The water use of Indian diets and socio-demographic factors related to dietary blue water footprint

Assessing the environmental sustainability of consumer-centric poultry chain in the UK through life cycle approaches and the household simulation model

Chicken fillets, predominantly encased in disposable plastic packaging, represent a common perishable commodity frequently found in the shopping baskets of British consumers, with an annual slaughter exceeding 1.1 billion chickens. The associated environmental implications are of considerable significance. However, a noticeable gap exists concerning the household-level ramifications of chicken meat consumption, which remains a prominent driver (165 kg CO2eyr-1 per capita) of environmental impacts in the United Kingdom (UK). This study's primary objective is to integrate Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology with insights derived from a spectrum of interventions simulated within the Household Simulation Model (HHSM). The interventions that are simulated are influenced by various consumer behaviours related to the purchase, consumption, storage and disposal of chicken fillets. The overarching aim is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the environmental consequences associated with each intervention. The research encompasses eight distinct household archetypes and the UK average, with a focus on discerning differences in their environmental influence. The introduction of shelf-life extension measures leads to a reduction in the overall environmental impacts (in μPt), with reductions ranging from 1 % to 18 %. Concurrently, waste treatment's environmental burdens can be curtailed by 9 % to 69 % for the UK average. Of the 12 interventions tested, the intervention that combines a one-day extension in the shelf life of open packs and a three-day extension for unopened packs leads to the greatest reduction in environmental impacts, at 18 % for the entire process and 69 % for the waste treatment. This intervention is estimated to yield annual reductions of 130,722 t of CO2 emissions across the entire process and 34,720 t of CO2 emissions from waste treatment, as compared to the default scenario. These findings demonstrate the importance of integrating consumer behaviour, food waste, and packaging considerations within the domain of food LCA research.

Evaluation of personal water footprint components in Turkey: factors associated with obesity and food consumption

This study aimed to evaluate the personal water footprint individuals, and was conducted with 3431 individuals İbetween 18-95 years. A questionnaire form included questions about demographic characteristics, anthropometric measurements, and food consumption was applied. The "Extended Water Footprint Calculator" was used to evaluate the personal water footprint, and various questions were asked to determine the components of food consumption, domestic water, and industrial water use. The average age of the participants was 34.6 ± 13.93 years. The total water footprint of the male was significantly higher than the female. The total water footprint of individuals between the ages of 41-64 was higher than other age groups, and also obese individuals had the highest total water footprint (p < 0.05). Meat and meat products contributed the most to the total water footprint. Having a normal body weight and adopting more sustainable dietary patterns should be emphasized because of their impacts on the environment and health.

Food deprivation among adults in India: an analysis of specific food categories, 2016-2021

Background

Adult undernourishment remains pervasive throughout India, and often results from food deprivation, which refers to the inadequate consumption of foods with caloric and nutrient significance. Therefore, understanding the extent to which food groups are missing from an individual's diet is essential to understanding the extent to which they are undernourished.

Methods

We used data from two National Family Health Surveys conducted in 2016 and 2021 for this cross-sectional analysis. The study population consisted of women and pregnant women between the ages of 15-49, and men between the ages of 15-54. We examined shifts in the percentage of people not consuming dairy, pulses/beans/legumes, dark leafy green vegetables, fruits, eggs, and fish and meat among women, pregnant women, and men between the two time points. We also examined these patterns by household wealth and education, two important markers of socioeconomic status.

Findings

Overall, we found that fewer women, pregnant women, and men were not eating each of the six food groups in 2021 than in 2016. Additionally, the gap in food group consumption between women, pregnant women, and men in the lowest and highest socioeconomic groups shrank between 2016 and 2021. Yet, food group deprivation remained most prevalent among those in the lowest socioeconomic groups. The two exceptions for this were for eggs and meat/fish. Nevertheless, the majority of India's poorest and least educated adults are not consuming high-quality protein sources, including dairy, the consumption of which is far more common among wealthier and more educated Indian adults.

Interpretation

Our results show that fewer adults were not consuming important food groups in 2021 than in 2016. However, many of India's poorest and least educated adults are still not consuming high-quality sources of protein or fruits, two food groups that are essential for good health. While adults might be getting protein and nutrients from pulses, legumes, beans, and other vegetables, efforts are needed to improve affordability of, and access to, high-quality sources of protein and fruits.

Funding

This work was supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, INV- 002992.

Environmental imprints of agricultural and livestock produce: A scoping review from South Asian countries

BACKGROUND

Agricultural activities in 2020 have resulted in 5.5 billion tons of CO2 equivalent globally, which is expected to rise because the food system would have to grow 70% more food for the population in 2050. Research suggests that agricultural productivity in South Asian countries, will increase food security; however, the role of their food crops and livestock products in environmental imprints is uncertain. This review aimed to assess the environmental impacts resulting from pre- and post-production agricultural activities related to edible food crops and livestock products consumed in eight South Asian countries.

METHODS

Studies were retrieved using three databases (PubMed, Google Scholar and Science Direct) from 2011 to 2022. The protocol for this scoping review was not registered.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven studies met the inclusion criteria. Most studies were conducted in India. Twenty-four articles assessed greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions, followed by water footprints (n = 5), nitrogen and phosphorus (N&P) emissions (n = 4), and land requirements (n = 4). The production of rice and wheat was identified as a significant contributor to GHG emissions. In India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, the production of livestock (meat/bovine/shrimp and milk) was reported to be harmful to the environment. Inconclusive data were retrieved for other environment variables.

CONCLUSIONS

Diversification in food production and cultivating additional coarse cereals (millets) offer opportunities for GHG reduction. Nevertheless, more comprehensive and longitudinal studies for South Asian countries are essential to make precise conclusions and validate the present review.

Dietary Environmental Footprints and Their Association with Socioeconomic Factors and Food Purchase Practices: BRAZUCA Natal Study

The analysis of dietary environmental impacts has proven to be an important tool for guiding the adoption of healthier and more sustainable diets. This study aimed to estimate the dietary carbon (CF), water (WF), and ecological (EF) footprints of residents in the city of Natal, Brazil; the study also aimed to verify their association with socioeconomic factors and food purchase practices. This is a cross-sectional study that used dietary data from 411 adults and elderlies, which was collected via a questionnaire that applied to the respondents. The results showed that the dietary CF was 1901.88 g CO₂ eq/day/1000 kcal, the WF was 1834.03 L/day/1000 kcal, and the EF was 14.29 m²/day/1000 kcal. The highest environmental footprint values showed an association (p ≤ 0.05) with the factors of male sex, white ethnicity, and higher income and schooling, whereas the lowest environmental footprint values were associated with social vulnerability variables such as female sex, non-white ethnicity, and lower income and schooling (p ≤ 0.05). Moreover, people with lower environmental footprints consumed less fast food, had fewer meals at snack bars, and used food delivery services less often than those with higher footprints. The foods that most contributed to the CFs and WFs were beef and chicken, while fish and beef contribute the most to the EFs. The data in the present study show that a diet with a lower environmental impact is not always equal to a sustainable diet. This relationship is paradoxical and relates to food justice, as people with lower environmental footprint values are the same ones with worse socioeconomic conditions. In this sense, is it essential to consider the influence of the social context when assessing dietary environmental impacts and when assessing actions that promote healthier and more sustainable diets.

Regional water footprint assessment for a semi-arid basin in India

Water footprint assessment enables us to pinpoint the impacts and limitations of the current systems. Identifying vulnerabilities across various regions and times helps us prepare for suitable actions for improving water productivity and promoting sustainable water use. This study aims to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the sector-wise water footprint in the Banas River Basin from 2008-2020. The water footprint of the Banas River Basin was estimated as 20.2 billion cubic meters (BCM)/year from all sectors. The water footprint has increased over the year with the increase in population, the number of industries, and crop production demand. The average annual water footprint of crop production varied from 11.4-23.1 BCM/year (mean 19.3 BCM/year) during the study period. Results indicate that the water footprint has nearly doubled in the past decade. Wheat, bajra, maize, and rapeseed & mustard make up 67.4% of crop production's total average annual water footprint. Suitable measures should be implemented in the basin to improve water productivity and promote sustainable water use in agriculture, which accounts for nearly 95.5% of the total water footprint (WF) of the Banas basin. The outcomes of the study provide a reference point for further research and planning of appropriate actions to combat water scarcity challenges in the Banas basin.

Pathway to achieve a sustainable food and land-use transition in India

India has committed to reducing the emissions intensity of GDP by 33-35% from the 2005 level by 2030 in alignment with objectives of the Paris Agreement. This will require a significant reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the food and land-use sector. In this paper, we construct three potential pathways for India to achieve its emissions target by 2050 involving moderate ambitions of mitigation action (BAU), moderate ambitions combined with achieving healthy diets (BAU + NIN), and high levels of mitigation action inclusive of healthy diets (SUSTAINABLE). Using an integrated accounting tool, the FABLE Calculator, that harmonizes various socioeconomic and biophysical data, we project these pathways under the conditions of cross-country balanced trade flows. Results from the projections show that the demand for cereals will increase by 2050, leading to increased GHG emissions under BAU. Under the SUSTAINABLE pathways, GHG emissions will decrease over the same period due to reduced demand for cereals, whereas significant crop productivity and harvest intensity gains would lead to increased crop production. The exercise reveals the indispensability of healthy diets, improved crop, and livestock productivity, and net-zero deforestation in achieving India's mid-century emission targets from the agriculture sector.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11625-022-01193-0.

Co-benefits of the EAT-Lancet diet for environmental protection in the framework of the Spanish dietary pattern

The immediate need to build resilient food systems with lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and protection of water resources is a global challenge. To address this, the EAT-Lancet Commission described the global reference diet with principles of nutritional quality and environmental sustainability. With this in mind, the carbon and water footprints of the current Spanish dietary pattern have been compared with the EAT-Lancet global dietary recommendations, taking into account deviations in food intake. To provide additional context, differences between the average Spanish dietary pattern and dietary guidelines applied in other countries in Europe (Italy, the Netherlands and the Mediterranean region) and America have also been analyzed and discussed from a sustainability approach. We found that the EAT-Lancet diet requires less water resources (3056 L·person^-1·day^-1) and lower level of GHG emissions (2.13 kgCO₂eq·person^-1·day^-1) in comparison with the Spanish dietary pattern (3732 L·person^-1·day^-1 and 3.62 kgCO₂eq·person^-1·day^-1, respectively). Starch-based products and oils and fats were identified as largest contributors to both environmental indicators in the EAT-Lancet diet. On the other hand, meat and dairy were the environmental hotspots in the Spanish dietary pattern. Comparison with other food-based dietary patterns also raises environmental concerns about the high meat consumption in Spain. Overall, this analysis suggests that reducing the consumption of beef meat and dairy to a level in line with the global environmental targets set by the EAT-Lancet Commission would ensure a shift in Spanish dietary habits towards more environmentally sustainable food consumption patterns.

Effects of strip cropping with reducing row spacing and super absorbent polymer on yield and water productivity of oat (Avena sativa L.) under drip irrigation in Inner Mongolia, China

With the serious shortage of water resources and the development of water-saving agriculture, the application of drip irrigation has been paid more and more attention. But there was lack of oat planting methods suitable for drip irrigation, currently. In order to establish an efficient oat planting method for drip irrigation, a study was conducted at Agriculture and Forestry Sciences of Ulanqab, Inner Mongolia during the season (2019–2020) to evaluate the effect of strip cropping with reducing row spacing and super absorbent polymer on the yield and water use efficiency of oat. To conduct the field trials, a split plot system in three replications was established. Three planting patterns were in the main plots, including conventional cropping with 20 cm equal row spacing (PA), strip cropping with the 15 cm row spacing (PB) and strip cropping with the 10 cm row spacing (PC), and two super absorbent polymer levels were in the subplots, including 22.5 kg ha⁻² (Y) and 0 (N). The results showed that, compared with PA, PB and PC both decreased the irrigation volumes by 4.5–18.4 mm, and the irrigation volumes of PB was lower than that of PC. When super absorbent polymers were applied, compared with PA, PB significantly increased grain yield and above-ground biomass, but PC had the opposite effects. The grain yield and above-ground biomass of PB significantly increased by 16.65% and 7.31% on average in two years, respectively. And the increasing of grain yield was attributed by the significant increasing of pike number and kernel number per spike. But when super absorbent polymers were not applied, PB had no significant effects on grain yield and above-ground biomass. PB also had the significant effects on regulating water use of oats weather or not super absorbent polymers were applied, it significantly increased the precipitation ratio by 2.64% (PBY) and 2.13% (PBN) and decreased irrigation ration by 3.32% (PBY) and 5.28% (PBN) on average in two years. Although PB and PC both decreased the total evapotranspiration, but PB increased WUE and PC deceased WUE. The WUE of PB increased by 19.70% (PBY) and 9.87% (PBN) on average in two years. Also PB had the highest economic benefits in all treatments. In conclusion, a drip irrigation oat planting pattern was proposed, which the row spacing is 15 cm, adjusted the equal row spacing planting to 8-row strip planting, with a belt spacing of 30 cm, combined with the application of 22.5 kg ha⁻² applying super absorbent polymers. And this oat planting pattern is a viable strategy to improve oat productivity.

The water footprint and nutritional implications of diet change in Mexico: a principal component analysis

PURPOSE

Nutrition transition (NT) has modified the way that the Mexican population eats, while their body composition has also been modified. These changes have been linked with environmental impacts; however, little is known regarding water footprint (WF). The objective of this paper was to analyze the NT process in Mexico and evaluate its impact on WF using principal component analysis (PCA).

METHODS

A validated Food Consumption Frequency Questionnaire (FCFQ) was modified and applied to 400 adults from the Metropolitan Zone of Guadalajara, Mexico. The WF was calculated according to the WF Assessment Method. PCA and tertiles analysis was carried out to define dietary patterns WFs (DPWF). Questions covering sociodemographic and socioeconomic factors, as well as body composition data and physical activity levels were measured.

RESULTS

The average DPWF was 6619.58 ± 3182.62 L per person per day (L p^-1d^-1). We found three DPWF by PCA: Medium NT (55% from the total sample), Healthy plant-based (28%), and High in animal protein (17%). The highest energy consumption, western and Mexican foods intake, and dietary WF were found in Medium NT DPWF, as well as obesity prevalence. Fruits and vegetable consumption was higher in Healthy plant-based DPWF. Muscle mass percentage was higher in the High in animal protein DPWF.

CONCLUSIONS

Although most of the population is currently on Medium NT, new dietary patterns have emerged, where there was found a trend to plant-based diets but also diets high in animal food sources that can influence nutritional status.

Driving commitment to sustainable food policies within the framework of American and European dietary guidelines

Diet and nutrition are essential factors in promoting good health throughout life. Their role as determinants of chronic non-communicable diseases is widely recognized. Additionally, the demand for food involves relevant environmental burdens that have to be taken into account on the way to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. As an important part of nutrition policy, food-based dietary guidelines (FBDGs) have been revised. The key question is: Are environmental considerations being incorporated into them? To address this issue, we modeled and compared both the main environmental indicators in terms of carbon footprint (CF) and water footprint (WF), and nutritional quality (according to the Nutrient Rich Diet index, NRD9.3 and a health gain score) of dietary guidelines from Northern and Southern Europe and America. Particularly, the FBDGs compared were Dutch Dietary Guidelines (DDG), New Nordic Diet (NND), Spanish Strategy for Nutrition, Physical Activity and Obesity Prevention (NAOS), Mediterranean Diet (MD), Italian Dietary Guidelines (IDG) and American Dietary Guidelines (DGA). The IDG and MD offered the best profiles from a climate change perspective (2.04 and 2.21 kgCO₂eq·day^-1). Overall, DGA had the highest CF (2.98 kgCO₂eq·day^-1). WF presented greater fluctuations, not only due to daily-recommended amounts, but also because of different climate conditions and production systems of the reference countries. Hence, WF ranged from 1760 L·person^-1·day^-1 in IDG to 3181 L·person^-1·day^-1 in NAOS. Finally, the nutritional value of MD, which had the highest NRD9.3 (477) and health gain score (178), has been demonstrated when the comparison was made with DDG, the one with the lowest health gain score (97) and DGA, the worst in terms of NRD9.3 (391). To go ahead of the FBDGs that bet on all dimensions of sustainability, multi-criteria analysis is needed. Nutrition and environmental performance are not the only aspects of the problem; economy and sociocultural variables should be considered.

Scenario analysis on optimal farmed-fish-species composition in China: A theoretical methodology to benefit wild-fishery stock, water conservation, economic and protein outputs under the context of climate change

Fish production from aquaculture and wild captures suffers from the rising risk of climate change. This impacts the livelihoods of fishers and fish farmers by shrinking wild fishery stocks, inland water scarcity, and consequent declines in economic and protein productions. China, feeding the most fish of the world with water-intensive crops, faces challenges of water scarcity but still be premature in developing strategies to adapt to climate change. Here, focusing on methodology development, we quantified the water footprint of fish-farming and economic and protein productions in the baseline year 2014. Then, 29 scenarios of farmed-fish-species composition (FFSC, i.e., tons of each farmed fish species) were developed for the target year 2020. The baseline 2014 shows that fish farming generates an average of 150 billion m³ of water footprint, 4.70 million tons of protein, and 263 billion RMB of economic output (~39 billion USD). Uncertainty optimizations were conducted to generate the optimal FFSC solutions that show a potential to increase fish production by 22%, economic and protein output by 18% and 29%, respectively and simultaneously lower water footprint by 22% to the maximum extent. Nine scenarios that lower wild fishery captures were further examined, with optimal FFSC solution that encourages aquaculture of Grass carp, Bighead Carp, and Silver Carp, and discourages Black carp, Tilapia, Crucian carp, Sea bass, and Wuchang bream. From a methodology aspect, this study pulls back policymakers from only focusing on the short-term economic interest of fish-farming and persuades them to rethink long-term adaptive strategies to climate change from multiple sustainable dimensions.

Association between the socio-economic status of households and a more sustainable diet

OBJECTIVE

A sustainable diet is an affordable diet with low environmental impact, high food security and sufficient healthiness. The present study aimed to assess the correlation between the socio-economic status of households and a sustainable diet.

DESIGN

The food basket and socio-economic data of Iranian households were evaluated during 2016-2018. The households were classified based on the sustainability of their diet by determining the dietary carbon footprint, dietary water footprint, lower dietary costs of the household than the median and a higher dietary quality index than the median. Logistic regression was used with four models to calculate the OR of a more sustainable diet as the dependent variable regarding the different quartiles of socio-economic status (SES) as the independent variable.

SETTING

Iran.

PARTICIPANTS

Iranian households (n 102 303), nationally representative, were studied.

RESULTS

Lower SES was associated with the higher OR of a sustainable diet (OR: 0·90; (95 % CI 0·87, 0·91)). Higher quartiles of SES compared with the lower SES group indicated the higher energy intake and consumption of more dairies, meat, poultry, fish, eggs, legumes, nuts and fruits, as well as the lower intake of bread, cereal, rice and pasta.

CONCLUSION

In countries such as Iran, where nutrition transition occurs rapidly, better economic and social levels in the populations with a higher SES are associated with increased energy intake and higher consumption of animal-based foods, which decreases sustainable diets compared with the groups with a lower SES.

Disparities and drivers of the water footprint of food consumption in China

Food production requires a large amount of water. As a country facing a serious scarcity of per capita water resources and severe water pollution, China must explore the spatial distribution characteristics of its dietary water footprint. China is the world's largest developing country, and water consumption inevitably has increased with its economic development. It is essential to explore the factors influencing the water footprint and water conservation mechanisms. Based on China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS) data, individual-level data of dietary water footprint and residents' socio-economic characteristics were obtained. The decision tree was applied to classify the dietary water footprint based on socio-economic factors, and multinomial logistic regression was then performed to investigate the influence of each factor. The results showed that all six selected socio-economic factors had a statistically significant impact on the dietary water footprint. Income and education level were positively related to the dietary water footprint; urban residents, males, and residents with a higher body mass index (BMI) consumed more dietary water than rural residents, females, and those with a lower BMI, respectively. Age exhibited an inverted U-shaped influence. Understanding the drivers and disparities of the water footprint of food consumption can support the development of policy for energy conservation, which can ultimately help achieve the goal of reducing water waste.

Exploring the optimal crop planting structure to balance water saving, food security and incomes under the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of the agricultural climate

Crop planting provided foods, generated incomes, and consumed water resources to different extents under different spatiotemporal agroclimatic conditions. For balancing three aspects, targeting the rice, maize, wheat, and sorghum planted in Liaoning during the recent two decades, we established an integrated research framework consisting of water footprint (WF) accounting, clustering analysis, and fuzzy optimization programming to quantify the temporal trends and spatial distribution of water footprints, and optimized the planting structure under the different spatiotemporal agroclimatic conditions. Results showed that the maximum water footprint differences were 4166.73 m³/t and 4790.71 m³/t in spatial distribution and temporal series, respectively. Based on precipitation, we established 12 agroclimatic scenarios according to K-Means clustering. The fuzzy optimization result indicated that the planting area percent ranges of maize, wheat, rice, and sorghum in Liaoning province were 4.96%-98.62%, 0.00%-8.55%, 0.00%-18.18%, and 0.00%-95.04%, respectively under the different spatiotemporal conditions. This study's methods and results help make targeted decisions related to grain planting structure while considering the complex spatial-temporal conditions.

Assessment of Planting Method and Deficit Irrigation Impacts on Physio-Morphology, Grain Yield and Water Use Efficiency of Maize (Zea mays L.) on Vertisols of Semi-Arid Tropics

Agriculture in a water-limited environment is critically important for today and for the future. This research evaluates the impact of deficit irrigation in different planting methods on the physio-morphological traits, grain yield and WUE of maize (Zea mays L.). The experiment was carried out in 2015 and 2016, consisting of three planting methods (i.e., BBF, SNF, and DWF) and four irrigation levels (i.e., I_10D: irrigation once in ten days, I₄₀: irrigation at 40% DASM, I₅₀: irrigation at 50% DASM, and I₆₀: irrigation at 60% DASM). The results reveal that varying degrees of water stress due to planting methods and irrigation levels greatly influenced the maize physio-morphological traits and yield attributes. The combined effect of DWF + I₅₀ benefited the maize in terms of higher leaf area, RWC, SPAD values, CGR, and LAD, followed by the SNF method at 60 DAS. As a result, DWF + I₅₀ and SNF + I₅₀ had higher 100 grain weight (30.5 to 31.8 g), cob weight (181.4 to 189.6 g cob⁻¹) and grain yield (35.3% to 36.4%) compared to other treatments. However, the reduction in the number of irrigations (24.0%) under SNF + I₅₀ resulted in a 34% water saving. Thus, under a water-limited situation in semi-arid tropics, the practice of the SNF method + I₅₀ could be an alternative way to explore the physio-morphological benefits in maize.

Environmental assessment of menus for toddlers serviced at nursery canteen following the Atlantic diet recommendations

Menus served at public services can be considered as a good opportunity for consumers to demand a service that ensures healthy and environmentally friendly food. It is especially in the sector of nurseries and schools, where these demands make the most sense since they call for the protection of particularly vulnerable population: children. The purpose of this study is to analyze the biweekly menus served at a public Spanish nursery canteen considering the link with the two most recognized environmental indicators: the consumptive water footprint (WF) and the carbon footprint (CF). The WF and CF of the menus vary considerably between menus (619-1359 L·menu^-1 and 0.75-2.95 kg CO₂eq·menu^-1). The assessment has identified non-dairy sources of protein and dairy-based products as the key food categories in all menus. Menus with more meat (mostly beef) and dairy products (mainly cheese) were associated with higher impacts. That is, the average impact of menus with beef is about 2 times greater than the one of all other menus. The distribution and cooking stages presented negligible contributions in terms of greenhouse gases emissions, mainly due to the consumption of local/regional products and low-energy intensive cooking techniques. The most important strategy for reducing environmental impacts is based on reducing the frequency of consumption of beef, so that poultry and lean pork are consumed alternately. This reduction should not compromise the necessary protein intake for toddlers. Attention should also be paid to afternoon snacks that are rich in cold meat and dairy products. Considering these issues, significant reductions in WF and CF indicators could be achieved, up to 550 L·menu^-1 and 0.70 kg CO₂eq·menu^-1. Since eating habits introduced at an early stage are more likely to develop into adult behaviour, children canteen services are an excellent opportunity to promote healthy eating habits in children and their families.

Spatio-Temporal Variations of Crop Water Footprint and Its Influencing Factors in Xinjiang, China during 1988–2017

Scientifically determining agricultural water consumption is fundamental to the optimum allocation and regulation of regional water resources. However, traditional statistical methods used for determining agricultural water consumption in China do not reflect the actual use of water resources. This paper determined the variation in the crop water footprint (CWF) to reflect the actual agricultural water consumption in Xinjiang, China, during the past 30 years, and the data from 15 crops were included. In addition, the STIRPAT (stochastic impacts by regression on population, affluence and technology) model was used to determine the factors influencing the CWF. The results showed that the CWF in Xinjiang increased by 256% during the 30-year period. Factors such as population, agricultural added value, and effective irrigated area were correlated with an increase in the CWF. This study also showed that the implementation of national and regional policies significantly accelerated the expansion of agricultural production areas and increased the amount of agricultural water used. The objectives of this paper were to identify the factors influencing the CWF, give a new perspective for further analysis of the relationship between agricultural growth and water resources utilization, and provide a reference for local policy decision-makers in Xinjiang.

India has natural resource capacity to achieve nutrition security, reduce health risks and improve environmental sustainability

Sustainable development of India's food system must ensure a growing population is fed while minimizing both widespread malnutrition and the environmental impacts of food production. After assessing current adequacy of nutrient supplies at the national level, associated natural resource use (land, fresh water) and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, we apply an integrated subnational environmental and nutritional optimization approach to explore resource constraints that might limit the achievement of national food self-sufficiency goals. We find that India currently has the capacity to produce sufficient amounts of nutritious foods, supplying vitamins and minerals that would mostly exceed requirements. Regional cropland use could be reduced by up to 50%, water demand by up to 65% and combined resource inputs by up to 40% while still supporting adequate nutrition. Associated GHG emissions would decline by 26-34% and could possibly be sequestered in agroforestry systems. Such dietary shifts could lower the number of diet-related premature deaths by 14-30%. Achieving these potential gains, however, would require a major transition from current production and consumption patterns, particularly of refined cereals, to free-up resources for more traditional and nutritious foods.

Tracking the environmental footprints of institutional restaurant service in nursery schools

When dietary habits are analyzed in the framework of school catering services, nutritional indicators are essential criteria in the definition of menus, but attention should also be paid to the associated environmental impacts. It is especially relevant to assess food patterns in nursery schools when consumption habits are most strongly implemented, and they must be healthy and sustainable. With the aim of evaluating the main environmental indicators: Carbon and water footprints (CF and WF), ten menus consisting of lunch and afternoon snack were evaluated, which comprise a wide range of food categories (fruits and vegetables, starch-based products, milk and milk products, non-dairy sources of protein, and others). The CF of the menus varied considerably according to their composition, with beef-rich menus having the worst profile (up to 2.24 kg CO₂/menu and 0.39 kg CO₂/100 kcal). Regarding the WF, meals rich on animal-based products also entailed water implications and mainly associated with the consumption of beef. Green WF and blue WF are responsible for 88% of the contributions to this indicator, on average. The WF indicator reaches up to 1271 L·menu^-1 and 223 L/100 kcal for a menu containing beef meat. This study confirms the effect on CF and WF from animal-based products, specifically beef meat and dairy products. The findings of the study can be useful to make recommendations not only to consumers on reducing the environmental impacts from food production and consumption, but also to design balanced menus with better environmental scores based on the combination of low and high footprint food products, always providing the necessary energy and nutrients, an unquestionable issue in toddlers and pre-school children whose need to follow balanced and healthy diets, being meat an important foodstuff.

Dietary recommendations in Spain -affordability and environmental sustainability?

Global food demand is increasing due to population growth and dietary transitions, resulting from rising incomes, are associated with increased prevalence of non-communicable diseases. Improving the sustainability of the food sector is also critical for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. This study assesses for the first time the greenhouse gases emissions (Carbon Footprint - CF), the water footprint (WF) and the cost of three omnivorous diets recommended in Spain due to their health benefits: the Mediterranean diet (MD), the Southern European Atlantic diet (SEAD) and the Spanish dietary guidelines (NAOS). Analysis was conducted using standard Life Cycle Assessment and WF methods together with current Spanish food price data. The dietary energy recommendation of the SEAD is greater than that of MD and NAOS (11 and 15% respectively), and SEAD also has greater animal source food content than the other two diets. SEAD has a concomitantly higher CF, WF and cost scores in comparison with MD (+30%, +23% and +21% respectively) and NAOS (+15%, +9% and +21% respectively). Adjusting recommendations to meet the suggested Spanish adult dietary energy of 2228 kcal.capita-1.day-1 changed the environmental profiles of the diets and the NAOS has the highest environmental impact. However, the isocaloric diets had approximately the same cost. Analysis of the WF of the diets identified the major contribution of precipitation (the green WF) to the overall WF (88% of the total) and the significant contribution of animal-source foods to dietary WF. Regardless of the dietary scenario, better scores were identified for the Spanish recommendations analysed than those reported for other healthy diets identified in Europe. Differences in the recommended intake levels of certain food groups, cooking techniques and the origin of food products are behind these results. Environmental indicators should be considered alongside nutrition and health metrics when defining national dietary guidelines. Supporting citizens to follow healthy and environmentally-friendly dietary recommendations through, among other things, information campaigns and nutritional education programmes is essential. It is recommended the incorporation not only of health, but also of environmental indicators of these dietary options in the national dietary guidelines, as well as implementation of information campaigns and nutritional education programs among citizens to promote their adhesion since balanced dietary habits rich on plant-based products and low on animal-based ones involve multiple health and environmental benefits.

Dietary recommendations in Spain -affordability and environmental sustainability?

Global food demand is increasing due to population growth and dietary transitions, resulting from rising incomes, are associated with increased prevalence of non-communicable diseases. Improving the sustainability of the food sector is also critical for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. This study assesses for the first time the greenhouse gases emissions (Carbon Footprint - CF), the water footprint (WF) and the cost of three omnivorous diets recommended in Spain due to their health benefits: the Mediterranean diet (MD), the Southern European Atlantic diet (SEAD) and the Spanish dietary guidelines (NAOS). Analysis was conducted using standard Life Cycle Assessment and WF methods together with current Spanish food price data. The dietary energy recommendation of the SEAD is greater than that of MD and NAOS (11 and 15% respectively), and SEAD also has greater animal source food content than the other two diets. SEAD has a concomitantly higher CF, WF and cost scores in comparison with MD (+30%, +23% and +21% respectively) and NAOS (+15%, +9% and +21% respectively). Adjusting recommendations to meet the suggested Spanish adult dietary energy of 2228 kcal.capita^-1.day^-1 changed the environmental profiles of the diets and the NAOS has the highest environmental impact. However, the isocaloric diets had approximately the same cost. Analysis of the WF of the diets identified the major contribution of precipitation (the green WF) to the overall WF (88% of the total) and the significant contribution of animal-source foods to dietary WF. Regardless of the dietary scenario, better scores were identified for the Spanish recommendations analysed than those reported for other healthy diets identified in Europe. Differences in the recommended intake levels of certain food groups, cooking techniques and the origin of food products are behind these results. Environmental indicators should be considered alongside nutrition and health metrics when defining national dietary guidelines. Supporting citizens to follow healthy and environmentally-friendly dietary recommendations through, among other things, information campaigns and nutritional education programmes is essential. It is recommended the incorporation not only of health, but also of environmental indicators of these dietary options in the national dietary guidelines, as well as implementation of information campaigns and nutritional education programs among citizens to promote their adhesion since balanced dietary habits rich on plant-based products and low on animal-based ones involve multiple health and environmental benefits.

The Water Footprint of Diets: A Global Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Agricultural water requirements differ between foods. Population-level dietary preferences are therefore a major determinant of agricultural water use. The "water footprint" (WF) represents the volume of water consumed in the production of food items, separated by water source; blue WF represents ground and surface water use, and green WF represents rain water use. We systematically searched for published studies using the WF to assess the water use of diets. We used the available evidence to quantify the WF of diets in different countries, and grouped diets in patterns according to study definition. "Average" patterns equated to those currently consumed, whereas "healthy" patterns included those recommended in national dietary guidelines. We searched 7 online databases and identified 41 eligible studies that reported the dietary green WF, blue WF, or total WF (green plus blue) (1964 estimates for 176 countries). The available evidence suggests that, on average, European (170 estimates) and Oceanian (18 estimates) dietary patterns have the highest green WFs (median per capita: 2999 L/d and 2924 L/d, respectively), whereas Asian dietary patterns (98 estimates) have the highest blue WFs (median: 382 L/d per capita). Foods of animal origin are major contributors to the green WFs of diets, whereas cereals, fruits, nuts, and oils are major contributors to the blue WF of diets. "Healthy" dietary patterns (425 estimates) had green WFs that were 5.9% (95% CI: -7.7, -4.0) lower than those of "average" dietary patterns, but they did not differ in their blue WFs. Our review suggests that changes toward healthier diets could reduce total water use of agriculture, but would not affect blue water use. Rapid dietary change and increasing water security concerns underscore the need for a better understanding of the amount and type of water used in food production to make informed policy decisions.

Future diets in India: A systematic review of food consumption projection studies

Against a backdrop of a rapidly changing food system and a growing population, characterisation of likely future diets in India can help to inform agriculture and health policies. We systematically searched six published literature databases and grey literature repositories up to January 2018 for studies projecting the consumption of foods in India to time points beyond 2018. The 11 identified studies reported on nine foods up to 2050: the available evidence suggests projected increases in per capita consumption of vegetables, fruit and dairy products, and little projected change in cereal (rice and wheat) and pulse consumption. Meat consumption is projected to remain low. Understanding and mitigating the impacts of projected dietary changes in India is important to protect public health and the environment.

Assessing the sustainability of post-Green Revolution cereals in India

Substantial growth in food production has occurred from a narrowing diversity of crops over the last 50 y. Agricultural policies have largely focused on the single objective of maximizing production with less attention given to nutrition, climate, and environment. Decisions about sustainable food systems require quantifying and assessing multiple dimensions together. In India, diversifying crop production to include more coarse cereals, such as millets and sorghum, can make food supply more nutritious, reduce resource demand and greenhouse gas emissions, and enhance climate resilience without reducing calorie production or requiring more land. Similar multidimensional approaches to food production challenges in other parts of the world can identify win–win scenarios where food systems meet multiple nutritional, environmental, and climate resilience goals.

Sustainable food systems aim to provide sufficient and nutritious food, while maximizing climate resilience and minimizing resource demands as well as negative environmental impacts. Historical practices, notably the Green Revolution, prioritized the single objective to maximize production over other nutritional and environmental dimensions. We quantitatively assess outcomes of alternative production decisions across multiple objectives using India’s rice-dominated monsoon cereal production as an example. We perform a series of optimizations to maximize nutrient production (i.e., protein and iron), minimize greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and resource use (i.e., water and energy), or maximize resilience to climate extremes. We find that increasing the area under coarse cereals (i.e., millets, sorghum) improves nutritional supply (on average, +1% to +5% protein and +5% to +49% iron), increases climate resilience (1% to 13% fewer calories lost during an extreme dry year), and reduces GHGs (−2% to −13%) and demand for irrigation water (−3% to −21%) and energy (−2% to −12%) while maintaining calorie production and cropped area. The extent of these benefits partly depends on the feasibility of switching cropped area from rice to coarse cereals. Based on current production practices in 2 states, supporting these cobenefits could require greater manure and draft power but similar or less labor, fertilizer, and machinery. National- and state-level strategies considering multiple objectives in decisions about cereal production can move beyond many shortcomings of the Green Revolution while reinforcing the benefits. This ability to realistically incorporate multiple dimensions into intervention planning and implementation is the crux of sustainable food production systems worldwide.

Diet Quality and Water Scarcity: Evidence from a Large Australian Population Health Survey

There is widespread interest in dietary strategies that lower environmental impacts. However, various forms of malnutrition are also widely prevalent. In a first study of its kind, we quantify the water-scarcity footprint and diet quality score of a large (>9000) population of self-selected adult daily diets. Here, we show that excessive consumption of discretionary foods—i.e., energy-dense and nutrient-poor foods high in saturated fat, added sugars and salt, and alcohol—contributes up to 36% of the water-scarcity impacts and is the primary factor differentiating healthier diets with lower water-scarcity footprint from poorer quality diets with higher water-scarcity footprint. For core food groups (fruits, vegetables, etc.), large differences in water-scarcity footprint existed between individual foods, making difficult the amendment of dietary guidelines for water-scarcity impact reduction. Very large reductions in dietary water-scarcity footprint are possible, but likely best achieved though technological change, product reformulation and procurement strategies in the agricultural and food industries.

"More crop per drop": Exploring India's cereal water use since 2005

India has the highest national freshwater demand globally and 91% of India's freshwater is used in the agriculture sector. Cereals account for over 50% of the dietary water footprint in India and represent a potential opportunity for reducing water use in Indian agriculture. This study combines governmental production and irrigation statistics with crop distribution maps to examine trends in annual water use for cereal production in India between 2005 and 2014. A new online water assessment tool, Cool Farm Tool Water (CFTW), was used to calculate water use and derive seasonal state-level blue and green water footprints for rice, wheat, sorghum, millet and maize. The analysis indicates that India achieved 26.4% increased total cereal production between 2005 and 2014 without additional water or land use. Cereal water footprints have declined due to higher yields for most crops and slightly lower rates of evapotranspiration. There has also been a shift in the area under production away from the Kharif (monsoon) towards the Rabi (dry) season in which total water footprints for all cereals except rice are substantially lower (-33.4% to -45.0% compared to Kharif), but show a significantly higher dependency on ground and surface water. The value of this study is two-fold. First, it provides a full assessment of production trends for the five major cereals in India for each year from 2005 to 2014 and links it to water use. Secondly, it uses updated seasonal water footprints, which demonstrate the potential for changes in cereal production practices to contribute to improved efficiency of water use in India. Future pressures on scarce water resources may encourage transition to cereals with lower irrigation dependency, in particular maize, but also sorghum and millet. In addition, increased emphasis on improving millet and sorghum yields would be of benefit to secure cereal production and reduce its overall water footprint.

Environmental impacts of dietary shifts in India: A modelling study using nationally-representative data

Food production is a major driver of environmental change, and unhealthy diets are the leading cause of global disease burden. In high-income countries (HICs), modelling studies suggest that adoption of healthy diets could improve population health and reduce environmental footprints associated with food production. We assessed whether such benefits from dietary change could occur in India, where under-nutrition and overweight and obesity are simultaneously prevalent. We calculated the potential changes in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, blue and green water footprints (WFs), and land use (LU), that would result from shifting current national food consumption patterns in India to healthy diets (meeting dietary guidelines) and to "affluent diets" (those consumed by the wealthiest quartile of households, which may represent future purchasing power and nutritional trajectories). Dietary data were derived from the 2011-12 nationally-representative household expenditure survey, and we assessed dietary scenarios nationally and across six Indian sub-regions, by rural or urban location, and for those consuming above or below recommended dietary energy intakes. We modelled the changes in consumption of 34 food groups necessary to meet Indian dietary guidelines, as well as an affluent diet representative of those in the highest wealth quartile. These changes were combined with food-specific data on GHG emissions, calculated using the Cool Farm Tool, and WF and LU adapted from the Water Footprint Network and Food and Agriculture Organization, respectively. Shifting to healthy guidelines nationally required a minor increase in dietary energy (3%), with larger increases in fruit (18%) and vegetable (72%) intake, though baseline proportion of dietary energy from fat and protein was adequate and did not change significantly. Meeting healthy guidelines slightly increased environmental footprints by about 3-5% across GHG emissions, blue and green WFs, and LU. However, these national averages masked substantial variation within sub-populations. For example, shifting to healthy diets among those with dietary energy intake below recommended guidelines would result in increases of 28% in GHG emissions, 18 and 34% in blue and green WFs, respectively, and 41% in LU. Decreased environmental impacts were seen among those who currently consume above recommended dietary energy (-6 to -16% across footprints). Adoption of affluent diets by the whole population would result in increases of 19-36% across the environmental indicators. Specific food groups contributing to these shifts varied by scenario. Environmental impacts also varied markedly between six major Indian sub-regions. In India, where undernutrition is prevalent, widespread adoption of healthy diets may lead to small increases in the environmental footprints of the food system relative to the status quo, although much larger increases would occur if there was widespread adoption of diets currently consumed by the wealthiest quartile of the population. To achieve lower diet-related disease burdens and reduced environmental footprints of the food system, greater efficiency of food production and reductions in food waste are likely to be required alongside promotion of healthy diets.

Integrating Agriculture and Health Research for Development: LCIRAH as an Interdisciplinary Programme to Address a Global Challenge

The multiple burdens of persistent undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies, along with the rapidly growing rates of overweight, obesity, and associated chronic diseases, are major challenges globally. The role of agriculture and the food system in meeting these challenges is very poorly understood. Achieving food security and addressing malnutrition in all its forms, a Sustainable Development Goal, requires an understanding of how changing food systems affect health outcomes and the development of new tools to design and evaluate interventions. An interinstitutional programme to address this interdisciplinary research challenge is described. Over the past seven years, the Leverhulme Centre for Integrative Research on Agriculture and Health has built a portfolio of successful and innovative research, trained a new cadre of interdisciplinary researchers in "Agri-Health," and built an international research community with a particular focus on strengthening research capacity in low- and middle-income countries. The evolution of this programme is described, and key factors contributing to its success are discussed that may be of general value in designing interdisciplinary research programmes directed at supporting global development goals.

Greenhouse gas emissions and water footprints of typical dietary patterns in India

Agriculture is a major contributor to India's environmental footprint, particularly through greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from livestock and fresh water used for irrigation. These impacts are likely to increase in future as agriculture attempts to keep pace with India's growing population and changing dietary preferences. Within India there is considerable dietary variation, and this study therefore aimed to quantify the GHG emissions and water usage associated with distinct dietary patterns. Five distinct diets were identified from the Indian Migration Study - a large adult population sample in India - using finite mixture modelling. These were defined as: Rice & low diversity, Rice & fruit, Wheat & pulses, Wheat, rice & oils, Rice & meat. The GHG emissions of each dietary pattern were quantified based on a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach, and water use was quantified using Water Footprint (WF) data. Mixed-effects regression models quantified differences in the environmental impacts of the dietary patterns. There was substantial variability between diets: the rice-based patterns had higher associated GHG emissions and green WFs, but the wheat-based patterns had higher blue WFs. Regression modelling showed that the Rice & meat pattern had the highest environmental impacts overall, with 0.77 (95% CI 0.64-0.89) kg CO2e/capita/day (31%) higher emissions, 536 (95% CI 449-623) L/capita/day (24%) higher green WF and 109 (95% CI 85.9-133) L/capita/day (19%) higher blue WF than the reference Rice & low diversity pattern. Diets in India are likely to become more diverse with rising incomes, moving away from patterns such as the Rice & low diversity diet. Patterns such as the Rice & meat diet may become more common, and the environmental consequences of such changes could be substantial given the size of India's population. As global environmental stress increases, agricultural and nutrition policies must recognise the environmental impacts of potential future dietary changes.

Impact of Social Factors in Agricultural Production on the Crop Water Footprint in Xinjiang, China

Irrigation plays an important role in China’s agricultural production, and a reasonable assessment of water resources consumption in agricultural production will contribute to improved agricultural water management practices. The objectives of this study were to analyze variations in the magnitude of the crop water footprint (CWF) in Xinjiang and determine the major factors that influence variation in order to provide proposals for water resources management. The CWF of Xinjiang from 1988 to 2015 was calculated, and the impacts of crop-planting structures, agricultural inputs, and water conservancy projects on agricultural water use were analyzed to evaluate the suitable amount of agricultural water utilization and area of farmland in Xinjiang. Results show that the magnitude of the CWF in Xinjiang significantly increased during the study period. Construction of water conservancy projects greatly facilitated water diversion and had the closest relationship with the growth of CWF. The appropriate water volume and planting area for agriculture in Xinjiang is calculated to be 39.4 billion m3 and 4.3 million ha, respectively, which are 73% and 65% of the current water consumption and cultivated area, respectively. These results can be used as a reference for reducing agricultural water consumption and the farmland area in Xinjiang.

Sustainable food systems-a health perspective

Malnutrition in all forms, ranging from undernourishment to obesity and associated diet-related diseases, is one of the leading causes of death worldwide, while food systems often have major environmental impacts. Rapid global population growth and increases in demands for food and changes in dietary habits create challenges to provide universal access to healthy food without creating negative environmental, economic, and social impacts. This article discusses opportunities for and challenges to sustainable food systems from a human health perspective by making the case for avoiding the transition to unhealthy less sustainable diets (using India as an exemplar), reducing food waste by changing consumer behaviour (with examples from Japan), and using innovations and new technologies to reduce the environmental impact of healthy food production. The article touches upon two of the challenges to achieving healthy sustainable diets for a global population, i.e., reduction on the yield and nutritional quality of crops (in particular vegetables and fruits) due to climate change; and trade-offs between food production and industrial crops. There is an urgent need to develop and implement policies and practices that provide universal access to healthy food choices for a growing world population, whilst reducing the environmental footprint of the global food system.

Projected health effects of realistic dietary changes to address freshwater constraints in India: a modelling study

BACKGROUND

The availability of freshwater for irrigation in the Indian agricultural sector is expected to decline over the coming decades. This might have implications for food production in India, with subsequent effects on diets and health. We identify realistic and healthy dietary changes that could enhance the resilience of the Indian food system to future decreases in water availability.

METHODS

In this modelling study, we optimised typical dietary patterns in an Indian population sample to meet projected decreases in the availability of water per person for irrigation (blue water footprint) due to population growth (to 2025 and 2050). The optimised diets met nutritional guidelines and minimised deviation from existing patterns. Resulting changes in life-years lost due to coronary heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and cancers were modelled using life tables, and changes in greenhouse gas emissions associated with the production of diets were estimated. The primary outcomes of the model were changes in life-years per 100 000 total population over 40 years (to 2050).

FINDINGS

The optimised diets had up to 30% lower blue water footprints and generally contained lower amounts of wheat, dairy, and poultry, and increased amounts of legumes. In the 2050 scenario, adoption of these diets would on average result in 6800 life-years gained per 100 000 total population (95% CI 1600-13 100) over 40 years. The dietary changes were accompanied by reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. The magnitude of the health and environmental effects varied between dietary patterns.

INTERPRETATION

Modest changes in diets could help to address projected reductions in the availability of freshwater for irrigation in India. These dietary changes could also simultaneously reduce diet-related greenhouse gas emissions and improve diet-related health outcomes.

FUNDING

Wellcome Trust.

Effects of environmental change on population nutrition and health: A comprehensive framework with a focus on fruits and vegetables

Environmental changes are likely to affect agricultural production over the next 20–30 years. The interactions between environmental change, agricultural yields and crop quality, and the critical pathways to future diets and health outcomes remain largely undefined. There are currently no quantitative models to test the impact of multiple environmental changes on nutrition and health outcomes. Using an interdisciplinary approach, we developed a framework to link the multiple interactions between environmental change, agricultural productivity and crop quality, population-level food availability, dietary intake and health outcomes, with a specific focus on fruits and vegetables. The main components of the framework consist of: i) socio-economic and societal factors, ii) environmental change stressors, iii) interventions and policies, iv) food system activities, v) food and nutrition security, and vi) health and well-being outcomes. The framework, based on currently available evidence, provides an overview of the multidimensional and complex interactions between environmental change, diets and health, and forms the analytical baseline for future modelling and scenario testing. The framework identifies the inter-sectoral datasets and models that need to be defined and populated to assess the impacts of environmental change on agricultural production, food availability, nutrition and population health.