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Fradette MS, Culley AI, Charette SJ. Detection of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in Environmental Water Samples: A Journey into the Past and New Perspectives. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10061175. [PMID: 35744692 PMCID: PMC9228427 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10061175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the major issues linked with producing safe water for consumption is the presence of the parasitic protozoa Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. Since they are both responsible for gastrointestinal illnesses that can be waterborne, their monitoring is crucial, especially in water sources feeding treatment plants. Although their discovery was made in the early 1900s and even before, it was only in 1999 that the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) published a standardized protocol for the detection of these parasites, modified and named today the U.S. EPA 1623.1 Method. It involves the flow-through filtration of a large volume of the water of interest, the elution of the biological material retained on the filter, the purification of the (oo)cysts, and the detection by immunofluorescence of the target parasites. Since the 1990s, several molecular-biology-based techniques were also developed to detect Cryptosporidium and Giardia cells from environmental or clinical samples. The application of U.S. EPA 1623.1 as well as numerous biomolecular methods are reviewed in this article, and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed guiding the readers, such as graduate students, researchers, drinking water managers, epidemiologists, and public health specialists, through the ever-expanding number of techniques available in the literature for the detection of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Stéphanie Fradette
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; (A.I.C.); (S.J.C.)
- Département de Biochimie, de Microbiologie et de Bio-Informatique, Faculté des Sciences et Génie, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
- Centre de Recherche en Aménagement et Développement du Territoire (CRAD), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
- Correspondence:
| | - Alexander I. Culley
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; (A.I.C.); (S.J.C.)
- Département de Biochimie, de Microbiologie et de Bio-Informatique, Faculté des Sciences et Génie, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
- Groupe de Recherche en Écologie Buccale (GREB), Faculté de Médecine Dentaire, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Steve J. Charette
- Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; (A.I.C.); (S.J.C.)
- Département de Biochimie, de Microbiologie et de Bio-Informatique, Faculté des Sciences et Génie, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
- Centre de Recherche de l’Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
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Sánchez C, López MC, Galeano LA, Qvarnstrom Y, Houghton K, Ramírez JD. Molecular detection and genotyping of pathogenic protozoan parasites in raw and treated water samples from southwest Colombia. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:563. [PMID: 30367668 PMCID: PMC6203992 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-3147-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Protozoan parasites such as Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium spp., Cyclospora cayetanensis, Toxoplasma gondii and Entamoeba histolytica represent a great challenge to the systems producing water for human consumption because their cystic forms are persistent in the environment and resist to the disinfection methods conventionally used for their control. In this study, we investigated the presence of these protozoan pathogens in both raw and treated water samples used for the production of drinking water in Nariño Department, southwest Colombia. We collected 110 water samples (10 lof each sample) and analyzed them with real-time PCR (qPCR). qPCR-positive samples were genotyped with PCR and DNA sequencing. RESULTS Giardia duodenalis was detected in 35/110 (31.8%) of the samples and Cryptosporidium spp. in 9/110 (8.2%) of the samples; no sample was positive for T. gondii, E. histolytica or C. cayetanensis. Giardia duodenalis was detected in samples of both raw water (Drinking Water Treatment Plants (DWTP): 47.83%;Drinking Water Rural Plants (DWRP): 18.42%) and water collected either after conventional physicochemical treatment (26.09%) or after disinfection by chlorine (50%), whereas Cryptosporidium spp. were only detected in raw waters (DWTP: 17.39%; DWRP: 13.16%). The two pathogens were detected in both types of treatment plants supplying water to urban areas and to rural zones. Analysis of gdh and tpi markers identified assemblages AI, AII and H of G. duodenalis, while analysis of the small subunit rRNA and gp60 markers of Cryptosporidium-positive samples identified C. parvum (Subtype IIcA5G3c), C. galli, C. molnari, Cryptosporidium sp. genotype II of bats and Cryptosporidium sp. genotype VIII of birds. CONCLUSIONS The results obtained demonstrate the presence of protozoan parasites in the water of the study region, and the need to improve the surveillance systems for these pathogens and identify the corresponding sources of contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Sánchez
- Grupo de Investigación en Materiales Funcionales y Catálisis (GIMFC), Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Nariño, 520002 Pasto, Colombia
- Departamento de Salud Pública, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 111321 Bogotá, Colombia
- Grupo de Investigaciones Microbiológicas-UR (GIMUR), Programa de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Matemáticas, Universidad del Rosario, 110111 Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Myriam Consuelo López
- Departamento de Salud Pública, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 111321 Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Luis Alejandro Galeano
- Grupo de Investigación en Materiales Funcionales y Catálisis (GIMFC), Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Nariño, 520002 Pasto, Colombia
| | - Yvonne Qvarnstrom
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, 30329 USA
| | - Katelyn Houghton
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, 30329 USA
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education Research Participation Program, Oak Ridge, 37830 USA
| | - Juan David Ramírez
- Grupo de Investigaciones Microbiológicas-UR (GIMUR), Programa de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Matemáticas, Universidad del Rosario, 110111 Bogotá, Colombia
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Hamilton KA, Waso M, Reyneke B, Saeidi N, Levine A, Lalancette C, Besner MC, Khan W, Ahmed W. Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Wastewater and Surface Water Environments. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 2018; 47:1006-1023. [PMID: 30272766 DOI: 10.2134/jeq2018.04.0132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
and spp. are significant contributors to the global waterborne disease burden. Waterways used as sources of drinking water and for recreational activity can become contaminated through the introduction of fecal materials derived from humans and animals. Multiple studies have reported the occurence or concentrations of these pathogens in the environment. However, this information has not been comprehensively reviewed. Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) for and can be beneficial, but it often relies on the concentrations in environmental sources reported from the literature. A thorough literature review was conducted to develop an inventory of reported and concentrations in wastewater and surface water available in the literature. This information can be used to develop QMRA inputs. and (oo)cyst concentrations in untreated wastewater were up to 60,000 oocysts L and 100,000 cysts L, respectively. The maximum reported concentrations for and in surface water were 8400 oocysts L and 1000 cysts L, respectively. A summary of the factors for interpretation of concentration information including common quantification methods, survival and persistence, biofilm interactions, genotyping, and treatment removal is provided in this review. This information can help in identifying assumptions implicit in various QMRA parameters, thus providing the context and rationale to guide model formulation and application. Additionally, it can provide valuable information for water quality practitioners striving to meet the recreational water quality or treatment criteria. The goal is for the information provided in the current review to aid in developing source water protection and monitoring strategies that will minimize public health risks.
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Couso-Pérez S, Ares-Mazás E, Gómez-Couso H. Identification of a novel piscine Cryptosporidium genotype and Cryptosporidium parvum in cultured rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Parasitol Res 2018; 117:2987-2996. [PMID: 29987411 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-018-5995-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This study reports for the first time the presence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium in farmed rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum, 1792). A total of 360 fish, with no apparent clinical signs of disease, were collected and classified into groups according to their size. Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected by immunofluorescence microscopy in 33 specimens (9.2%), which were located in pyloric caeca samples (42.4%), intestinal scrapings (39.4%), or at both locations (18.2%). In the smallest (youngest) fish group, a higher percentage of positive samples were detected in the pyloric caeca relative to the intestinal location (58.8 vs. 17.6%; P = 0.01), including a cluster with more than 10 oocysts observed in the pyloric caeca of one specimen. PCR amplification and sequencing of fragments of SSU-rDNA and hsp70 genes identified a novel Cryptosporidium piscine genotype (genotype 9) in two specimens and Cryptosporidium parvum in seven fish, including the specimen in which the oocyst cluster was observed. Moreover, Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in farm water samples (41.7 and 16.7% from influent and effluent, respectively). Although Giardia was not found in gastrointestinal samples, Giardia cysts were observed in 50.0 and 33.3% of the influent and effluent water samples, respectively. The results support the existence of natural infections by C. parvum in freshwater cultured fish, suggesting that the rainbow trout could shed infectious oocysts in aquatic environments and it may be a potential source of human infection when this edible fish is handled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seila Couso-Pérez
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, Campus Vida, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Elvira Ares-Mazás
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, Campus Vida, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Hipólito Gómez-Couso
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, Campus Vida, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain. .,Institute of Food Research and Analysis, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Spain.
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de Araújo RS, Aguiar B, Dropa M, Razzolini MTP, Sato MIZ, de Souza Lauretto M, Galvani AT, Padula JA, Matté GR, Matté MH. Detection and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium species and Giardia assemblages in two watersheds in the metropolitan region of São Paulo, Brazil. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:15191-15203. [PMID: 29560592 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-1620-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium and Giardia are associated with cases of water and foodborne outbreaks in the world. This study included 50 samples of surface raw water collected from two watersheds in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. The isolation of (oo)cysts was performed in accordance with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's methods 1623 and genotypic characterization and quantification were carried out by Nested PCR and qPCR assays based on 18S rRNA and gdh genes, respectively. U.S. EPA 1623 method showed the presence of (oo)cysts in 40% ([Formula: see text] = 0.10 oocysts/L) and 100% ([Formula: see text] = 7.6 cysts/L) of samples from São Lourenço River, respectively, and 24% ([Formula: see text] = 0.8 oocysts/L) and 60% ([Formula: see text] = 1.64 cysts/L) of Guarapiranga Reservoir, respectively. The qPCR assay detected C. hominis/parvum in 52% (0.06 to 1.85 oocysts/L) of São Lourenço River and 64% (0.09 to 1.4 oocysts/L) of Guarapiranga Reservoir samples. Presence/absence test for Giardia intestinalis was positive in 92% of São Lourenço River and 8% of Guarapiranga Reservoir samples. The assemblage A was detected in 16% (0.58 to 2.67 cysts/L) in São Lourenço River and no positive samples were obtained for assemblage B in both water bodies. The characterization of anthroponotic species C. parvum/hominis, G. intestinalis, and assemblage A was valuable in the investigation of possible sources of contamination in the watersheds studied confirming the need of expanding environmental monitoring measures for protection of these water sources in our country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronalda Silva de Araújo
- Faculdade de Saúde Pública, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Doutor Arnaldo 715, São Paulo, SP, 01246-904, Brazil
| | - Bruna Aguiar
- Faculdade de Saúde Pública, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Doutor Arnaldo 715, São Paulo, SP, 01246-904, Brazil
| | - Milena Dropa
- Faculdade de Saúde Pública, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Doutor Arnaldo 715, São Paulo, SP, 01246-904, Brazil
| | - Maria Tereza Pepe Razzolini
- Faculdade de Saúde Pública, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Doutor Arnaldo 715, São Paulo, SP, 01246-904, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | - Glavur Rogério Matté
- Faculdade de Saúde Pública, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Doutor Arnaldo 715, São Paulo, SP, 01246-904, Brazil
| | - Maria Helena Matté
- Faculdade de Saúde Pública, Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Doutor Arnaldo 715, São Paulo, SP, 01246-904, Brazil.
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Rosado-García FM, Guerrero-Flórez M, Karanis G, Hinojosa MDC, Karanis P. Water-borne protozoa parasites: The Latin American perspective. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2017; 220:783-798. [PMID: 28460996 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2017.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2017] [Revised: 03/18/2017] [Accepted: 03/18/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Health systems, sanitation and water access have certain limitations in nations of Latin America (LA): typical matters of developing countries. Water is often contaminated and therefore unhealthy for the consumers and users. Information on prevalence and detection of waterborne parasitic protozoa are limited or not available in LA. Only few reports have documented in this field during the last forty years and Brazil leads the list, including countries in South America and Mexico within Central America region and Caribbean islands. From 1979 to 2015, 16 outbreaks of waterborne-protozoa, were reported in Latin American countries. T. gondii and C. cayetanensis were the protozoa, which caused more outbreaks and Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. were the most frequently found protozoa in water samples. On the other hand, Latin America countries have not got a coherent methodology for detection of protozoa in water samples despite whole LA is highly vulnerable to extreme weather events related to waterborne-infections; although Brazil and Colombia have some implemented laws in their surveillance systems. It would be important to coordinate all surveillance systems in between all countries for early detection and measures against waterborne-protozoan and to establish effective and suitable diagnosis tools according to the country's economic strength and particular needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félix Manuel Rosado-García
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Center for Biomedicine and Infectious Diseases, Qinghai Academy of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, PR China; National Institute of Hygiene, Epidemiology and Microbiology of Cuba, Cuba
| | - Milena Guerrero-Flórez
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Center for Biomedicine and Infectious Diseases, Qinghai Academy of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, PR China; Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Doctorate in Biotechnology, Universidad de Nariño, Research Group of Functional Materials and Catalysis, GIMFC, Colombia
| | - Gabriele Karanis
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Center for Biomedicine and Infectious Diseases, Qinghai Academy of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, PR China; Qinghai University Affiliated Hospital, Xining City, 810016, Qinghai Province, PR China
| | | | - Panagiotis Karanis
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Center for Biomedicine and Infectious Diseases, Qinghai Academy of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Qinghai University, Xining, Qinghai, PR China.
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Ramo A, Del Cacho E, Sánchez-Acedo C, Quílez J. Occurrence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in raw and finished drinking water in north-eastern Spain. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 580:1007-1013. [PMID: 27993472 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.12.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2016] [Revised: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 12/08/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
This paper collects the first large-sample-size study on the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in drinking water plants at the 20 most populated towns in Aragón (north-eastern Spain). Samples of influent raw water and effluent finished water were collected from each plant during different seasons and processed according to USEPA Method 1623. Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts were detected in samples collected from 55% and 70% plants, respectively, with nine plants being positive for both protozoa and only four plants being negative over the study period. Both parasites were identified in the raw water throughout the year, with a lower frequency in autumn and a peak in winter, at a mean concentration of 67±38 oocysts per 100l and 125±241 cysts per 100l. The turbidity of raw water was not related to the presence or concentration of (oo)cysts, and the (oo)cyst removal efficiency was not related to the type of water treatment. One or both pathogens were identified in the finished water in 7 out of 11 plants with a conventional treatment process (coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection processes) compared to 4 out of 9 plants that did not apply one of the pre-chlorination treatment steps. Protozoa were detected in the finished water of positive plants at a mean concentration of 88±55 oocysts per 100l and 37±41 cysts per 100l, and most of them excluded propidium iodide so were considered potentially viable. The ubiquity of these parasites in the drinking water sources and the inefficiency of conventional water treatment in reducing/inactivating them may present a serious public health issue in this geographical area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Ramo
- Department of Animal Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Zaragoza, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Emilio Del Cacho
- Department of Animal Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Zaragoza, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Caridad Sánchez-Acedo
- Department of Animal Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Zaragoza, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Joaquín Quílez
- Department of Animal Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Zaragoza, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain.
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Hadi M, Mesdaghinia A, Yunesian M, Nasseri S, Nabizadeh Nodehi R, Tashauoei H, Jalilzadeh E, Zarinnejad R. Contribution of environmental media to cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis prevalence in Tehran: a focus on surface waters. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 23:19317-19329. [PMID: 27370533 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-7055-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2015] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The occurrences of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in surface sources of drinking water in Tehran were monitored, using US EPA method 1623.1. The prevalence ratios (PR) of positive samples among other media (animal's stools, vegetables, and human's stools) were also estimated from literature data. The density of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in water samples were 0.129 ± 0.069 cysts/L and 0.005 ± 0.002 oocysts/L, respectively. Estimated PR in vegetables, animal stools, surface waters, and human stools were 6.65, 20.42, 21.05, and 4.28 % for Cryptosporidium and 6.46, 17.13, 73.68, and 15.65 % for Giardia, respectively. These reveal the importance of surface waters' and animal stools' roles in the prevalence of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis in Tehran's population. Giardia's prevalence in untreated surface waters in Tehran was found 3.5 times as much as Cryptosporidium while this found 2.3 times on a global scale. Moreover, the prevalence of giardiasis to cryptosporidiosis infections in Tehran's human population was 3.65. These values could be a clue to attribute the infections to the occurrence of parasites in surface waters. Significant (p < 0.05) associations were observed between rainfalls and presence of Giardia (r = 0.62) and Cryptosporidium (r = 0.60) in surface waters. In autumn, rainfalls can increase the parasites occurrences in surface waters. Significant (p < 0.05) difference on the density of parasites was found between some seasons using Kruskal-Wallis and multiple comparison tests. A significant correlation (r = 0.86) between Giardia and Cryptosporidium densities also confirms the common sources of pollution in surface waters. Findings suggest that untreated surface waters in Tehran may be a potential route of human exposure to protozoan parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahdi Hadi
- Center for Water Quality Research (CWQR), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Mesdaghinia
- Center for Water Quality Research (CWQR), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Masud Yunesian
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Center for Air Pollution Research (CAPR), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Simin Nasseri
- Center for Water Quality Research (CWQR), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ramin Nabizadeh Nodehi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Center for Air Pollution Research (CAPR), Institute for Environmental Research (IER), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hamidreza Tashauoei
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Islamic Azad University-Tehran Medical Branch, Tehran, Iran
| | - Esfandiar Jalilzadeh
- Department of Water and Wastewater Quality Control Laboratory, Water and Wastewater Company, Tehran, Iran
| | - Roya Zarinnejad
- Department of Water and Wastewater Quality Control Laboratory, Water and Wastewater Company, Tehran, Iran
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Boakye-Ansah AS, Ferrero G, Rusca M, van der Zaag P. Inequalities in microbial contamination of drinking water supplies in urban areas: the case of Lilongwe, Malawi. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2016; 14:851-863. [PMID: 27740550 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2016.258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Over past decades strategies for improving access to drinking water in cities of the Global South have mainly focused on increasing coverage, while water quality has often been overlooked. This paper focuses on drinking water quality in the centralized water supply network of Lilongwe, the capital of Malawi. It shows how microbial contamination of drinking water is unequally distributed to consumers in low-income (unplanned areas) and higher-income neighbourhoods (planned areas). Microbial contamination and residual disinfectant concentration were measured in 170 water samples collected from in-house taps in high-income areas and from kiosks and water storage facilities in low-income areas between November 2014 and January 2015. Faecal contamination (Escherichia coli) was detected in 10% of the 40 samples collected from planned areas, in 59% of the 64 samples collected from kiosks in the unplanned areas and in 75% of the 32 samples of water stored at household level. Differences in water quality in planned and unplanned areas were found to be statistically significant at p < 0.05. Finally, the paper shows how the inequalities in microbial contamination of drinking water are produced by decisions both on the development of the water supply infrastructure and on how this is operated and maintained.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Giuliana Ferrero
- UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands E-mail:
| | - Maria Rusca
- Department of Geography, King's College London, Strand WC2R2LS, London, UK
| | - Pieter van der Zaag
- UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands E-mail:
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Chuah CJ, Mukhaidin N, Choy SH, Smith GJD, Mendenhall IH, Lim YAL, Ziegler AD. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in the water resources of the Kuang River catchment, Northern Thailand. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 562:701-713. [PMID: 27110981 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2016] [Revised: 03/26/2016] [Accepted: 03/26/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
A catchment-scale investigation of the prevalence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in the Kuang River Basin was carried out during the dry and rainy seasons. Water samples were collected from the Kuang River and its tributaries as well as a major irrigation canal at the study site. We also investigated the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasitic infection among dairy and beef cattle hosts. Cryptosporidium and/or Giardia were detected in all the rivers considered for this study, reflecting their ubiquity within the Kuang River Basin. The high prevalence of Cryptosporidium/Giardia in the upper Kuang River and Lai River is of a particular concern as both drain into the Mae Kuang Reservoir, a vital source of drinking-water to many local towns and villages at the research area. We did not, however, detected neither Cryptosporidium nor Giardia were in the irrigation canal. The frequency of Cryptosporidium/Giardia detection nearly doubled during the rainy season compared to the dry season, highlighting the importance of water as an agent of transport. In addition to the overland transport of these protozoa from their land sources (e.g. cattle manure, cess pits), Cryptosporidium/Giardia may also be re-suspended from the streambeds (a potentially important repository) into the water column of rivers during storm events. Faecal samples from dairy and beef cattle showed high infection rates from various intestinal parasites - 97% and 94%, respectively. However, Cryptosporidium and Giardia were only detected in beef cattle. The difference in management style between beef (freeranging) and dairy cattle (confined) may account for this disparity. Finally, phylogenetic analyses revealed that the Cryptosporidium/Giardia-positive samples contained C. ryanae (non-zoonotic) as well as Giardia intestinalis assemblages B (zoonotic) and E (non-zoonotic). With only basic water treatment facilities afforded to them, the communities of the rural area relying on these water supplies are highly at risk to Cryptosporidium/Giardia infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Joon Chuah
- Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts and Social Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore; Institute of Water Policy, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Nabila Mukhaidin
- Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts and Social Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Seow Huey Choy
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Malaysia
| | - Gavin J D Smith
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore
| | - Ian H Mendenhall
- Program in Emerging Infectious Diseases, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore
| | - Yvonne A L Lim
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, Malaysia
| | - Alan D Ziegler
- Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts and Social Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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11
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Segura R, Prim N, Montemayor M, Valls ME, Muñoz C. Predominant virulent IbA10G2 subtype of Cryptosporidium hominis in human isolates in Barcelona: a five-year study. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0121753. [PMID: 25816024 PMCID: PMC4376526 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0121753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2014] [Accepted: 02/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cryptosporidium infection is a worldwide cause of diarrheal disease. To gain insight into the epidemiology of the infection in a certain geographic area, molecular methods are needed to determine the species/genotypes and subtypes. Methodology/Principal Findings From 2004 to 2009, 161 cryptosporidiosis cases were detected in two hospitals in Barcelona. Diagnosis was performed by microscopic observation of oocysts in stool specimens following modified Ziehl-Neelsen staining. Most cases (82%) occurred in children. The number of cases increased in summer and autumn. Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium was performed in 69 specimens, and C. hominis and C. parvum were identified in 88.4% and 10.1% of the cases, respectively. C. meleagridis was detected in one specimen. Subtyping based on the gp60 polymorphism showed six subtypes, four C. hominis and two C. parvum. Subtype IbA10G2 was the most prevalent subtype corresponding to 90% of all C. hominis isolates. This is the first report on the distribution of specific Cryptosporidium subtypes from humans in Spain. Conclusions/Significance In our geographic area, the anthroponotic behavior of C. hominis, the lower infective dose, and the higher virulence of certain subtypes may contribute to the high incidence of human cryptosporidiosis caused by the IbA10G2 subtype. Further studies should include populations with asymptomatic shedding of the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Remedios Segura
- Servei de Microbiologia, Hospital de La Santa Creu i Sant Pau, 08041, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Núria Prim
- Servei de Microbiologia, Hospital de La Santa Creu i Sant Pau, 08041, Barcelona, Spain
- * E-mail:
| | - Michel Montemayor
- Servei de Microbiologia, Hospital de La Santa Creu i Sant Pau, 08041, Barcelona, Spain
| | - María Eugenia Valls
- Servei de Microbiologia, Hospital Clínic de Barcelona, 08036, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carme Muñoz
- Servei de Microbiologia, Hospital de La Santa Creu i Sant Pau, 08041, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Genètica i Microbiologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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12
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Aetiology and epidemiology of human cryptosporidiosis cases in Galicia (NW Spain), 2000–2008. Epidemiol Infect 2015; 143:3022-35. [DOI: 10.1017/s0950268815000163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYCryptosporidiuminfects millions of people worldwide causing acute gastroenteritis, but despite its remarkable epidemiological and economic impact, information on the epidemiological trends of human cryptosporidiosis is still scarce in most countries. Here we investigate a panel of 486 cases collected in Galicia (NW Iberian Peninsula) between 2000 and 2008, which sheds new light on the epidemiology in this region of the South Atlantic European façade. Incidence rates in Galicia are one order of magnitude higher than those reported in other regions of Spain, suggesting that this parasite remains largely underdiagnosed in this country, and are also larger than those typical of other European countries with available data. Two species dominate our dataset,Cryptosporidium hominis(65%) andC. parvum(34%). The sex ratio of patients infected by either species was 0·5, butC. hominiswas significantly more common in younger males.C. parvuminfections were more acute and required more specialized medical attention, which suggests a differential adaptation of each species to human hosts. The parasites display strong seasonal and geographical variation.C. parvumincidence peaked during summer and was mainly detected in rural areas whileC. hominisinfections were more frequent in autumn and exhibited a more even geographical distribution. Such differences probably reflect their distinct sources of infection – C. parvumis mainly zoonotic andC. hominisanthroponotic – and the effects of climatic variables, like temperature and rainfall.
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13
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Hu Y, Feng Y, Huang C, Xiao L. Occurrence, source, and human infection potential of Cryptosporidium and Enterocytozoon bieneusi in drinking source water in Shanghai, China, during a pig carcass disposal incident. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:14219-14227. [PMID: 25383482 PMCID: PMC5788171 DOI: 10.1021/es504464t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
In March 2013, thousands of domestic pig carcasses were found floating in the Huangpu River, a drinking source water in Shanghai, China. To investigate the impact of the pig carcass incident on microbial water quality, 178 river water samples were collected from the upper Huangpu River from March 2013 to March 2014. Samples were concentrated by calcium carbonate flocculation and examined for host-adapted Cryptosporidium and Enterocytozoon bieneusi by ploymerase chain reaction (PCR). Positive PCR products were sequenced to determine Cryptosporidium species and E. bieneusi genotypes. A total of 67 (37.6%) and 56 (31.5%) samples were PCR-positive for Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi, respectively. The occurrence rates of Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi in March 2013 (83.3%; 41.7%) and May 2013 (73.5%; 44.1%) were significantly higher than rates in later sampling times. Among the 13 Cryptosporidium species/genotypes identified, C. andersoni and C. suis were the most common species, being found in 38 and 27 samples, respectively. Seventeen E. bieneusi genotypes were found, belonging to 11 established genotypes (EbpC, EbpA, D, CS-8, PtEb IX, Peru 8, Peru 11, PigEBITS4, EbpB, G, O) and six new ones (RWSH1 to RWSH6), most of which belonged to pig-adapted Groups 1d and 1e. EbpC was the most common genotype, being found in 37 samples. The distribution of Cryptosporidium species and E. bieneusi genotypes suggest that dead pigs contributed significantly to Cryptosporidium and E. bieneusi contamination in the Huangpu River. Although most Cryptosporidium species found in river water were not major human pathogens, the majority of E. bieneusi genotypes detected were endemic in China. Data from this study should be useful in the development of strategies in addressing future contamination events in drinking water supplies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Yaoyu Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Chengchen Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Lihua Xiao
- Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, United States
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14
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Dreelin EA, Ives RL, Molloy S, Rose JB. Cryptosporidium and Giardia in surface water: a case study from Michigan, USA to inform management of rural water systems. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2014; 11:10480-503. [PMID: 25317981 PMCID: PMC4210991 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph111010480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Revised: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 09/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium and Giardia pose a threat to human health in rural environments where water supplies are commonly untreated and susceptible to contamination from agricultural animal waste/manure, animal wastewater, septic tank effluents and septage. Our goals for this paper are to: (1) explore the prevalence of these protozoan parasites, where they are found, in what quantities, and which genotypes are present; (2) examine relationships between disease and land use comparing human health risks between rural and urban environments; and (3) synthesize available information to gain a better understanding of risk and risk management for rural water supplies. Our results indicate that Cryptosporidium and Giardia were more prevalent in rural versus urban environments based on the number of positive samples. Genotyping showed that both the human and animal types of the parasites are found in rural and urban environments. Rural areas had a higher incidence of disease compared to urban areas based on the total number of disease cases. Cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis were both positively correlated (p < 0.001) with urban area, population size, and population density. Finally, a comprehensive strategy that creates knowledge pathways for data sharing among multiple levels of management may improve decision-making for protecting rural water supplies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin A Dreelin
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife and Center for Water Sciences, Michigan State University, 301 Manly Miles Building, 1405 S. Harrison Road, East Lansing, MI 48823, USA.
| | - Rebecca L Ives
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, 480 Wilson Road, East Lansing, MI 48823, USA.
| | - Stephanie Molloy
- Environmental Services Department, City of San Jose, 200 E. Santa Clara St. 10th Floor, San Jose, CA 95113, USA.
| | - Joan B Rose
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, 480 Wilson Road, East Lansing, MI 48823, USA.
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15
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Cacciabue DG, Juárez MM, Poma HR, Garcé B, Rajal VB. Cuantificación y evaluación de la estacionalidad de elementos parasitarios en ambientes acuáticos recreativos de la provincia de Salta, Argentina. Rev Argent Microbiol 2014; 46:150-60. [DOI: 10.1016/s0325-7541(14)70064-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2014] [Accepted: 05/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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16
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Galván AL, Magnet A, Izquierdo F, Fernández Vadillo C, Peralta RH, Angulo S, Fenoy S, del Aguila C. A year-long study of Cryptosporidium species and subtypes in recreational, drinking and wastewater from the central area of Spain. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2014; 468-469:368-375. [PMID: 24041604 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.08.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2013] [Revised: 07/30/2013] [Accepted: 08/17/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
A year-long longitudinal study was undertaken to evaluate the presence of Cryptosporidium spp. in drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs), wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and freshwater bathing beaches (FBBs) from the central area of Spain. Water samples were collected according to USEPA Method 1623, and concentrated by the IDEXX Filta-Max® system. Cryptosporidium species were detected based on PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism and sequence analyses of the ssuRNA gene. C. hominis and/or C. parvum isolates were subtyped by DNA sequencing of the Gp60 gene. Among 150 samples, 23 (15.3%) were positive by IFAT and 40 (26.7%) by PCR. Cryptosporidium spp. was more frequent in WWTPs (26.2 and 50.8%) and FBBs (12.5 and 17.5%) by IFAT and PCR respectively. Effluent waters from DWTPs were negative for this parasite suggesting that they are suitable for public use. Tertiary treatment in the WWTPs demonstrated a high removal efficiency of Cryptosporidium in the samples evaluated. Cryptosporidium species identified included C. hominis, C. parvum, C. ubiquitum, C. andersoni and C. muris. Subtyping analysis revealed C. hominis IbA10G2 and IeA11G3T3 alleles, which is the first report of the latter in water samples. Cryptosporidium highest frequency was observed in winter and spring. Our data provide information about the occurrence and diversity of Cryptosporidium in water of human use from the central area of Spain.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Galván
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo CEU, Urbanización Montepríncipe, CP 28668 Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain; Escuela de Microbiología, Grupo de Parasitología, Universidad de Antioquia, Calle 67 No. 53-108, Medellín, Colombia.
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17
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[Intestinal parasitoses in Argentina: major causal agents found in the population and in the environment]. Rev Argent Microbiol 2013; 45:191-204. [PMID: 24165144 DOI: 10.1016/s0325-7541(13)70024-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Intestinal parasitic diseases are widely spread in the world, with the highest prevalence in developing countries. Children are mainly affected, showing a decrease in physical and mental development, as well as the expected manifestations of the disease. This situation can be greatly enhanced in children with poor nutritional status. The World Health Organization considers intestinal parasitic diseases a major cause of morbidity, closely linked to poverty and poor personal hygiene, inappropriate handling of raw food, lack of sanitation, lack of potable water supply, and environmental fecal contamination. Some parasitic diseases are cosmopolitan while others have variable geographic distribution, due to different factors such as the presence of exclusive intermediate hosts. In the past few years, globalization allowed the spread of certain parasites from endemic to non-endemic regions. Even though people's customs influence on the frequency of certain parasites, environmental conditions are a determinant factor for parasite survival. In our country, due to the variety of soils and climatic conditions, several causative agents of these parasitoses can be found. The aim of this work was to review the literature on the intestinal parasitic agents found in Argentina in human fecal samples and its environment, as parasitic contamination constitutes a direct indicator of the infection risk by intestinal parasites.
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18
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Adamska M, Leońska-Duniec A, Maciejewska A, Sawczuk M, Skotarczak B. Recovery of DNA of Giardia intestinalis cysts from surface water concentrates measured with PCR and real time PCR. Parasite 2012; 18:341-3. [PMID: 22091466 PMCID: PMC3677587 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2011184341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The most important restriction for the detection in water samples is the low concentration of Giardia intestinalis cysts, additional difficulty is the presence of PCR inhibitors. We have carried out trials in order to assess the sensitivity of semi-nested PCR and TaqMan real time PCR on the basis of DNA extracted from G. intestinalis cysts coming from spiked environmental and distilled water samples, filtrated with the use of Filta-Max® equipment (1623 Method). Removal of inhibitors was carried out with addition of BSA in different concentrations. During the filtration and concentration of water samples, losses of cysts have been recorded. Moreover, addition of BSA to the PCR and real time PCR mix increases the sensitivity of reaction. The optimal concentration of BSA for semi‑nested PCR was 15 and 20 ng/μl, whereas for real time PCR 5 ng/μl.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Adamska
- Department of Genetics, University of Szczecin, ul. Felczaka 3c, 71-412 Szczecin, Poland
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19
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Angus SV, Kwon HJ, Yoon JY. Field-deployable and near-real-time optical microfluidic biosensors for single-oocyst-level detection of Cryptosporidium parvum from field water samples. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 14:3295-304. [DOI: 10.1039/c2em30700f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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20
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Occurrences and genotypes of Cryptosporidium oocysts in river network of southern-eastern China. Parasitol Res 2011; 110:1701-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-011-2688-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2011] [Accepted: 10/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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21
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Castro-Hermida JA, García-Presedo I, Almeida A, González-Warleta M, Correia Da Costa JM, Mezo M. Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in two areas of Galicia (NW Spain). THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2011; 409:2451-2459. [PMID: 21489605 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2010] [Revised: 03/07/2011] [Accepted: 03/08/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate the environmental dispersal of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in two distinct areas (coastal and inland) in Galicia (NW Spain). Faecal samples were collected from healthy asymptomatic domestic (cows and sheep) and wild animals (deer and wild boars) in the selected areas. In each of the selected areas, samples of untreated water (influent) and of treated water (final effluent) were collected from each of the 12 drinking water treatments plants (DWTPs) and 12 wastewater treatment plants (WTPs) under study. Analysis of a single sample from each of the 635 (coastal) and 851 (inland) domestic and wild animals selected at random revealed that the prevalences of cryptosporidiosis and giardiosis in coastal area were 9.2% and 15.9% respectively, and in inland area, 13.7% and 26.7% respectively. In the coastal area, Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts were detected in influent and effluent samples from 2/12 (16.6%) DWTPs and 8/12 (66.6%) WTPs, while G. duodenalis cysts were detected in influent and effluent samples from 3/12 (25.0%) DWTPs and 12/12 (100%) WTPs. The concentrations were notably higher in WTPs; the mean parasite concentrations in the final treated effluent were 10 oocysts per litre and 137.8 cysts per litre for Cryptosporidium and Giardia, respectively. The mean concentration of G. duodenalis cysts per litre was significantly higher (P<0.05) than the mean concentration of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts per litre in both the influent and the effluent samples from all the treatment plants. In the coastal area, C. parvum, C. hominis and G. duodenalis assemblages A (I and II) and E were most repeatedly detected. In the inland area, C. parvum, C. andersoni and G. duodenalis assemblages A (I and II), B and E were most frequently identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Antonio Castro-Hermida
- Laboratorio de Parasitología, Centro de Investigaciones Agrarias de Mabegondo, Instituto Galego de Calidade Alimentaria, Xunta de Galicia, Carretera AC-542 de Betanzos a Mesón do Vento, Km 7.5, CP 15318, Abegondo (A Coruña), Spain.
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Occurrence, source, and human infection potential of cryptosporidium and Giardia spp. in source and tap water in shanghai, china. Appl Environ Microbiol 2011; 77:3609-16. [PMID: 21498768 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00146-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Genotyping studies on the source and human infection potential of Cryptosporidium oocysts in water have been almost exclusively conducted in industrialized nations. In this study, 50 source water samples and 30 tap water samples were collected in Shanghai, China, and analyzed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Method 1623. To find a cost-effective method to replace the filtration procedure, the water samples were also concentrated by calcium carbonate flocculation (CCF). Of the 50 source water samples, 32% were positive for Cryptosporidium and 18% for Giardia by Method 1623, whereas 22% were positive for Cryptosporidium and 10% for Giardia by microscopy of CCF concentrates. When CCF was combined with PCR for detection, the occurrence of Cryptosporidium (28%) was similar to that obtained by Method 1623. Genotyping of Cryptosporidium in 17 water samples identified the presence of C. andersoni in 14 water samples, C. suis in 7 water samples, C. baileyi in 2 water samples, C. meleagridis in 1 water sample, and C. hominis in 1 water sample. Therefore, farm animals, especially cattle and pigs, were the major sources of water contamination in Shanghai source water, and most oocysts found in source water in the area were not infectious to humans. Cryptosporidium oocysts were found in 2 of 30 tap water samples. The combined use of CCF for concentration and PCR for detection and genotyping provides a less expensive alternative to filtration and fluorescence microscopy for accurate assessment of Cryptosporidium contamination in water, although the results from this method are semiquantitative.
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Navarro-i-Martinez L, del Águila C, Bornay-Llinares FJ. Cryptosporidium: un género en revisión. Situación en España. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin 2011; 29:135-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eimc.2010.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2010] [Revised: 12/01/2010] [Accepted: 12/03/2010] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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Giardia taxonomy, phylogeny and epidemiology: Facts and open questions. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2010; 213:321-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2010.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2010] [Revised: 05/25/2010] [Accepted: 06/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Almeida A, Moreira MJ, Soares S, Delgado MDL, Figueiredo J, Silva E, Castro A, Cosa JMCD. Presence of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in drinking water samples in the north of Portugal. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2010; 48:43-8. [PMID: 20333284 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2010.48.1.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2009] [Revised: 01/26/2010] [Accepted: 01/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Cryptosporidium and Giardia are 2 protozoan parasites responsible for waterborne diseases outbreaks worldwide. In order to assess the prevalence of these protozoans in drinking water samples in the northern part of Portugal and the risk of human infection, we have established a long term program aiming at pinpointing the sources of surface water, drinking water, and environmental contamination, working with the water-supply industry. Total 43 sources of drinking water samples were selected, and a total of 167 samples were analyzed using the Method 1623. Sensitivity assays regarding the genetic characterization by PCR and sequencing of the genes, 18S SSU rRNA, for Cryptosporidium spp. and beta,-giardin for G. duodenalis were set in the laboratory. According to the defined criteria, molecular analysis was performed over 4 samples. Environmental stages of the protozoa were detected in 25.7% (43 out of 167) of the water samples, 8.4% (14 out of 167) with cysts of Giardia, 10.2% (17 out of 167) with oocysts of Cryptosporidium and 7.2% (12 out of 167) for both species. The mean concentrations were 0.1-12.7 oocysts of Cryptosporidium spp. per 10 L and 0.1-108.3 cysts of Giardia duodenalis per 10 L. Our results suggest that the efficiency in drinking water plants must be ameliorated in their efficiency in reducing the levels of contamination. We suggest the implementation of systematic monitoring programs for both protozoa. To authors' knowledge, this is the first report evaluating the concentration of environmental stages of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in drinking water samples in the northern part of Portugal.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Almeida
- Centro de Imunologia e Biologia Parasitária, CSPGF-INSA, Rua Alexandro Herculano, Porto, Portugal.
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