responds to coccidial infection in chickens and the use of some nonantiparasitic safe natural alternative controls to counter the disease. It would throw the light on the possibility of developing effective therapies against Eimeria to alleviate the detrimental effects of avian coccidiosis.

Assessment of a new protocol strategy to control the ectoparasitic infestation in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) using efficient natural products

This study aimed to evaluate alternative in vivo treatment trials using natural products for ectoparasitic infestation on Nile tilapia; these two products were not previously used in the treatment of parasitic fish diseases. So, a total of 400 Oreochromis niloticus (O. niloticus) fish measured 10-15 cm in length; 350 from a fish farm in (Kafr Elsheikh and 50 from Nile River (Al Bahr Al Aazam), Egypt. The examined fishes were 10-15 ± 0.5 cm long and weighed from 45 g ± 5. The collected fish were examined for different clinical abnormalities. Each part of the fish underwent a careful microscopic examination of mucous surrounding the skin; gills and fins. Two feed supplements were used experimentally to decrease mortality and treat fish against ectoparasites (Herb-All PARA-X® and Herb-All CALM®). Total mRNA was extracted from the gills of different examined groups. Glucose; nitric oxide; cortisol as well as lysozyme activity were assessed in all groups. The gills of the examined fish were collected for histopathological examination. Only, Dactyolgyrus sp. was recovered. The intensity of the parasite was counted per microscopic field. The treated groups showed low levels of the parameters compared to the control positive group. Up-regulation of both Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF- α) and heat shock protein 70 (hsp-70) were detected in fins, gills, and skin in the infested tilapia. The treatment and prophylaxis significantly downregulated both genes in the studied organ in a dose-dependent manner. Recorded lesions which were scored according to their severity. In conclusion; following the use of those products, fish health has been greatly improved and that is indicated by findings of immune reactions as well as histopathology.

Diagnostic innovations in Equine Parasitology: a Nanogold-ELISA for sensitive serodiagnosis of migratory strongylus vulgaris larvae infections

Strongylus vulgaris, a devastating parasitic nematode in equids, causes life-threatening verminous aneurysms that are challenging to diagnose early. This study pioneered integrating nanotechnology into an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (i-ELISA) system to enhance the sensitivity and specificity for detecting S. vulgaris larval antigens in equine serum samples, with PCR confirmation of the species. A conventional i-ELISA and an innovative nano-based ELISA were developed using excretory-secretory antigens from adult S. vulgaris worms. The nano-ELISA incorporated gold nanoparticles (17.4-41.4 nm) conjugated with detection antibodies, enabling remarkable signal amplification. Of the 120 examined equines, 100 (83.33%) were positive for S. vulgaris infection. A conventional i-ELISA and an innovative nano-ELISA incorporating 17.4-41.4 nm gold nanoparticles were optimized using S. vulgaris excretory-secretory antigens. Both assays demonstrated high specificity, with no cross-reactivity against sera from animals infected with other helminth parasites. Remarkably, optical density (OD) readings from both i-ELISAs exhibited a positive quantitative correlation with infection intensity. The i-ELISA OD ranged from 0.45-0.74 (G3), 0.75-0.94 (G2), to 0.95-2.5 (G1). The nano-ELISA showed enhanced signal amplification, with OD ranging from 0.40-0.84 (G3), 0.85-0.99 (G2), to 1.0-3.5 (G1). This nanotechnology-amplified ELISA opens new, highly sensitive, and specific techniques for parasitic diagnosis in equine medicine. Its superior performance, facilitated by signal-amplifying gold nanoparticles, illuminates nanotechnology's potential in revolutionizing parasitological diagnostics for enhanced animal health and welfare management.

MtDNA genetic diversity and phylogeographic insights into giant domestic pigeon (Columba livia domestica) breeds: connections between Central Europe and the Middle East

Humans have selectively bred domestic pigeons (Columba livia domestica) to create breeds with a diversity of shapes, colors and other attributes. Since Darwin, the domestic pigeon has always been a popular model species for scientific research because of its richness of form, colouration and behaviour. It is believed that the world's squab pigeon industry uses breeds and hybrids from the Mediterranean region. An exception is the indigenous giant pigeon breeds of the Carpathian Basin, whose origin is not known. Therefore, our aims were 1) to understand the phylogenetic relationships of giant pigeons, which sheds light on the origin of Hungarian breeds and their relationship to the Mediterranean giant pigeon breed group; 2) to contribute molecular genetic data to the genealogy of 2 Iraqi pigeon breeds close to the pigeon domestication center, including the culturally important Iraqi Red Pigeon, and 3) to compare the genetic diversity of European and Middle Eastern domestic pigeon populations and to draw conclusions on the phylogenetic relationships between pigeon breeds and molecular clues to their different breeding practices of both regions. A 655-bp-long sequence of the cytochrome oxidase 1 (COI) region of the mitochondrial DNA was studied in a total of 276 pigeons (19 breeds). A total of 27 haplotypes were found, of which 22 were unique. The highest genetic diversity was found in the Carpathian Basin, and the lowest in the Iraqi region. STRUCTURE analysis revealed low structurality, K=3 was the most likely. The majority of the samples belong to the most ancient haplotype H_2=219, however the Jacobin pigeon is on a very separate evolutionary branch with a large number of mutations. None of the 19 breeds investigated in this study have been previously studied in phylogenetics, and most of these breeds have potential as squab pigeons, and have good meat forms for utilization, therefore the results of this study may also be of help to the squab pigeon industry.

An innovative approach to control fish-borne zoonotic metacercarial infections in aquaculture by utilizing nanoparticles

Fish-borne zoonotic trematodes (FBZTs) pose significant health risks and economic challenges worldwide. This study investigated the prevalence of encysted metacercariae (EMCs) in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) from two Egyptian governorates and evaluated the antiparasitic efficacy of chitosan, silver, and selenium nanoparticles against these parasites. A cross-sectional analysis of 453 O. niloticus specimens revealed an overall EMC prevalence of 40.8%, with infection rates of 34.11% in Giza and 49.5% in Dakahlia. Clinostomid and Prohemistomid metacercariae were the most common, with mixed infections observed. Transmission electron microscopy characterized the synthesized nanoparticles, showing average diameters of 9.6-18.7 nm for chitosan, 13.2-19.8 nm for selenium, and 11.7-15.1 nm for silver nanoparticles. In vitro antiparasitic assays demonstrated varying efficacies among the nanoparticles. Against Clinostomum spp. metacercariae, chitosan nanoparticles showed the highest potency, achieving LC50 at 66 μg/ml after 30 min and LC90 at 100 μg/ml after 120 min. For Prohemistomum vivax EMCs, chitosan nanoparticles exhibited superior efficacy, achieving LC50 at 8 μg/ml after 1 h and LC90 at 16 μg/ml after 2 h. Silver and selenium nanoparticles showed lower efficacy for both parasite species. Scanning electron microscopy revealed significant ultrastructural damage to the parasite tegument following nanoparticle exposure, including disappearance of transverse ridges, integument shrinkage, and formation of blebs. This study provided valuable insights into the prevalence of FBZTs in Egyptian Nile tilapia and demonstrated the potential of nanoparticles, particularly chitosan, as effective antiparasitic agents. These findings pave the way for developing novel, targeted strategies to control fish-borne zoonotic trematodes, potentially reducing their impact on public health and aquaculture economies.

Morphomolecular identification of heavy parasitic typhlitis in layer flocks: tissue response and cell-mediated reaction

BACKGROUND

Heterakis gallinarum (H. gallinarum) is a common poultry parasite that can be found in the ceca of many gallinaceous bird species, causing minor pathology and reduced weight gain. Most infections go unnoticed in commercial flocks due to the dependence on fecal egg counts, which are prone to false-negative diagnoses. Furthermore, there is a lack of research on gastrointestinal nematodes that use molecular identification methods, which could be essential for rapid diagnosis and developing efficient control approaches. As a result, the study aimed to look at the cause of mortality in layer chickens induced by H. gallinarum in Egyptian poultry farms using morphological, ultrastructural, and molecular characterization. Histopathological, immunohistochemical, and cell-mediated immune responses from damaged cecal tissues were also examined.

RESULTS

Seventy bird samples from ten-layer flocks of different breeds (Native, white, and brown layers) suffering from diarrhea, decreased egg output, and emaciation were collected. Cecal samples were collected from affected and non-affected birds and were examined for parasitic diseases using light and a scanning electron microscope. The mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase 1 (COX1) gene was used to characterize H. gallinarum. Our results showed that the collected nematodal worms were identified as H. gallinarum (male and female), further confirmed by COX1 gene amplification and sequence alignment. Gene expression analysis of the inflammatory markers in infected tissues showed a significant up-regulation of IL-2, IFN-γ, TLR-4, and IL-1β and a significant down-regulation of the anti-inflammatory IL-10. The mRNA level of the apoptotic cas-3 revealed apoptotic activity among the H. gallinarum samples compared to the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results implemented the use of molecular methods for the diagnosis of Heterakis, and this is the first report showing the tissue immune response following infection in layers: upregulation of IL-1β, IFN-γ, Il-2, and TLR-4, while down-regulation of anti-inflammatory IL-10 in cecal tissue, Cas-3 apoptotic activity and Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB)activity with immunophenotyping of T-cells in Heterakis infected tissue.

Morphological, ultrastructural, and phylogenetic analysis of Ascaridia columbae infecting domestic pigeons (Columba livia domestica)

Ascaridia species are the most common nematodes infecting pigeons. The current study investigated specific identity of nematode parasites collected from domestic pigeons (Columba livia domestica) in Al-Qassim Region, Saudi Arabia. Out of 354 pigeons, 13.3 % were infected with nematode parasites. The morphological structure and genetic relationship of nematode worms were studied using conventional methods (Light and scanning electron microscopes) coupled with the newly introduced molecular method. Microscopical and ultrastructure observations showed that the present nematode worms belong to the genus Ascaridia and have all the characteristic features of Ascaridia columbae. Moreover, Random Amplifier morphometric (RAPD) PCR analysis revealed that the present A. columbae had a close identity of up to 98.3 % to Ascaridia columbae JX624729 for Cox-1 gene regions, and up to 98.3 % to Ascaridia nymphii LC057210, and Ascaridia galli EF180058 for ITS1-5.8s- ITS2 rDNA gene regions. Phylogenetic analysis supported the placement of this Ascaridia species within Ascaridiidae family with close relationships to other nematode species obtained from GenBank. Finally, our study recommends using molecular analysis in helminths identification as the main methodology for correct identification especially in closely related species.

Comparative biotoxicity study for identifying better alternative insecticide especially green nano-emulsion which used as mosquitocides

This research work was planned to test biosafety of different nanomaterials on the different animals models. These nanoparticles were previously used as potential insecticides of mosquito larvae. The biosafety of these nanoproducts were evaluated on certain organs of non target animals that associated with mosquito breeding sites in Egypt. Animal organs such as the kidneys of rats, toads, and the fish's spleen were used as models to study the biological toxicity of these nanomaterials. After 30 days of the animals receiving the nanomaterials in their water supply, different cell mediated immune cells were assessed in these tissues. Both TNF-α and BAX immuno-expression were also used as immunohistochemical markers. Histopathology was conducted to detect the effect of the tested nanoproducts at the tissue level of the liver and kidneys of both the rats and toads. Green nanoemulsion of the lavender essential oil was relatively more effective, safe, and biodegradable to be used as insecticides against mosquito larvae than the metal-based nanomaterials.

Coinfection of the gut with protozoal and metazoal parasites in broiler and laying chickens

The chicken business faces substantial economic losses due to the risk of parasitic coinfection. Because the current study aimed to investigate enteric parasitic coinfections problems among the suspected examined chicken farms, samples were collected during the field investigation from suspected freshly dead birds, clinically diseased, apparently healthy, and litter samples for further laboratory parasitological, histopathological, and immunological examinations. Variable mortalities with various clinical indicators, such as ruffled feathers, weight loss, diarrhea of various colors, and a decline in egg production, occurred on the farms under investigation. In addition, the treatment protocols of each of the farms that were evaluated were documented and the m-RNA levels of some cytokines and apoptotic genes among the infected poultry have been assessed. The prevalence rate of parasitic coinfection in the current study was found to be 8/120 (6.66%). Parasitological analysis of the samples revealed that they belonged to distinct species of Eimeria, cestodes, and Ascaridia galli. When deposited, A. galli eggs were nonembryonated and ellipsoidal, but cestodes eggs possessed a thin, translucent membrane that was subspherical. Eimeria spp. oocysts in layer chickens were identified as Eimeria acervulina and Eimeria maxima in broiler chickens. Our findings proved that coinfection significantly upregulated the IL-1β, BAX, and Cas-3 genes. Conversely, the IL-10, BCL-2, and AKT mRNA levels were downregulated, indicating that nematode triggered apoptosis. The existence of parasite coinfection was verified by histological investigation of the various intestinal segments obtained from affected flocks. A. galli and cestodes obstructed the intestinal lumen, causing different histological alternations in the intestinal mucosa. Additionally, the lamina propria revealed different developmental stages of Eimeria spp. It was determined that parasite coinfection poses a significant risk to the poultry industry. It was recommended that stringent sanitary measures management methods, together with appropriate treatment and preventative procedures, be employed in order to resolve such issues.

Impact of Eimeria tenella experimental Infection on intestinal and splenic reaction of broiler chickens

This work assesses the cell-mediated immune reaction IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-γ of experimentally challenged broiler chicken with Eimeria tenella (E. tenella). Therefore, ninety, 2-weeks-old healthy broiler chicks were allocated as eighty chicks infected orally with 2.5 × 104 E. tenella sporulated oocysts, and the other ten birds were kept as control negative birds. Post-challenge, mortality rate, symptoms, oocysts shedding, and lesion score were evaluated. Tissue samples (cecum and spleen) were collected at 0, 4, 8, and 12 days post-infection (dpi). Ten chickens were ethically slaughtered at 0, 4, 8, and 12 days post-infection, as well as two birds from the negative control group; parts from cecal and spleen samples were kept in cryopreservation containers, and other parts were preserved in formaline 10% for further investigation. The evaluated genes (IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-γ) were normal at 0 days and upregulated at 4 and 8 days, which reached maximum upregulation at eight dpi. The histopathological examination of the ceca and spleen were evaluated before and after challenge. It could be concluded that E. tenella revealed direct severe macroscopic and microscopic changes in cecal tissues and indirectly induced alteration in splenic tissues, resulting in upregulation of different cell mediated immune response in cecum and spleen in relation to the experimental period.

Toxascaris leonina infected domestic cat (Felis catus) in Egypt; PCR-based molecular characterization of nematode eggs: a potential hazards to human health

This molecular-epidemiological study was conducted in several locations in Cairo and Giza Governorates in domestic cats (Felis catus) to detect the most common intestinal helminths in feces and molecularly characterize this nematode. So, three hundred domestic cats were admitted to different clinics around Cairo and Giza Governorates with severe diarrhea, even watery, between January 2023 and April 2023. The ages of the cats ranged from 1 to 2.5 years old. Blood, sera, and urine samples were collected for further investigation of the health condition of the animals. Toxascaris leonina was the major intestinal parasite found in cat stools, with a prevalence rate of 5% (15 cats). Toxascaris leonina (T. leonina) eggs had oval elliptical surfaces and thick cuticles. An embryo was located inside the smooth outer shell wall of the shell. The animals suffer from normocytic normochromic anemia with leukocytosis, relative lymphocytosis, and thrombocytopenia. The amplification of the ITS-rDNA region from the ascaridoid nematodes was successfully performed using NC5 and NC2 primers. The PCR product of the ITS-rDNA fragment was sequenced and yielded 860 bp. The accession number of the sequenced ITS-rDNA region was OQ735413, submitted to Gene Bank, and based on the blast analysis of NCBI, the current ascaridoid nematode proved to be genetically related to the family Ascarididae and identified as T. leonina.

Impacts of turmeric and its principal bioactive curcumin on human health: Pharmaceutical, medicinal, and food applications: A comprehensive review

The yellow polyphenolic pigment known as curcumin, originating from the rhizome of the turmeric plant Curcuma longa L., has been utilized for ages in ancient medicine, as well as in cooking and food coloring. Recently, the biological activities of turmeric and curcumin have been thoroughly investigated. The studies mainly focused on their antioxidant, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, and cardioprotective impacts. This review seeks to provide an in-depth, detailed discussion of curcumin usage within the food processing industries and its effect on health support and disease prevention. Curcumin's bioavailability, bio-efficacy, and bio-safety characteristics, as well as its side effects and quality standards, are also discussed. Finally, curcumin's multifaceted uses, food appeal enhancement, agro-industrial techniques counteracting its instability and low bioavailability, nanotechnology and focused drug delivery systems to increase its bioavailability, and prospective clinical use tactics are all discussed.

Gene rearrangements in the mitochondrial genome of ten ascaris species and phylogenetic implications for Ascaridoidea and Heterakoidea families

The Ascaridoidea family and Heterakoidea family are the most common and typical representative of large parasites. Although our understanding of these parasites' diversity has expanded by analyses of some mitochondrial genes, there is limited information on these species' evolutionary rates. Here we determined ten complete mitogenome sequences of five subfamilies of Ascaridoidea and one subfamily of Heterakoidea. The phylogenetic tree divided the Ascaridoidea into six monophyletic major clades, and the divergence time of Heterakoidea family and Ascaridoidea family can be placed during the early Carboniferous Period (300-360 Mya). The reconstruction of the ancestral state showed that the gene orders of all species in Ascaridoidea were conserved, and the Heterakoidea had obvious genome rearrangement. The conserved blocks between them were divided into five and the main types are tandem-duplication/random loss (TDRL). These results will help to better understand the gene rearrangements and evolutionary position of ascaris species.

Immune pathogenesis in pigeons during experimental Prohemistomum vivax infection

Prohemistomum vivax is a small trematode belonging to the family Cyathocotylidae, infecting fish-eating birds and mammals, including humans. However, no data on molecular identification and immune pathogenesis are available, challenging effective diagnostic and therapeutic interventions. Here, we identified P. vivax based on combined morphological and molecular data and examined histopathological lesions and the differential cytokines expression in experimentally infected pigeons. Pigeons were orally infected with 500 prohemistomid metacercariae. Intestinal and spleen tissues were harvested 2, 4, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days post-infection (dpi). Gene expression levels of eleven cytokines (IL-1, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-15, IL-18, IFN-γ, and TGF-β3) were assessed using quantitative reverse-transcription PCR (RT-qPCR). We identified the recovered flukes as Prohemistomum vivax based on morphological features and the sequence and phylogenetic analysis of the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1), 5.8 ribosomal RNA, and ITS2 region. Histopathological lesions were induced as early as 2 dpi, with the intensity of villi atrophy and inflammatory cell infiltration increasing as the infection progressed. An early immunosuppressive state (2 and 4 dpi), with TGF-β3 overexpression, developed to allow parasite colonization. A mixed Th1/Th2 immune response (overexpressed IFN-γ, IL-12, IL-2, IL-4, and IL-5) was activated as the infection progressed from 7 to 28 dpi. Inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, IL-18, and IL-15) were generally overexpressed at 7–28 dpi, peaking at 7 or 14 dpi. The upregulated Treg IL-10 expression peaking between 21 and 28 dpi might promote the Th1/Th2 balance and immune homeostasis to protect the host from excessive tissue pathology and inflammation. The intestine and spleen expressed a significantly different relative quantity of cytokines throughout the infection. To conclude, our results presented distinct cytokine alteration throughout P. vivax infection in pigeons, which may aid in understanding the immune pathogenesis and host defense mechanism against this infection.

The relationship among avian influenza, gut microbiota and chicken immunity: An updated overview

The alimentary tract in chickens plays a crucial role in immune cell formation and immune challenges, which regulate intestinal flora and sustain extra-intestinal immunity. The interaction between pathogenic microorganisms and the host commensal microbiota as well as the variety and integrity of gut microbiota play a vital role in health and disease conditions. Thus, several studies have highlighted the importance of gut microbiota in developing immunity against viral infections in chickens. The gut microbiota (such as different species of Lactobacillus, Blautia Bifidobacterium, Faecalibacterium, Clostridium XlVa, and members of firmicutes) encounters different pathogens through different mechanisms. The digestive tract is a highly reactive environment, and infectious microorganisms can disturb its homeostasis, resulting in dysbiosis and mucosal infections. Avian influenza viruses (AIV) are highly infectious zoonotic viruses that lead to severe economic losses and pose a threat to the poultry industry worldwide. AIV is a challenging virus that affects gut integrity, disrupts microbial homeostasis and induces inflammatory damage in the intestinal mucosa. H9N2 AIV infection elevates the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, such as interferon (IFN-γ and IFNα) and interleukins (IL-17A and IL-22), and increases the proliferation of members of proteobacteria, particularly Escherichia coli. On the contrary, it decreases the proliferation of certain beneficial bacteria, such as Enterococcus, Lactobacillus and other probiotic microorganisms. In addition, H9N2 AIV decreases the expression of primary gel-forming mucin, endogenous trefoil factor family peptides and tight junction proteins (ZO-1, claudin 3, and occludin), resulting in severe intestinal damage. This review highlights the relationship among AIV, gut microbiota and immunity in chicken.

Parasitological and histopathological examination of Cocktail lovebirds infected with Eimeria aratinga (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae)

Coccidiosis is a devastating worldwide disease and is considered a dreadful disease in lovebirds. Indeed, a problem has been appeared cocktail lovebirds kept in a private pet birdhouse in Sheikh Zayed City, Giza, Egypt, in the shape of blood-tinged diarrhea, birds huddled together and showing signs of inappetence, ruffled feathers, unable to fly, general weakness and emaciation associated with high mortalities. Therefore, this study aimed to diagnose and find a suitable treatment to overcome such problems. To achieve this aim, blood and droppings samples were collected from infected and healthy birds for parasitological and hematological examinations, and tissue samples were collected from freshly dead birds for postmortem and histopathological examinations. A treatment trial was adopted on 50 infected birds and 25 healthy and parasitological negative birds and groups were classified as follows: group 1) 25 infected birds treated with Diclazuril, group 2) infected birds treated with Coccicure, and group 3) 25 birds kept as control negative reference birds. The parasitological identification revealed the presence of Eimeria aratinga (E. aratinga) oocysts in the infected bird intestine. Finally, we concluded that E. aratinga is a serious protozoon parasite infesting lovebirds revealing severe clinical signs, high mortalities, histopathological changes in the intestine and alteration in blood parameters. Diclazuril is an effective drug in treating E. aratinga in cocktail lovebirds.

Alternatives to antibiotics for organic poultry production: types, modes of action and impacts on bird's health and production

The poultry industry contributes significantly to bridging the nutritional gap in many countries because of its meat and eggs products rich in protein and valuable nutrients at a cost less than other animal meat sources. The natural antibiotics alternatives including probiotics, prebiotics, symbiotics, organic acids, essential oils, enzymes, immunostimulants, and phytogenic (phytobiotic) including herbs, botanicals, essential oils, and oleoresins are the most common feed additives that acquire popularity in poultry industry following the ban of antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs). They are commonly used worldwide because of their unique properties and positive impact on poultry production. They can be easily mixed with other feed ingredients, have no tissue residues, improve feed intake, feed gain, feed conversion rate, improve bird immunity, improve digestion, increase nutrients availability as well as absorbability, have antimicrobial effects, do not affect carcass characters, decrease the usage of antibiotics, acts as antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, compete for stress factors and provide healthy organic products for human consumption. Therefore, the current review focuses on a comprehensive description of different natural antibiotic growth promoters' alternatives, the mode of their action, and their impacts on poultry production.

The control of poultry salmonellosis using organic agents: an updated overview

Salmonellosis is a severe problem that threatens the poultry sector worldwide right now. Salmonella gallinarium and Salmonella pullorum (Fowl typhoid) are the most pathogenic serovars in avian species leading to systemic infection resulting in severe economic losses in the poultry industry. Nontyphoidal serotypes of Salmonella (Paratyphoid disease) constitute a public health hazard for their involvement in food poisoning problems in addition to their zoonotic importance. Also, Salmonella species distribution is particularly extensive. They resisted environmental conditions that made it difficult to control their spread for a long time. Therefore, the current review aimed to through light on Salmonellosis in poultry with particular references to its pathogenesis, economic importance, immune response to Salmonella, Salmonella antibiotics resistance, possible methods for prevention and control of such problems using promising antibiotics alternatives including probiotics, prebiotics, symbiotics, organic acids, essential oils, cinnamaldehyde, chitosan, nanoparticles, and vaccines.