Ca2+ handling and sensitivity in airway smooth muscle: emerging concepts for mechanistic understanding and therapeutic targeting

Histamine-induced cytosolic calcium mobilization in human bronchial smooth muscle cells

Histamine is a well-known mediator of bronchoconstriction. Despite the widespread use of histamine as a tool to study the bronchial smooth muscle function, the precise mechanism by which it causes calcium mobilization in bronchial smooth muscle cells remains unclear. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate the mechanism of action of histamine in calcium mobilization in cultured human bronchial smooth muscle cells. A series of in vitro calcium imaging experiments have shown that histamine increases intracellular calcium levels in a concentration-dependent manner. The half maximum concentration of cytosolic Ca2+ peak was 3.00 ± 0.25 µM of histamine. Histamine was able to mobilize calcium from intracellular stores, even in the absence of extracellular calcium. These histamine-induced calcium elevations were completely blocked by the H1 receptor antagonist chlorpheniramine (1 µM). Histamine-induced calcium elevation was also completely inhibited by the phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor U73122 (1 µM) and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3) receptor inhibitor caffeine (20 mM). Cyanide p-(trifluoromethoxy)phenylhydrazone (1 µM) and oligomycin (1 µg/ml) effectively attenuated histamine-induced calcium release from intracellular stores. In the presence of histamine, cytosolic calcium elevation induced by reperfusion of 1.28 mM extracellular calcium after the depletion of stores was significantly inhibited by FCCP and oligomycin, unlike in the presence of thapsigargin. Based on the above results, we can conclude that histamine activates the intracellular PLC/InP3 pathway through the H1 receptor, which in turn activates the InP3 receptor present in intracellular stores to mobilize calcium in human bronchial smooth muscle cells. In addition, the mitochondria appear to be involved in the release of calcium from intracellular stores. These results provide insights into the mechanisms underlying histamine-induced calcium mobilization for bronchoconstriction under pathophysiological conditions.

Distribution of TRPC5 in the human lung: A study in body donors

Transient receptor potential channel canonical 5 (TRPC5) is a non-selective ion channel; ion influx through TRPC5 causes activation of downstream signaling pathways. In addition, TRPC5 has been identified as having a potential role in pathological processes, particularly in diseases caused by cellular cation homeostasis dysregulation, such as bronchial asthma or pulmonary hypertension. However, the expression and distribution of TRPC5 in the human lung remain unclear. To date, TRPC5 has only been detected in a few cell types in the human lung, such as airway, pulmonary venous and arterial smooth muscle cells. The present study therefore aimed to investigate the protein expression of TRPC5 in the human lung and to evaluate its histological distribution. Human lung samples were obtained from six preserved body donors. After processing, both hematoxylin & eosin staining, as well as immunohistochemistry were performed. Microscopic analysis revealed medium to strong immunostaining signals in all lung structures examined, including the pleura, pulmonary arteries and veins, bronchioles, alveolar septa, type 1 and 2 pneumocytes, as well as alveolar macrophages. Current research suggests that TRPC5 may be involved in various pathological processes in the human lung and some pharmacological compounds have already been identified that affect the function of TRPC5. Therefore, TRPC5 may present a novel drug target for therapeutic intervention in various lung diseases. The results of the present study indicate that the TRPC5 protein is expressed in all examined histological structures of the human lung. These findings suggest that TRPC5 may be more important for physiological cell function and pathophysiological cell dysfunction in the lung than is currently known. Further research is needed to explore the role and therapeutic target potential of TRPC5 in the human lung.

Nicotine affects mitochondrial structure and function in human airway smooth muscle cells

Exposure to cigarette smoke and e-cigarettes, with nicotine as the active constituent, contributes to increased health risks associated with asthma. Nicotine exerts its functional activity via nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), and the alpha7 subtype (α7nAChR) has recently been shown to adversely affect airway dynamics. The mechanisms of α7nAChR action in airways, particularly in the context of airway smooth muscle (ASM), a key cell type in asthma, are still under investigation. Mitochondria have garnered increasing interest for their role in regulating airway tone and adaptations to cellular stress. Here mitochondrial dynamics such as fusion versus fission, and mitochondrial Ca2+ ([Ca2+]m), play an important role in mitochondrial homeostasis. There is currently no information on effects and mechanisms by which nicotine regulates mitochondrial structure and function in ASM in the context of asthma. We hypothesized that nicotine disrupts mitochondrial morphology, fission-fusion balance, and [Ca2+]m regulation, with altered mitochondrial respiration and bioenergetics in the context of asthmatic ASM. Using human ASM (hASM) cells from nonasthmatics, asthmatics, and smokers, we examined the effects of nicotine on mitochondrial dynamics and [Ca2+]m. Fluorescence [Ca2+]m imaging of hASM cells with rhod-2 showed robust responses to 10 μM nicotine, particularly in asthmatics and smokers. In both asthmatics and smokers, nicotine increased the expression of fission proteins while decreasing fusion proteins. Seahorse analysis showed blunted oxidative phosphorylation parameters in response to nicotine in these groups. α7nAChR siRNA blunted nicotine effects, rescuing [Ca2+]m, changes in mitochondrial structural proteins, and mitochondrial dysfunction. These data highlight mitochondria as a target of nicotine effects on ASM, where mitochondrial disruption and impaired buffering could permit downstream effects of nicotine in the context of asthma.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Asthma is a major healthcare burden, which is further exacerbated by smoking. Recognizing the smoking risk of asthma, understanding the effects of nicotine on asthmatic airways becomes critical. Surprisingly, the mechanisms of nicotine action, even in normal and especially asthmatic airways, are understudied. Accordingly, the goal of this research is to investigate how nicotine influences asthmatic airways in terms of mitochondrial structure and function, via the a7nAChR.

Identification of Hub Genes in the Pathogenesis of Bronchiolitis Obliterans via Bioinformatic Analysis and Experimental Verification

Background

Bronchiolitis obliterans (BO) is a chronic disease that can arise as a complication of severe childhood pneumonia and can also impact the long-term survival of patients after lung transplantation. However, the precise molecular mechanism underlying BO remains unclear. We aimed to identify BO-associated hub genes and their molecular mechanisms.

Methods

BO-associated transcriptome datasets (GSE52761, GSE137169, and GSE94557) were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Additional bioinformatics analyses, such as Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), and Protein-Protein Interaction (PPI) analyses, were performed to determine functional roles and DEG-associated regulatory networks. Prediction of hub genes using the 12 algorithms available in the Cytohubba plugin of Cytoscape software was also performed. Verification was performed using the BO mouse model.

Results

Our results revealed 57 DEGs associated with BO, of which 18 were down-regulated and 39 were up-regulated. The Cytohubba plugin data further narrowed down the 57 DEGs into 9 prominent hub genes (CCR2, CD1D, GM2A, TFEC, MPEG1, CTSS, GPNMB, BIRC2, and CTSZ). Genes such as CCR2, TFEC, MPEG1, CTSS, and CTSZ were dysregulated in 2,3-butanedione-induced BO mice, whereas TFEC, CTSS, and CTSZ were dysregulated in nitric acid-induced BO mouse models.

Conclusion

Our study identified and validated four novel BO biomarkers, which may allow further investigation into the development of distinct BO diagnostic markers and novel therapeutic avenues.

Airway smooth muscle in contractility and remodeling of asthma: potential drug target mechanisms

INTRODUCTION

Asthma is characterized by enhanced airway contractility and remodeling where airway smooth muscle (ASM) plays a key role, modulated by inflammation. Understanding the mechanisms by which ASM contributes to these features of asthma is essential for the development of novel asthma therapies.

AREAS COVERED

Inflammation in asthma contributes to a multitude of changes within ASM including enhanced airway contractility, proliferation, and fibrosis. Altered intracellular calcium ([Ca²⁺]_i) regulation or Ca²⁺ sensitization contributes to airway hyperreactivity. Increased airway wall thickness from ASM proliferation and fibrosis contributes to structural changes seen with asthma.

EXPERT OPINION

ASM plays a significant role in multiple features of asthma. Increased ASM contractility contributes to hyperresponsiveness, while altered ASM proliferation and extracellular matrix production promote airway remodeling both influenced by inflammation of asthma and conversely even influencing the local inflammatory milieu. While standard therapies such as corticosteroids or biologics target inflammation, cytokines, or their receptors to alleviate asthma symptoms, these approaches do not address the underlying contribution of ASM to hyperresponsiveness and particularly remodeling. Therefore, novel therapies for asthma need to target abnormal contractility mechanisms in ASM and/or the contribution of ASM to remodeling, particularly in asthmatics resistant to current therapies.

Airway smooth muscle and airway hyperresponsiveness in asthma: mechanisms of airway smooth muscle dysfunction

Airway smooth muscle plays a pivotal role in modulating bronchomotor tone. Modulation of contractile and relaxation signaling is critical to alleviate the airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) associated with asthma. Emerging studies examining the phenotype of ASM in the context of asthma provide rich avenues to develop more effective therapeutics to attenuate the AHR associated with the disease.

Topical therapy with negative allosteric modulators of the calcium-sensing receptor (calcilytics) for the management of asthma: the beginning of a new era?

In this review article we present the evidence to date supporting the role of the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) as a key, pluripotential molecular trigger for asthma and speculate on the likely benefits of topical therapy of asthma with negative allosteric modulators of the CaSR: calcilytics.

Relaxation Effect of Schisandra Chinensis Lignans on the Isolated Tracheal Smooth Muscle in Rats and Its Mechanism

Schisandra chinensis (S. chinensis) is one of the core drugs used for relieving cough and asthma in traditional Chinese medicine. However, there are few basic studies on the treatment of respiratory diseases with S. chinensis in modern pharmacology, and the material basis and mechanism of its antiasthmatic effect are still unclear. Lignans are the main active components of S. chinensis. The aim of this study was to observe the relaxation effect of S. chinensis lignans (SCL) on the tracheal smooth muscle of rats by in vitro tracheal perfusion experiments, and to explore the mechanism by preincubation with L-type calcium channel blocker verapamil, four potassium channel blockers glibenclamide, tetraethylamine, 4-aminopyridine and barium chloride (BaCl₂), β-adrenoceptor blocker propranolol, nitric oxide synthase inhibitor Nω-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), and the cyclooxygenase inhibitor indomethacin, respectively. The results showed that SCL (0.25-1.75 mg/mL) reduced the contraction of isolated tracheal smooth muscle induced by acetylcholine, the preincubation with verapamil and glibenclamide could attenuate the relaxation effect, whereas propranolol, 4-aminopyridine, BaCl₂, tetraethylamine, L-NAME, and indomethacin had no such effect. These results suggest that SCL has a significant relaxation effect on the isolated tracheal smooth muscle of rats, and the mechanism may be related to the inhibition of extracellular calcium influx and intracellular calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, as well as the activation of ATP-sensitive potassium channels. These findings may provide a pharmacological basis for the traditional use of S. chinensis to treat asthma.

Can GPCRs Be Targeted to Control Inflammation in Asthma?

Historically, the drugs used to manage obstructive lung diseases (OLDs), asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) either (1) directly regulate airway contraction by blocking or relaxing airway smooth muscle (ASM) contraction or (2) indirectly regulate ASM contraction by inhibiting the principal cause of ASM contraction/bronchoconstriction and airway inflammation. To date, these tasks have been respectively assigned to two diverse drug types: agonists/antagonists of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and inhaled or systemic steroids. These two types of drugs "stay in their lane" with respect to their actions and consequently require the addition of the other drug to effectively manage both inflammation and bronchoconstriction in OLDs. Indeed, it has been speculated that safety issues historically associated with beta-agonist use (beta-agonists activate the beta-2-adrenoceptor (β₂AR) on airway smooth muscle (ASM) to provide bronchoprotection/bronchorelaxation) are a function of pro-inflammatory actions of β₂AR agonism. Recently, however, previously unappreciated roles of various GPCRs on ASM contractility and on airway inflammation have been elucidated, raising the possibility that novel GPCR ligands targeting these GPCRs can be developed as anti-inflammatory therapeutics. Moreover, we now know that many GPCRs can be "tuned" and not just turned "off" or "on" to specifically activate the beneficial therapeutic signaling a receptor can transduce while avoiding detrimental signaling. Thus, the fledging field of biased agonism pharmacology has the potential to turn the β₂AR into an anti-inflammatory facilitator in asthma, possibly reducing or eliminating the need for steroids.

Nicotinic α7 acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) in human airway smooth muscle

Diseases such as asthma are exacerbated by inflammation, cigarette smoke and even nicotine delivery devices such as e-cigarettes. However, there is currently little information on how nicotine affects airways, particularly in humans, and changes in the context of inflammation or asthma. Here, a longstanding assumption is that airway smooth muscle (ASM) that is key to bronchoconstriction has muscarinic receptors while nicotinic receptors (nAChRs) are only on airway neurons. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that human ASM expresses α7nAChR and explored its profile in inflammation and asthma using ASM of non-asthmatics vs. mild-moderate asthmatics. mRNA and western analysis showed the α7 subunit is most expressed in ASM cells and further increased in asthmatics and smokers, or by exposure to nicotine, cigarette smoke or pro-inflammatory cytokines TNFα and IL-13. In these effects, signaling pathways relevant to asthma such as NFκB, AP-1 and CREB are involved. These novel data demonstrate the expression of α7nAChR in human ASM and suggest their potential role in asthma pathophysiology in the context of nicotine exposure.

Reciprocal Correlations of Inflammatory and Calcium Signaling in Asthma Pathogenesis

Asthma is a chronic disease characterized by airway hyperresponsiveness, which can be caused by exposure to an allergen, spasmogen, or be induced by exercise. Despite its prevalence, the exact mechanisms by which the airway becomes hyperresponsive in asthma are not fully understood. There is evidence that myosin light-chain kinase is overexpressed, with a concomitant downregulation of myosin light-chain phosphatase in the airway smooth muscle, leading to sustained contraction. Additionally, the sarco/endoplasmic reticulum ATPase may be affected by inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, and TNF-α, which are all associated with asthmatic airway inflammation. IL-13 and TNF-α seem to promote sodium/calcium exchanger 1 overexpression as well. Anyhow, the exact mechanisms beyond these dysregulations need to be clarified. Of note, multiple studies show an association between asthma and the ORMLD3 gene, opening new perspectives to future potential gene therapies. Currently, several treatments are available for asthma, although many of them have systemic side effects, or are not effective in patients with severe asthma. Furthering our knowledge on the molecular and pathophysiological mechanisms of asthma plays a pivotal role for the development of new and more targeted treatments for patients who cannot totally benefit from the current therapies.

Role of Airway Smooth Muscle in Inflammation Related to Asthma and COPD

Airway smooth muscle contributes to both contractility and inflammation in the pathophysiology of asthma and COPD. Airway smooth muscle cells can change the degree of a variety of functions, including contraction, proliferation, migration, and the secretion of inflammatory mediators (phenotype plasticity). Airflow limitation, airway hyperresponsiveness, β₂-adrenergic desensitization, and airway remodeling, which are fundamental characteristic features of these diseases, are caused by phenotype changes in airway smooth muscle cells. Alterations between contractile and hyper-contractile, synthetic/proliferative phenotypes result from Ca²⁺ dynamics and Ca²⁺ sensitization. Modulation of Ca²⁺ dynamics through the large-conductance Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channel/L-type voltage-dependent Ca²⁺ channel linkage and of Ca²⁺ sensitization through the RhoA/Rho-kinase pathway contributes not only to alterations in the contractile phenotype involved in airflow limitation, airway hyperresponsiveness, and β₂-adrenergic desensitization but also to alteration of the synthetic/proliferative phenotype involved in airway remodeling. These Ca²⁺ signal pathways are also associated with synergistic effects due to allosteric modulation between β₂-adrenergic agonists and muscarinic antagonists. Therefore, airway smooth muscle may be a target tissue in the therapy for these diseases. Moreover, the phenotype changing in airway smooth muscle cells with focuses on Ca²⁺ signaling may provide novel strategies for research and development of effective remedies against both bronchoconstriction and inflammation.

Investigation of ethnomedicinal use of Commiphora leptophloeos (Mart.) J. B. Gillett (Burseraceae) in treatment of diarrhea

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Commiphora leptophloeos (Mart.) J.B. Gillett, popularly known as "imburana", "imburana-de-cheiro" or "imburana-de-espinho", has been used in folk medicine for the treatment of gastrointestinal diseases, such as diarrhea. The indian tribes "Kairir-Shokó and shokó use the bark to treat diarrhea. However, there is no scientific evidence to justify the therapeutic use of this species.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the ethnomedicinal use of Commiphora leptophloeos, with respect to the antimicrobial, antisecretory, antimotility and antispasmodic activities of the crude ethanolic extract obtained from its leaves (CL-EtOH_L) and the mechanism underlying this action in rodents.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In the evaluation of antibacterial and antifungal activities was determined the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the extract, against different strains of bacteria and fungi. All experimental protocols were approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of the Federal University of Paraíba (045/2016). In addition, behavioral screening and acute toxicity assessment of CL-EtOH_L were performed in female mice (n = 6). In the investigation of antidiarrheal activity (n = 6), frequency of defecation and number of liquid stools, were classified during 4 h, and intestinal fluid and transit were measured. In addition, the antispasmodic effect on rat ileum (n = 5) was also investigated.

RESULTS

The ethanolic extract is rich in flavonoids and the main were identified as C-glycosylated flavonoids (isoorientin, orientin, and vitexin). In the evaluation of antimicrobial and antifungal activity, the extract showed moderate efficacy only against the tested strains of Candida krusei ATCC-6258, Candida parapsilosis ATCC-22019 and Candida glabrata ATCC-90030. The extract had no toxic effect until 2000 mg/kg. In castor oil-induced diarrhea, CL-EtOH_L inhibited, in a dose-dependent manner, both total defecation frequency (ED₅₀ = 380.4 ± 145.4 mg/kg) and the number of watery stools (ED₅₀ = 151.2 ± 76.3 mg/kg). The extract showed no effect on fluid accumulation or normal intestinal transit. On the other hand, when the animals were pretreated with castor oil, the extract decreased the distance traveled by the activated charcoal (ED₅₀ = 177.0 ± 50.3 mg/kg). In the investigation of antispasmodic effect, CL-EtOH_L antagonized the contractions induced by KCl 30 mM (IC₅₀ = 208.2 ± 25.9 μg/mL) and CCh 10^-6 M (IC₅₀ = 95. ± 22.0 μg/mL). To verify the participation of muscarinic receptors in this effect, cumulative carbachol curves were performed in the absence and presence of the extract, and a non-competitive pseudo-irreversible antagonism of these receptors was observed.

CONCLUSION

The data indicate that ethanol extract obtained from the leaves of Commiphora leptophloeos has an antidiarrheal effect due to inhibition of the intestinal motility and antispasmodic effect, through the antagonism of muscarinic receptors. In addition, we suggest that flavonoids isolated from CL-EtOH_L may be responsible for antidiarrheal activity of this extract. This explains its ethnomedicinal use in the treatment of diarrhea.

FFAR1 activation attenuates histamine-induced myosin light chain phosphorylation and cortical tension development in human airway smooth muscle cells

BACKGROUND

Activation of free fatty acid receptors (FFAR1 and FFAR4) which are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) with established (patho)physiological roles in a variety of obesity-related disorders, induce human airway smooth muscle (HASM) cell proliferation and shortening. We reported amplified agonist-induced cell shortening in HASM cells obtained from obese lung donors. We hypothesized that FFAR1 modulate excitation-contraction (EC) coupling in HASM cells and play a role in obesity-associated airway hyperresponsiveness.

METHODS

In HASM cells pre-treated (30 min) with FFAR1 agonists TAK875 and GW9508, we measured histamine-induced Ca2+ mobilization, myosin light chain (MLC) phosphorylation, and cortical tension development with magnetic twisting cytometry (MTC). Phosphorylation of MLC phosphatase and Akt also were determined in the presence of the FFAR1 agonists or vehicle. In addition, the effects of TAK875 on MLC phosphorylation were measured in HASM cells desensitized to β2AR agonists by overnight salmeterol treatment. The inhibitory effect of TAK875 on MLC phosphorylation was compared between HASM cells from age and sex-matched non-obese and obese human lung donors. The mean measurements were compared using One-Way ANOVA with Dunnett's test for multiple group comparisons or Student's t-test two-group comparison. For cortical tension measurements by magnetic twisted cytometry, mixed effect model using SAS V.9.2 was applied. Means were considered significant when p ≤ 0.05.

RESULTS

Unexpectedly, we found that TAK875, a synthetic FFAR1 agonist, attenuated histamine-induced MLC phosphorylation and cortical tension development in HASM cells. These physiological outcomes were unassociated with changes in histamine-evoked Ca2+ flux, protein kinase B (AKT) activation, or MLC phosphatase inhibition. Of note, TAK875-mediated inhibition of MLC phosphorylation was maintained in β2AR-desensitized HASM cells and across obese and non-obese donor-derived HASM cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, our findings identified the FFAR1 agonist TAK875 as a novel bronchoprotective agent that warrants further investigation to treat difficult-to-control asthma and/or airway hyperreactivity in obesity.

Research progress in the mechanism of calcium ion on contraction and relaxation of airway smooth muscle cells

lntracellular calcium ion is the key secondary messenger system of the cellular processes in airway smooth muscle cells(ASMc). The treatment and regulation of Ca²⁺ in airway smooth muscle (ASM) is, in part, to associated with many airway diseases such as asthma, COPD and pulmonary fibrosis. The mechanism of contraction and relaxation of ASM is a concerned aspect in airway diseases. This review emphasizes established and recent discoveries whice show the research progress of Ca²⁺ on cell contraction and relaxation in ASM in recent years, to provide theoretical support and new targets for clinical prevention and treatment of perioperative bronchospasm and variousrespiratory related diseases.

NS8593 inhibits Ca2+ permeant channels reversing mouse airway smooth muscle contraction

AIMS

This study focused on investigating whether NS8593 reverses airway smooth muscle (ASM) contraction and the underlying mechanism.

MAIN METHODS

ASM contraction in mouse tracheal rings and lung slices was measured. Currents mediated by voltage dependent Ca²⁺ channels (VDCCs) and ACH-activated channels were measured using the whole-cell patch-clamp technique in single tracheal smooth muscle cells (TSMCs). Intracellular Ca²⁺ level and cell length were measured using an LSM 700 laser confocal microscope and a Zen 2010 software. Mouse respiratory system resistance (Rrs) was assessed using a FlexiVent FX system.

KEY FINDINGS

High K⁺ (80 mM K⁺) and ACH induced ASM contraction in mouse tracheal rings and lung slices, which was partially relaxed by nifedipine (blocker of L-type VDCCs, LVDCCs), YM-58483 (blocker of store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE), transient receptor potential C3 (TRPC3) and TRPC5 channels), respectively. However, the contraction was completely reversed by NS8593, whereas, slightly relaxed by formoterol. ACH activated inward currents, which displayed linear and reversed around 0 mV, indicating the currents were mediated by non-selective cation channels (NSCCs). Moreover, these currents were blocked by YM-58483. In addition, such currents were abolished by NS8593, implicating that NS8593 inhibits the same channels. Besides, NS8593 inhibited increases of intracellular Ca²⁺ and the associated cell shortening. Finally, NS8593 inhibited ACH-induced increases of mouse respirator system resistance (Rrs).

SIGNIFICANCE

Our results indicate that NS8593 inhibits LVDCCs and NSCCs, resulting in decreases of intracellular Ca²⁺ and then leading to ASM relaxation. These data suggest that NS8593 might be a new bronchodilator.

Nothofagin suppresses mast cell-mediated allergic inflammation

Mast cells play a major role in immunoglobulin E-mediated allergic inflammation, which is involved in asthma, atopic dermatitis, and allergic rhinitis. Nothofagin has been shown to ameliorate various inflammatory responses such as the septic response and vascular inflammation. In this study, we assessed the inhibitory effect of nothofagin on allergic inflammation using cultured/isolated mast cells and an anaphylaxis mouse model. Nothofagin treatment prevented histamine and β-hexosaminidase release by reducing the influx of calcium into the cytosol in a concentration-dependent manner. Nothofagin also inhibited the gene expression and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-4 by downregulating the phosphorylation of Lyn, Syk, Akt and nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB. To confirm these effects of nothofagin in vivo, we used a passive cutaneous anaphylaxis mouse model. Topical administration of nothofagin suppressed local pigmentation and ear thickness. Taken together, these results suggest nothofagin as a potential candidate for the treatment of mast cell-involved allergic inflammatory diseases.

Inflammatory cytokines tumour necrosis factor-α and interleukin-8 enhance airway smooth muscle contraction by increasing L-type Ca2+ channel expression

Inflammation elevates intracellular calcium concentrations ([Ca²⁺ ]_i ) in airway smooth muscle (ASM). The L-type Ca²⁺ channel (L-VDCC) plays an important role in regulating Ca²⁺ influx in ASM. However, the role of L-VDCC in the inflammatory cytokine-induced pathology of ASM remains unclear. In the present study, we used calcium imaging and isometric tension measurements to assess the role of L-VDCC in agonist-induced [Ca²⁺ ]_i rise and the associated contractions in mouse ASM, and we used immunoblotting to identify L-VDCC protein expression levels in mouse ASM after exposure to tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) or interleukin-8 (IL-8). Our results showed that high-K⁺ - or carbachol-induced contractions of mouse ASM were significantly greater after pretreatment with TNF-α or IL-8 for 24 hours. Both verapamil and nifedipine, L-VDCC inhibitors, abolished this increased contraction induced by TNF-α or IL-8 pretreatment. Moreover, TNF-α treatment enhanced carbachol-induced Ca²⁺ influx in ASM cells, and this effect was abrogated by verapamil. Additionally, immunoblotting results showed that preincubation of mouse ASM with TNF-α or IL-8 also enhanced L-VDCC protein expression. On the basis of these findings, we concluded that proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α and IL-8, increase the expression level of L-VDCC, which in turn contributes to augmented agonist-induced ASM contractions. This effect of inflammation on L-VDCC expression in ASM may be associated with airway hyper-responsiveness and involved in the development of asthma.

TGF-β1 Evokes Human Airway Smooth Muscle Cell Shortening and Hyperresponsiveness via Smad3

Transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1), a cytokine whose levels are elevated in the airways of patients with asthma, perpetuates airway inflammation and modulates airway structural cell remodeling. However, the role of TGF-β1 in excessive airway narrowing in asthma, or airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), remains unclear. In this study, we set out to investigate the direct effects of TGF-β1 on human airway smooth muscle (HASM) cell shortening and hyperresponsiveness. The dynamics of AHR and single-cell excitation-contraction coupling were measured in human precision-cut lung slices and in isolated HASM cells using supravital microscopy and magnetic twisting cytometry, respectively. In human precision-cut lung slices, overnight treatment with TGF-β1 significantly augmented basal and carbachol-induced bronchoconstriction. In isolated HASM cells, TGF-β1 increased basal and methacholine-induced cytoskeletal stiffness in a dose- and time-dependent manner. TGF-β1-induced single-cell contraction was corroborated by concomitant increases in myosin light chain and myosin phosphatase target subunit 1 phosphorylation levels, which were attenuated by small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of Smad3 and pharmacological inhibition of Rho kinase. Strikingly, these physiological effects of TGF-β1 occurred through a RhoA-independent mechanism, with little effect on HASM cell [Ca2+]i levels. Together, our data suggest that TGF-β1 enhances HASM excitation-contraction coupling pathways to induce HASM cell shortening and hyperresponsiveness. These findings reveal a potential link between airway injury-repair responses and bronchial hyperreactivity in asthma, and define TGF-β1 signaling as a potential target to reduce AHR in asthma.

Schisandrin B down-regulated lncRNA BCYRN1 expression of airway smooth muscle cells by improving miR-150 expression to inhibit the proliferation and migration of ASMC in asthmatic rats

OBJECTIVE

The mechanism of Schisandrin B on the proliferation and migration of airway smooth muscle cells (ASMCs) in asthmatic rats was explored.

METHODS

SD rats were divided into three groups: control (group 1), model (group 2) and model + Schisandrin B (group 3). miR-150 and lncRNA BCYRN1 levels were measured by qRT-PCR. The combination of BCYRN1 and miR-150 was detected by RNA pull down. ASMCs' viability/proliferation/migration were examined by WST-1 assay and 24-well Transwell system.

RESULTS

Schisandrin B up-regulated miR-150 expression and down-regulated BCYRN1 expression in sensitized rats. Schisandrin B reversed the expression of miR-150 and BCYRN1 in MV-treated ASMCs. In addition, Schisandrin B inhibited the viability, proliferation and migration of MV-induced ASMCs. We also found miR-150 inhibited BCYRN1 expression which was proved by experiments using ASMCs transfected with miR-150 inhibitor.

CONCLUSION

Schisandrin B increased miR-150 expression and decreased BCYRN1, and BCYRN1 expression was inhibited by miR-150, which indicated that Schisandrin B could regulate BCYRN1 through miR-150.

Cellular Na+ handling mechanisms involved in airway smooth muscle contraction (Review)

A decrease in bronchial diameter is designated as bronchoconstriction (BC) and impedes the flow of air through the airway. Asthma is characterized by inflammation of the airways, reversible BC and nonspecific hyperreactivity. These last two symptoms are dependent on airway smooth muscle. Stimuli that trigger contraction can be characterized as chemical (neurotransmitters, cytokines and terpenoids) and physical (volume inspired, air pressure). Both stimuli activate signaling pathways by acting on membrane proteins and facilitating the passage of ions through the membrane, generating a voltage change and a subsequent depolarization. Na⁺ plays an important role in preserving the resting membrane potential; this ion is extracted from the cells by the Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase (NKA) or introduced into the cytoplasm by the Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger (NCX). During depolarization, Na⁺ appears to accumulate in specific regions beneath the plasma membrane, generating local concentration gradients which determine the handling of Ca²⁺. At rest, the smooth muscle has a basal tone that is preserved by the continuous adjustment of intracytoplasmic concentrations of Ca²⁺ and Na⁺. At homeostasis, the Na⁺ concentration is primarily dependent on three structures: the NKA, the NCX and non-specific cation channels (NSCC). These three structures, their functions and the available evidence of the probable role of Na⁺ in asthma are described in the present review.

Identification of BPIFA1/SPLUNC1 as an epithelium-derived smooth muscle relaxing factor

Asthma is a chronic airway disease characterized by inflammation, mucus hypersecretion and abnormal airway smooth muscle (ASM) contraction. Bacterial permeability family member A1, BPIFA1, is a secreted innate defence protein. Here we show that BPIFA1 levels are reduced in sputum samples from asthmatic patients and that BPIFA1 is secreted basolaterally from healthy, but not asthmatic human bronchial epithelial cultures (HBECs), where it suppresses ASM contractility by binding to and inhibiting the Ca²⁺ influx channel Orai1. We have localized this effect to a specific, C-terminal α-helical region of BPIFA1. Furthermore, tracheas from Bpifa1^-/- mice are hypercontractile, and this phenotype is reversed by the addition of recombinant BPIFA1. Our data suggest that BPIFA1 deficiency in asthmatic airways promotes Orai1 hyperactivity, increased ASM contraction and airway hyperresponsiveness. Strategies that target Orai1 or the BPIFA1 deficiency in asthma may lead to novel therapies to treat this disease.

Emerging concepts in smooth muscle contributions to airway structure and function: implications for health and disease

Airway structure and function are key aspects of normal lung development, growth, and aging, as well as of lung responses to the environment and the pathophysiology of important diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and fibrosis. In this regard, the contributions of airway smooth muscle (ASM) are both functional, in the context of airway contractility and relaxation, as well as synthetic, involving production and modulation of extracellular components, modulation of the local immune environment, cellular contribution to airway structure, and, finally, interactions with other airway cell types such as epithelium, fibroblasts, and nerves. These ASM contributions are now found to be critical in airway hyperresponsiveness and remodeling that occur in lung diseases. This review emphasizes established and recent discoveries that underline the central role of ASM and sets the stage for future research toward understanding how ASM plays a central role by being both upstream and downstream in the many interactive processes that determine airway structure and function in health and disease.

Inundation of asthma target research: Untangling asthma riddles

Asthma is an inveterate inflammatory disorder, delineated by the airway inflammation, bronchial hyperresponsiveness (BHR) and airway wall remodeling. Although, asthma is a vague term, and is recognized as heterogenous entity encompassing different phenotypes. Targeting single mediator or receptor did not prove much clinical significant, as asthma is complex disease involving myriad inflammatory mediators. Asthma may probably involve a large number of different types of molecular and cellular components interacting through complex pathophysiological pathways. This review covers the past, present, and future therapeutic approaches and pathophysiological mechanisms of asthma. Furthermore, review describe importance of targeting several mediators/modulators and receptor antagonists involved in the physiopathology of asthma. Novel targets for asthma research include Galectins, Immunological targets, K ⁺ Channels, Kinases and Transcription Factors, Toll-like receptors, Selectins and Transient receptor potential channels. But recent developments in asthma research are very promising, these include Bitter taste receptors (TAS2R) abated airway obstruction in mouse model of asthma and Calcium-sensing receptor obliterate inflammation and in bronchial hyperresponsiveness allergic asthma. All these progresses in asthma targets, and asthma phenotypes exploration are auspicious in untangling of asthma riddles.

Involvement of Ca2+ Signaling in the Synergistic Effects between Muscarinic Receptor Antagonists and β₂-Adrenoceptor Agonists in Airway Smooth Muscle

Long-acting muscarinic antagonists (LAMAs) and short-acting β₂-adrenoceptor agonists (SABAs) play important roles in remedy for COPD. To propel a translational research for development of bronchodilator therapy, synergistic effects between SABAs with LAMAs were examined focused on Ca²⁺ signaling using simultaneous records of isometric tension and F340/F380 in fura-2-loaded tracheal smooth muscle. Glycopyrronium (3 nM), a LAMA, modestly reduced methacholine (1 μM)-induced contraction. When procaterol, salbutamol and SABAs were applied in the presence of glycopyrronium, relaxant effects of these SABAs are markedly enhanced, and percent inhibition of tension was much greater than the sum of those for each agent and those expected from the BI theory. In contrast, percent inhibition of F340/F380 was not greater than those values. Bisindolylmaleimide, an inhibitor of protein kinase C (PKC), significantly increased the relaxant effect of LAMA without reducing F340/F380. Iberiotoxin, an inhibitor of large-conductance Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ (K_Ca) channels, significantly suppressed the effects of these combined agents with reducing F340/F380. In conclusion, combination of SABAs with LAMAs synergistically enhances inhibition of muscarinic contraction via decreasing both Ca²⁺ sensitization mediated by PKC and Ca²⁺ dynamics mediated by K_Ca channels. PKC and K_Ca channels may be molecular targets for cross talk between β₂-adrenoceptors and muscarinic receptors.

Molecularly targeted therapies for asthma: Current development, challenges and potential clinical translation

Extensive research into the therapeutics of asthma has yielded numerous effective interventions over the past few decades. However, adverse effects and ineffectiveness of most of these medications especially in the management of steroid resistant severe asthma necessitate the development of better medications. Numerous drug targets with inherent airway smooth muscle tone modulatory role have been identified for asthma therapy. This article reviews the latest understanding of underlying molecular aetiology of asthma towards design and development of better antiasthma drugs. New drug candidates with their putative targets that have shown promising results in the preclinical and/or clinical trials are summarised. Examples of these interventions include restoration of Th1/Th2 balance by the use of newly developed immunomodulators such as toll-like receptor-9 activators (CYT003-QbG10 and QAX-935). Clinical trials revealed the safety and effectiveness of chemoattractant receptor-homologous molecule expressed on Th2 cells (CRTH2) antagonists such as OC0000459, BI-671800 and ARRY-502 in the restoration of Th1/Th2 balance. Regulation of cytokine activity by the use of newly developed biologics such as benralizumab, reslizumab, mepolizumab, lebrikizumab, tralokinumab, dupilumab and brodalumab are at the stage of clinical development. Transcription factors are potential targets for asthma therapy, for example SB010, a GATA-3 DNAzyme is at its early stage of clinical trial. Other candidates such as inhibitors of Rho kinases (Fasudil and Y-27632), phosphodiesterase inhibitors (GSK256066, CHF 6001, roflumilast, RPL 554) and proteinase of activated receptor-2 (ENMD-1068) are also discussed. Preclinical results of blockade of calcium sensing receptor by the use of calcilytics such as calcitriol abrogates cardinal signs of asthma. Nevertheless, successful translation of promising preclinical data into clinically viable interventions remains a major challenge to the development of novel anti-asthmatics.

Elucidating novel disease mechanisms in severe asthma

Corticosteroids are broadly active and potent anti-inflammatory agents that, despite the introduction of biologics, remain as the mainstay therapy for many chronic inflammatory diseases, including inflammatory bowel diseases, nephrotic syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma. Significantly, there are cohorts of these patients with poor sensitivity to steroid treatment even with high doses, which can lead to many iatrogenic side effects. The dose-limiting toxicity of corticosteroids, and the lack of effective therapeutic alternatives, leads to substantial excess morbidity and healthcare expenditure. We have developed novel murine models of respiratory infection-induced, severe, steroid-resistant asthma that recapitulate the hallmark features of the human disease. These models can be used to elucidate novel disease mechanisms and identify new therapeutic targets in severe asthma. Hypothesis-driven studies can elucidate the roles of specific factors and pathways. Alternatively, 'Omics approaches can be used to rapidly generate new targets. Similar approaches can be used in other diseases.

Suppression of the increasing level of acetylcholine-stimulated intracellular Ca2+ in guinea pig airway smooth muscle cells by mabuterol

The present study aimed to establish an effective method for the in vitro culture of guinea pig airway smooth muscle (ASM) cells, and also investigate the suppressive effect of mabuterol hydrochloride (Mab) on the increased level of intracellular Ca²⁺ in ASM cells induced with acetylcholine (Ach). Two different methods, i.e. with or without collagenase to pretreat tracheal tissues, were applied to the manufacture of ASM cells. Cell viability was determined with the 3-(4,5-dimethylthinazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay. Immunocytochemistry and immunofluorescence were used for the identification of ASM cells. Different concentration levels (10^-3, 10^-4, 10^-5, 10^-6 and 10^-7 mmol/l) of Mab were administered 5 min before Ach (10^-4 M) treatment, respectively. The Ca²⁺ fluorescent probe, Fura-2/AM or Fluo-3/AM were applied to the inspection of Ca²⁺ fluorescent intensity with Varioskan Flash, immunocytometry systems and an inverted system microscope, respectively. The results showed that the fresh method, in which isolated tracheal tissues were previously treated with collagenase for 20 min, was more advantageous for the preparation of guinea pig ASM cells compared to when the enzyme was not used. The time for the ASM cells to initially migrate out of the 'tissue blocks' and the culture having to be generated due to the thick cell density was significantly less. On identification with immunocytochemistry or immunofluorescent staining, >95% of the cells were ASM cells. Mab (10^-3-10^-7 mmol/l) significantly suppressed the elevation of intracellular Ca²⁺ induced by Ach in a concentration-dependent manner. The inhibitory rates of intracellular Ca²⁺ by different concentrations of Mab, from low to high, were 14.93, 24.73, 40.06, 48.54 and 57.13%, respectively, when Varioskan Flash was used for determination. In conclusion, this novel method has a shorter harvesting period for ASM cells. Mab can suppress the increasing level of intracellular Ca²⁺ induced by Ach in guinea pig ASM cells. Further investigation into the precise mechanisms of action is required.

Calcium-sensing receptor antagonists abrogate airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation in allergic asthma

Airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation are fundamental hallmarks of allergic asthma that are accompanied by increases in certain polycations, such as eosinophil cationic protein. Levels of these cations in body fluids correlate with asthma severity. We show that polycations and elevated extracellular calcium activate the human recombinant and native calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR), leading to intracellular calcium mobilization, cyclic adenosine monophosphate breakdown, and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation in airway smooth muscle (ASM) cells. These effects can be prevented by CaSR antagonists, termed calcilytics. Moreover, asthmatic patients and allergen-sensitized mice expressed more CaSR in ASMs than did their healthy counterparts. Indeed, polycations induced hyperreactivity in mouse bronchi, and this effect was prevented by calcilytics and absent in mice with CaSR ablation from ASM. Calcilytics also reduced airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation in allergen-sensitized mice in vivo. These data show that a functional CaSR is up-regulated in asthmatic ASM and targeted by locally produced polycations to induce hyperresponsiveness and inflammation. Thus, calcilytics may represent effective asthma therapeutics.

Matrix stiffness-modulated proliferation and secretory function of the airway smooth muscle cells

Multiple pulmonary conditions are characterized by an abnormal misbalance between various tissue components, for example, an increase in the fibrous connective tissue and loss/increase in extracellular matrix proteins (ECM). Such tissue remodeling may adversely impact physiological function of airway smooth muscle cells (ASMCs) responsible for contraction of airways and release of a variety of bioactive molecules. However, few efforts have been made to understand the potentially significant impact of tissue remodeling on ASMCs. Therefore, this study reports how ASMCs respond to a change in mechanical stiffness of a matrix, to which ASMCs adhere because mechanical stiffness of the remodeled airways is often different from the physiological stiffness. Accordingly, using atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurements, we found that the elastic modulus of the mouse bronchus has an arithmetic mean of 23.1 ± 14 kPa (SD) (median 18.6 kPa). By culturing ASMCs on collagen-conjugated polyacrylamide hydrogels with controlled elastic moduli, we found that gels designed to be softer than average airway tissue significantly increased cellular secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Conversely, gels stiffer than average airways stimulated cell proliferation, while reducing VEGF secretion and agonist-induced calcium responses of ASMCs. These dependencies of cellular activities on elastic modulus of the gel were correlated with changes in the expression of integrin-β1 and integrin-linked kinase (ILK). Overall, the results of this study demonstrate that changes in matrix mechanics alter cell proliferation, calcium signaling, and proangiogenic functions in ASMCs.