Phthalates in infant cotton clothing: Occurrence and implications for human exposure

Phthalate esters in clothing: A review

Phthalate esters (PAEs) are widely used as plasticizers to enhance the flexibility and durability of different consumer products, including clothing. However, concerns have been raised about the potential adverse health effects associated with the presence of phthalates in textiles, such as endocrine disruption, reproductive toxicity and potential carcinogenicity. Based on examination of more than 120 published articles, this paper presents a comprehensive review of studies concerning the phthalate content in clothing and other textile products, with special emphasis on those conducted in the last decade (2014-2023). The types and role of PAEs as plasticizers, the relevant legislation in different countries (emphasizing the importance of monitoring PAE levels in clothing to protect consumer health) and the analytical methods used for PAE determination are critically evaluated. The review also discusses the models used to evaluate exposure to PAEs and the associated health risks. Finally, the study limitations and challenges related to determining the phthalate contents of textile products are considered.

Release kinetics and risk assessment of additives in plastic advertising banners

Plastic advertising banners (PABs) have been widely used for advertising and publicizing with large usage amount. The PABs are usually added with plenty of chemical additives for improving material performance, and the additives can be released during the lifetime of the PABs. However, limited knowledge is available on the composition and release of the additives in the PABs. In this study, benzenoids were found as the dominant additive categories in PABs. Release kinetics of benzenoid additives with high detection frequency and high abundance from the PABs under indoor and outdoor environments were investigated. During the 150-day release experiment, average release rates of the additives from the PABs under outdoor and indoor environments were 8.3 × 10-10 kg/m2·s and 6.3 × 10-10 kg/m2·s, respectively. The release rates of the additives were negatively related to the thickness of the PAB samples. Health risk assessment indicated that chemicals associated with PABs have potential carcinogenic risks to salesmen in the shopping malls. The risks of chemical exposure associated with PABs to consumers in the shopping malls were acceptable. This study unveils a considerable source of chemical exposure to humans.

Multi-source exposure and health risks of phthalates among university students in Northeastern China

The endocrine disruptor phthalates (PAEs) are widely used as important chemical additives in a variety of areas around the globe. PAEs are toxic to reproduction and development and may adversely affect the health of adolescents. Risk assessments of exposure to PAEs from different sources are more reflective of actual exposure than single-source assessments. We used personal exposure parameters to estimate the dose of PAEs to 107 university students from six media (including dormitory dust, dormitory air, clothing, food, disposable food containers, and personal care products (PCPs)) and three exposure routes (including ingestion, inhalation, and dermal absorption). Individual factors and lifestyles may affect PAE exposure to varying degrees. Based on a positive matrix factorization (PMF) model, the results indicated that the main sources of PAEs in dust were indoor building materials and plastics, while PCPs and adhesives were the major sources of airborne PAEs. The relative contribution of each source to PAE exposure showed that food and air were the primary sources of dimethyl phthalate (DMP) and dibutyl phthalate (DBP). Air source contributed the most to diethyl phthalate (DEP) exposure, followed by PCPs. Food was the most significant source of diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) exposure. Additionally, the exposure of DEHP to dust was not negligible. The ingestion pathway was the most dominant among the three exposure pathways, followed by dermal absorption. The non-carcinogenic risk of PAEs from the six sources was within acceptable limits. DEHP exhibits a low carcinogenic risk. We suggest university students maintain good hygienic and living habits to minimize exposure to PAEs.

Dust-phase phthalates in university dormitories in Beijing, China: pollution characteristics, potential sources, and non-dietary oral exposure

This study aimed to determine dust-phase phthalate levels in 112 dormitories of 14 universities during autumn and winter, investigate their potential sources, and estimate phthalate exposure via dust ingestion. Twelve phthalates were detected, among which di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and dicyclohexyl phthalate (DCHP) were the most abundant, followed by di-isobutyl phthalate (DiBP) and di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP). The median concentrations and contributions of DCHP and DEHP were the highest. The contributions of di-n-octyl phthalate and di-nonyl phthalate were higher in winter than in autumn. Potential sources included iron furniture, chemical fiber textiles, clothes, and personal care products. Medium-density fiberboard furniture is a potential sink for phthalates. In two seasons, DEHP, DCHP, DiBP, and DnBP were the main phthalates ingested by college students . The median oral exposure of ten phthalates was higher in females than in males. College students have a high risk of exposure to DEHP in dormitories.

Dust phase and window film phase phthalates in dormitories: profile characteristics, source screening, and estimated gas-phase concentration and dermal exposure comparison

Recently, phthalate exposure has become a major public health concern. However, gaps still remain in our understanding of phthalate profile characteristics, source screening, and gas-phase estimation. This study measured phthalate concentrations in dust and window films in 101 dormitories at 13 universities in Beijing, China, from October to December 2019. Based on the phthalate concentrations in the dust and window films, we estimated the gas-phase phthalate concentrations using steady-state and instantaneous equilibrium models, respectively, and male and female students' dermal exposure using the Monte Carlo simulation. Commonly used materials and supplies were screened for phthalate sources and evaluated using the positive matrix factorization (PMF) model. The results showed that the detection frequency of ten phthalates ranged from 79.2 to 100% in dust and from 84.2 to 100% in window films. Dicyclohexyl phthalate (DCHP), di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and dibutyl phthalate (DBP) were the most abundant phthalates in both indoor media and were also predominant in the indoor materials and supplies. The PMF results indicated that the potential sources of phthalates in dust and window films had both similarities and differences. Indoor door seals, paint, coatings, cables, air-conditioning rubber cable ties, wallpaper, and window seals were highly probable sources of phthalates. The gas-phase phthalate concentrations estimated using the two methods differed, especially for phthalates with high octanol-air partition coefficients (Koa), varying by 1-2 orders of magnitude. Moreover, compared with related studies, the gas-phase concentrations were significantly underestimated for phthalates with high Koa values, while the estimated gas-phase concentrations of phthalates with low Koa values were closer to the measured values. The estimated dermal exposure using the two methodologies also considerably differed. Such findings suggest that more attention should be focused on the exposure risk from the dust phase and window film phase phthalates.

Crosstalk between aryl hydrocarbon receptor and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway: Possible culprit of di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-mediated cardiotoxicity in zebrafish larvae

Typical plasticizer di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) has been demonstrated to induce cardiotoxicity in zebrafish, but the potential molecular mechanisms involved have not been fully elucidated. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), an essential protein for inducing developmental abnormalities, has been demonstrated to be activated by DEHP in other species, but whether the AhR signaling pathway also contributes to DEHP-mediated cardiac developmental toxicity in zebrafish remains unclear. Firstly, molecular docking simulations initially confirmed the possibility that DEHP has AhR agonistic activity. To further confirm this conjecture, this work analyzed the changes of cardiac-related indexes in zebrafish stressed by DEHP at individual, protein, and gene levels. The results showed that DEHP mediated cardiac phenotypic developmental defects, increased CYP1A1 activity, and oxidative stress as well as significant changes in the expression levels of key proteins and genes of AhR, Wnt/β-catenin, and Nrf2-Keap1 signaling pathways. Notably, the addition of AhR inhibitors effectively alleviated the above negative effects, indicating that the AhR signaling pathway and its crosstalk with the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway is an essential pathway for DEHP-mediated cardiac developmental toxicity. Overall, this work enriches the molecular mechanism of DEHP-mediated cardiac developmental defects in zebrafish and provides a reliable biomarker for future environmental risk assessment of DEHP.

A Review: Subcritical Water Extraction of Organic Pollutants from Environmental Matrices

Most organic pollutants are serious environmental concerns globally due to their resistance to biological, chemical, and photolytic degradation. The vast array of uses of organic compounds in daily life causes a massive annual release of these substances into the air, water, and soil. Typical examples of these substances include pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Since they are persistent and hazardous in the environment, as well as bio-accumulative, sensitive and efficient extraction and detection techniques are required to estimate the level of pollution and assess the ecological consequences. A wide variety of extraction methods, including pressurized liquid extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, and subcritical water extraction, have been recently used for the extraction of organic pollutants from the environment. However, subcritical water has proven to be the most effective approach for the extraction of a wide range of organic pollutants from the environment. In this review article, we provide a brief overview of the subcritical water extraction technique and its application to the extraction of PAHs, PCBs, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and others form environmental matrices. Furthermore, we briefly discuss the influence of key extraction parameters, such as extraction time, pressure, and temperature, on extraction efficiency and recovery.

Occurrence of phthalates in facemasks used in India and its implications for human exposure

Synthetic polymers with additives are used in the manufacturing of face masks (FMs); hence, FMs could be a potential source of exposure to phthalic acid esters (PAEs). India stands second in the world in terms of the FMs usage since the beginning of Covid-19 pandemic. However, little is known about the PAEs content of FMs used in India. Some PAEs, such as DEHP and DBP are suspected endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs); hence, wearing FM may increase the risk of exposure to these EDCs. In this study, we collected 91 samples of FMs from eight Indian cities and analyzed for five PAEs viz. DMP, DEP, DBP, BBP, and DEHP. The PAEs contents in FMs ranged from 101.79 to 27,948.64 ng/g. The carcinogenic risk of N 95 with filter, N-95, and cloth masks was higher than the threshold levels. The findings indicate the need to control PAEs in FMs through regulatory actions.

Reducing Transdermal Uptake of Semivolatile Plasticizers from Indoor Environments: A Clothing Intervention

Models and laboratory studies suggest that everyday clothing influences the transdermal uptake of semivolatile organic compounds, including phthalate plasticizers, from indoor environments. However, this effect has not been documented in environmental exposure settings. In this pilot study, we quantified daily excretion of 17 urinary metabolites (μg/day) for phthalates and phthalate alternatives in nine participants during 5 days. On Day 0, baseline daily excretion was determined in participants' urine. Starting on Day 1, participants refrained from eating phthalate-heavy foods and using personal care products. On Days 3 and 4, participants wore precleaned clothing as an exposure intervention. We observed a reduction in the daily excretion of phthalates during the intervention; mono-n-butyl phthalate, monoisobutyl phthalate (MiBP), and monobenzyl phthalate were significantly reduced by 35, 38, and 56%, respectively. Summed metabolites of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) were also reduced (27%; not statistically significant). A similar reduction among phthalate alternatives was not observed. The daily excretion of MiBP during the nonintervention period strongly correlated with indoor air concentrations of diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), suggesting that inhalation and transdermal uptake of DiBP from the air in homes are dominant exposure pathways. The results indicate that precleaned clothing can significantly reduce environmental exposure to phthalates and phthalate alternatives.

Co-occurrence of phthalate and non-phthalate plasticizers in dust and hand wipes: A comparison of levels across various sources

E-waste dismantlers' occupational exposure to plasticizers, particularly non-phthalate (NPAE) plasticizers, is poorly understood. This study monitored 11 phthalates (PAEs) and 16 NPAEs in dust and hand wipe samples from Central China e-waste workplace and ordinary homes. Concentrations of plasticizers in dust from e-waste dismantling workshops (median: 217 μg/g) were significantly lower than that from ordinary homes (462 μg/g; p < 0.01), however, the trend was similar but not significant in hand wipes from these two scenarios (50.2 vs. 72.3 μg/m2; p = 0.139). PAEs were still the dominant plasticizers, which is, on average, 5.46 and 3.58-fold higher than NPAEs. In all samples, di-(2ethylhexyl) phthalate (65.4%) and tri-octyl trimellitate (44.9%) were the most common PAE and NPAE plasticizers. Increasing dust concentrations of di-iso-nonyl ester 1,2-cyclohexane dicarboxylic acid, citrates and sebacates were significantly associated with their levels in worker's hand wipe, by contrast, this trend was not found in general population. Dust ingestion was the main channel, followed by hand-to-mouth contact, all participants' daily plasticizer intakes (median: 154 ng/kg bw/day) are within safety limits. Our work highlights knowledge gaps about co-exposure to PAEs and NPAEs by multiple pathways in occupational e-waste workers, which could provide baseline data in the future.

Short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins in T-shirts and socks

The short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs and MCCPs) are complex mixtures of persistent compounds used mainly as plastic additives. They can have a negative impact on human health as they are suspected of disrupting the endocrine system and being carcinogenic, which is why monitoring their presence in the human environment is desirable. Clothing was selected for this study because they are produced in large quantities worldwide and the final products are worn for long periods throughout the day, in direct contact with human skin. The concentrations of CPs in this type of sample have not been sufficiently reported. We determined SCCPs and MCCPs in 28 samples of T-shirts and socks by gas chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry in negative chemical ionisation mode (GC-NCI-HRMS). CPs were found above the limits of quantification in all samples, with concentrations ranging from 33.9 to 5940 ng/g (mean 1260 ng/g, median 417 ng/g). The samples with a substantial proportion of synthetic fibres contained higher CP concentrations (22 times higher mean for SCCPs and 7 times higher mean for MCCPs) than garments composed exclusively of cotton. Finally, the effect of washing in the washing machine was investigated. The individual samples behaved differently: (i) excessively emitting CPs; (ii) being contaminated; (iii) retaining the original CP levels. The CP profiles also changed for some samples (with a substantial proportion of synthetic fibres and samples composed exclusively of cotton).

Characteristics and health risks of population exposure to phthalates via the use of face towels

The production of face towels is growing at an annual rate of about 4% in China, reaching 1.13 million tons by 2021. Phthalates (PAEs) are widely used in textiles, and face towels, as an important household textile, may expose people to PAEs via the skin, further leading to health risks. We collected new face towels and analyzed the distribution characterization of PAEs in them. The changes of PAEs were explored in a face towel use experiment and a simulated laundry experiment. Based on the use of face towels by 24 volunteers, we calculated the estimated daily intake (EDI) and comprehensively assessed the hazard quotient (HQ), hazard index (HI), and dermal cancer risk (DCR) of PAEs exposure in the population. PAEs were present in new face towels at total concentrations of <MDL-2388 ng/g, with a median of 173.2 ng/g, which was a lower contamination level compared with other textiles. PAE contents in used face towels were significantly higher than in new face towels. The concentrations of PAEs in coral velvet were significantly higher than those in cotton. Water washing removed some PAEs, while detergent washing increased the PAE content on face towels. Gender, weight, use time, and material were the main factors affecting EDI. The HQ and HI were less than 1, which proved PAEs had no significant non-carcinogenic health risks. Among the five target PAEs studied, DEHP was the only carcinogenic PAE and may cause potential health risks after long-term exposure. Therefore, we should pay more attention to DEHP.

Endocrine disrupting compounds in the baby's world - A harmful environment to the health of babies

Globally, there has been a significant increase in awareness of the adverse effects of chemicals with known or suspected endocrine-acting properties on human health. Human exposure to endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) mainly occurs by ingestion and to some extent by inhalation and dermal uptake. Although it is difficult to assess the full impact of human exposure to EDCs, it is well known that timing of exposure is of importance and therefore infants are more vulnerable to EDCs and are at greater risk compared to adults. In this regard, infant safety and assessment of associations between prenatal exposure to EDCs and growth during infancy and childhood has been received considerable attention in the last years. Hence, the purpose of this review is to provide a current update on the evidence from biomonitoring studies on the exposure of infants to EDCs and a comprehensive view of the uptake, the mechanisms of action and biotransformation in baby/human body. Analytical methods used and concentration levels of EDCs in different biological matrices (e.g., placenta, cord plasma, amniotic fluid, breast milk, urine, and blood of pregnant women) are also discussed. Finally, key issues and recommendations were provided to avoid hazardous exposure to these chemicals, taking into account family and lifestyle factors related to this exposure.

Face Mask: As a Source or Protector of Human Exposure to Microplastics and Phthalate Plasticizers?

Wearing masks has become the norm during the Coronavirus disease pandemic. Masks can reportedly interface with air pollutants and release microplastics and plastic additives such as phthalates. In this study, an experimental device was set up to simulate the impact of five kinds of masks (activated-carbon, N95, surgical, cotton, and fashion masks) on the risk of humans inhaling microplastics and phthalates during wearing. The residual concentrations of seven major phthalates ranged from 296 to 72,049 ng/g (median: 1242 ng/g), with the lowest and the highest concentrations detected in surgical (median: 367 ng/g) and fashion masks (median: 37,386 ng/g), respectively. During the whole inhalation simulation process, fragmented and 20-100 μm microplastics accounted for the largest, with a rapid release during the first six hours. After one day's wearing, that of 6 h, while wearing different masks, 25-135 and 65-298 microplastics were inhaled indoors and outdoors, respectively. The total estimated daily intake of phthalates with indoor and outdoor conditions by inhalation and skin exposure ranged from 1.2 to 13 and 0.43 to 14 ng/kg bw/d, respectively. Overall, surgical masks yield a protective effect, while cotton and fashion masks increase human exposure to microplastics and phthalates both indoors and outdoors compared to no mask wearing. This study observed possible risks from common facemasks and provided suggestions to consumers for selecting suitable masks to reduce exposure risks from microplastics and phthalate acid.

The face behind the Covid-19 mask - A comprehensive review

The threat of epidemic outbreaks like SARS-CoV-2 is growing owing to the exponential growth of the global population and the continual increase in human mobility. Personal protection against viral infections was enforced using ambient air filters, face masks, and other respiratory protective equipment. Available facemasks feature considerable variation in efficacy, materials usage and characteristic properties. Despite their widespread use and importance, face masks pose major potential threats due to the uncontrolled manufacture and disposal techniques. Improper solid waste management enables viral propagation and increases the volume of associated biomedical waste at an alarming rate. Polymers used in single-use face masks include a spectrum of chemical constituents: plasticisers and flame retardants leading to health-related issues over time. Despite ample research in this field, the efficacy of personal protective equipment and its impact post-disposal is yet to be explored satisfactorily. The following review assimilates information on the different forms of personal protective equipment currently in use. Proper waste management techniques pertaining to such special wastes have also been discussed. The study features a holistic overview of innovations made in face masks and their corresponding impact on human health and environment. Strategies with SDG3 and SDG12, outlining safe and proper disposal of solid waste, have also been discussed. Furthermore, employing the CFD paradigm, a 3D model of a face mask was created based on fluid flow during breathing techniques. Lastly, the review concludes with possible future advancements and promising research avenues in personal protective equipment.

Health risk assessment of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in baby clothes. A preliminary study

Clothes may contain a large range of chemical additives and other toxic substances, which may eventually pose a significant risk to human health. Since they are associated with pigments, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) may be especially relevant. On the other hand, infants are very sensitive to chemical exposure and they may wear some contact and colored textiles for a prolonged time. Consequently, a specific human health risk assessment is required. This preliminary study was aimed at analyzing the concentrations of PCBs in ten bodysuits purchased in on-line stores and local retailers. The concentrations of 12 dioxin-like and 8 non-dioxin-like PCB congeners were determined by gas chromatography coupled to high resolution mass spectrometry, with detection limits ranging between 0.01 and 0.13 pg/g. The dermal absorption to PCBs of children at different ages (6 months, 1 year and 3 years old) was estimated, and the non-cancer and cancer risks were evaluated. Total levels of PCBs ranged from 74.2 to 412 pg/g, with a mean TEQ concentration of 13.4 pg WHO-TEQ/kg. Bodysuits made of organic cotton presented a total mean PCB concentration substantially lower than clothes made of regular cotton (11.0 vs. 15.8 pg WHO-TEQ/kg). The dermal absorption to PCBs for infants was calculated in around 3·10^-5 pg WHO-TEQ/kg·day, regardless the age. This value is > 10,000-fold lower than the dietary intake of PCBs, either through breastfeeding or food consumption. Furthermore, this exposure value would not pose any health risks for the infants wearing those bodysuits. Anyhow, as it is a very preliminary study, this should be confirmed by analyzing larger sets of textile samples. Further investigations should be also focused on the co-occurrence of PCBs and other toxic chemicals (i.e., formaldehyde, bisphenols and aromatic amines) in infant clothes.

Face mask-A potential source of phthalate exposure for human

Face masks are necessary for fighting against the coronavirus disease 2019 around the world. As the face mask is usually made from polymers and phthalates are widely-used additives into the polymers, the face mask could be a potential source of phthalate exposure to humans. However, limited knowledge is available on the occurrence and risks of the phthalates from the face mask. In this study, twelve phthalates were determined in 56 mask samples collected from different countries. The phthalates were detected in all the samples with total levels ranging from 115 ng/g to 37,700 ng/g. Estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of the phthalates from the masks ranged from 3.71 to 639 ng/kg-bw/day, and the EDIs of the phthalates from masks for toddlers were approximately 4-5 times higher than those for adults. Non-carcinogenic risks in relation to the phthalates in masks were found to be within safe levels, yet 89.3% of the mask samples exhibited potential carcinogenic effects to humans. The extent of the risks for wearing masks located at a moderate level comparing with other skin-contacted products. This study unveiled a potential source of phthalate exposure to human, and indicated necessity of managing types and levels of additives in the face masks.

An Overview of Chemical Additives on (Micro)Plastic Fibers: Occurrence, Release, and Health Risks

Plastic fibers are ubiquitous in daily life with additives incorporated to improve their performance. Only a few restrictions exist for a paucity of common additives, while most of the additives used in textile industry have not been clearly regulated with threshold limits. The production of synthetic fibers, which can shed fibrous microplastics easily (< 5 mm) through mechanical abrasion and weathering, is increasing annually. These fibrous microplastics have become the main composition of microplastics in the environment. This review focuses on additives on synthetic fibers; we summarized the detection methods of additives, compared concentrations of different additive types (plasticizers, flame retardants, antioxidants, and surfactants) on (micro)plastic fibers, and analyzed their release and exposure pathways to environment and human beings. Our prediction shows that the amounts of predominant additives (phthalates, organophosphate esters, bisphenols, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, and nonylphenol ethoxylates) released from clothing microplastic fibers (MFs) are estimated to reach 35, 10, 553, 0.4, and 568 ton/year to water worldwide, respectively; and 119, 35, 1911, 1.4, and 1965 ton/year to air, respectively. Human exposure to MF additives via inhalation is estimated to be up to 4.5–6440 µg/person annually for the above five additives, and via ingestion 0.1–204 µg/person. Notably, the release of additives from face masks is nonnegligible that annual human exposure to phthalates, organophosphate esters, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances from masks via inhalation is approximately 491–1820 µg/person. This review helps understand the environmental fate and potential risks of released additives from (micro)plastic fibers, with a view to providing a basis for future research and policy designation of textile additives.

Levels and determinants of urinary phthalate metabolites in New Zealand children and adults

BACKGROUND

This first national biomonitoring survey of urinary phthalate metabolites in the New Zealand population aimed to provide baseline data, identify exposure determinants, and make comparisons with health-based exposure guidance values.

METHODS

The survey conducted in 2014-2016 involved the collection of morning-void urine from 298 children (5-18 years) and 302 adults (20-65 years), 33% of Māori ethnicity. A questionnaire collected information on demographic factors and diet. Urine was analysed for creatinine, specific gravity, and 10 phthalate metabolites through liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (MMP; MEP; MBP iso+n; MBzP; MCHP; MEHP; MEOHP; MEHHP; MCPP; and MiNP). Determinants of exposure were assessed using multivariable linear regression.

RESULTS

Detection frequencies exceeded 95% for metabolites of DEP, DEHP and DBP. The highest GM was observed for the DBP metabolite MBP iso+n (36.1 μg/L adults; 60.5 μg/L children), followed by the sum of three DEHP metabolites (MEHP+MEOHP+MEHHP: 19.0 μg/L adults; 37.0 μg/L children), and the DEP metabolite MEP (19.1 μg/L adults; 12.0 μg/L children). For most phthalate metabolites New Zealand levels were in the mid-range of internationally reported levels, while for DEP they were in the low range. Māori and non-Māori had similar levels. Children had higher GMs than adults for most metabolites, except for MEP. A proportion of children and adults exceeded the biomonitoring equivalents of health-based guidance values for DBP (0-16% and 0-3% respectively), and DEHP (0-0.7% and 0-0.3% respectively). Eating warm meals from plastic containers ≥2 times/week was associated with higher levels of DEHP metabolites, MBP iso+n, and MBzP.

CONCLUSION

Phthalate exposure is omnipresent in both children and adults in New Zealand. Exceedances of the biomonitoring equivalents for DBP and DEHP indicate that potential health effects from exposure to these phthalates cannot be excluded with sufficient certainty.

Anthropogenic particles (including microfibers and microplastics) in marine sediments of the Canadian Arctic

We report the first Canadian Arctic-wide study of anthropogenic particles (APs, >125 μm), including microfibers (synthetic, semi-synthetic and anthropogenically modified cellulose) and microplastics, in marine sediments from 14 sites. Samples from across the Canadian Arctic were collected between 2014 and 2017 from onboard the CCGS Amundsen. Samples were processed using density separation with calcium chloride (CaCl₂). APs >125 μm were identified and a subset (22%) were characterized using Raman spectroscopy. Following blank-correction, microfiber numbers were corrected using Raman data in a novel approach to subtract possible "natural" cellulose microfibers with no anthropogenic signal via Raman spectroscopy, to estimate the proportion of cellulose microfibers that are of confirmed anthropogenic origin. Of all microfibers examined by Raman spectroscopy, 51% were anthropogenic cellulose, 11% were synthetic polymers, and 7% were extruded fibers emitting a dye signal. The remaining 31% of microfibers were identified as cellulosic but could not be confirmed as anthropogenic and thus were excluded from the final concentrations. Concentrations of confirmed APs in sediments ranged from 0.6 to 4.7 particles g^-1 dry weight (dw). Microfibers comprised 82% of all APs, followed by fragments at 15%. Total microfiber concentrations ranged from 0.4 to 3.2 microfibers g^-1 dw, while microplastic (fragments, foams, films and spheres) concentrations ranged from 0 to 1.6 microplastics g^-1 dw. These concentrations may exceed those recorded in urban areas near point sources of plastic pollution, and indicate that the Canadian Arctic is a sink for APs, including anthropogenic cellulose fibers. Overall, we provide an important benchmark of AP contamination in Canadian Arctic marine sediments against which to measure temporal trends, including the effects of source reduction strategies and climate change, both of which will likely alter patterns of accumulation of anthropogenic particles.

Remediation strategies for mitigation of phthalate pollution: Challenges and future perspectives

Phthalates are a group of emerging xenobiotic compounds commonly used as plasticizers. In recent times, there has been an increasing concern over the risk of phthalate exposure leading to adverse effects to human health and the environment. Therefore, it is necessary to not only understand the current status of phthalate pollution, their sources, exposure routes and health impacts, but also identify remediation technologies for mitigating phthalate pollution. Present review article aims to inform its readers about the ever increasing data on health burdens posed by phthalates and simultaneously highlights the recent advancements in research to alleviate phthalate contamination from environment. The article enumerates the major phthalates in use today, traces their environmental fate, addresses their growing health hazard concerns and largely focus on to provide an in-depth understanding of the different physical, chemical and biological treatment methods currently being used or under research for alleviating the risk of phthalate pollution, their challenges and the future research perspectives.

Association between Urinary Metabolites and the Exposure of Intensive Care Newborns to Plasticizers of Medical Devices Used for Their Care Management

Care management of newborns in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) requires numerous PVC (PolyVinyl Chloride) medical devices (MD) containing plasticizers that can migrate and contaminate the patient. We measured the magnitude of neonates’ exposure to plasticizers (di-ethylhexylphthalate (DEHP) and alternatives) in relation to urinary concentrations of their metabolites. Plasticizers’ exposure was evaluated (1) by calculating the amounts of plasticizers prone to be released from each MD used for care management, and (2) by measuring the patients’ urinary levels of each plasticizers’ metabolites. 104 neonates were enrolled. They were exposed to di-isononylphthalate (DINP), especially via transfusion and infusion MD, and to DEHP via ECMO (Extra Corporeal Membrane Oxygenation) and respiratory assistance MD. Mean exposure doses exceeded the derived no-effect level of DINP and DEHP by a 10-fold and a 1000-fold factor. No PVC MD were plasticized with di-isononylcyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate (DINCH). High urinary concentrations of DEHP metabolites were directly correlated with DEHP exposure through ECMO MD. Urinary concentrations of DINP metabolites in transfused patients were also high. DINCH metabolites were found in urine, suggesting another route of exposure. Neonates in NICU are considerably exposed to plasticizers, with magnitudes varying with the type of MD used. The high exposure to DEHP and DINP leads to a risk of their metabolites’ toxicity.

Perinatal Exposure to Phthalates: From Endocrine to Neurodevelopment Effects

Phthalates, as other endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), may alter the homeostasis and the action of hormones and signaling molecules, causing adverse health outcomes. This is true especially for infants, who are both more exposed and sensitive to their effects. Phthalates are particularly harmful when the exposure occurs during certain critical temporal windows of the development, such as the prenatal and the early postnatal phases. Phthalates may also interfere with the neuroendocrine systems (e.g., thyroid hormone signaling or metabolism), causing disruption of neuronal differentiation and maturation, increasing the risk of behavioral and cognitive disorders (ADHD and autistic behaviors, reduced mental, psychomotor, and IQ development, and emotional problems). Despite more studies being needed to better understand the role of these substances, plenty of evidence suggests the impact of phthalates on the neuroendocrine system development and function. This review aims to update the knowledge on the neuroendocrine consequences of neonatal and perinatal exposure to phthalates.

Phthalate pollution: environmental fate and cumulative human exposure index using the multivariate analysis approach

A comprehensive review was performed on the environmental fate, environmental occurrence, toxicity, physical-chemical properties, abiotic and biotic removal and degradation of phthalate esters (PAEs) to compute the overall phthalate exposure and their impact on human beings. The removal and degradation of these wide spread pollutants by abiotic processes such as hydrolysis and photodecomposition are very slow and insignificant. On the other hand, the breakdown of PAEs by microorganisms is considered to be one of the major routes of environmental degradation for these widespread pollutants. Numerous microbial strains have been reported to degrade these compounds under aerobic, anaerobic and facultative conditions. Concurrently, the environmental fate, transport and transformation/degradation of these compounds under natural conditions are highly dependent on their physical and chemical properties. In order to understand the relationship between the concentrations of PAEs of different environmental compartments and human exposure prospects, a novel average phthalate pollution index (PPI) and cumulative phthalate exposure index (PEI) were proposed using the multivariate analysis approach. These indices were computed on the basis of relative importance, environmental occurrence, toxicity, physical-chemical properties, abiotic and biotic removal and degradation of dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP) and diethyl-hexyl phthalate (DEHP). At present, the average PPI and cumulative PEI of 29 countries were evaluated using the concentrations of PAEs reported in the literature. These indices signify the overall phthalate pollution, human exposure and their interrelation. According to the index, Slovakia, Canada, Taiwan, Sweden and South Africa are among the top five countries in terms of cumulative phthalate exposure as per the existing data. The exposure percentage of total PAEs significantly varies between 23 and 44% since many environmental compartments are not directly exposed to human beings and they are degraded under natural conditions.

Transdermal uptake of benzophenone-3 from clothing: comparison of human participant results to model predictions

BACKGROUND

Models of transdermal uptake of chemicals from clothing have been developed, but not compared with recent human subject experiments. In a well-characterized experiment, participants wore t-shirts pre-dosed with benzophenone-3 (BP-3) and BP-3 and a metabolite were monitored in urine voids.

OBJECTIVE

Compare a dynamic model of transdermal uptake from clothing to results of the human subject experiment.

METHODS

The model simulating dynamic transdermal uptake from clothing was coupled with direct measurements of the gas phase concentration of benzophenone-3 (BP-3) near the surface of clothing to simulate the conditions of the human subject experiment.

RESULTS

The base-case model results were consistent with the those reported for human subjects. The results were moderately sensitive to parameters such as the diffusivity in the stratum corneum (SC), the SC thickness, and SC-air partition coefficient. The model predictions were most sensitive to the clothing fit. Tighter clothing worn during exposure period significantly increased excretion rates but tighter fit "clean" clothing during post-exposure period acts as a sink that reduces transdermal absorption by transferring BP-3 from skin surface lipids to clothing. The shape of the excretion curve was most sensitive to the diffusivity in the SC and clothing fit.

SIGNIFICANCE

This research provides further support for clothing as an important mediator of dermal exposure to environmental chemicals.

Removal of phthalates from aqueous solution by semiconductor photocatalysis: A review

While phthalate esters are commonly used as plasticizers to improve the flexibility and workability of polymeric materials, their presence and detection in various environments has become a significant concern. Phthalate esters are known to have endocrine-disrupting effects, which affects reproductive health and physical development. As a result, there is now increased focus and urgency to develop effective and energy efficient technologies capable of removing these harmful compounds from the environment. This review explores the use of semiconductor photocatalysis as an efficient and promising solution towards achieving removal and degradation of phthalate esters. A comprehensive review of photocatalysts reported in the literature demonstrates the range of materials including commercial TiO₂, solar activated catalysts and composite materials capable of enhancing adsorption and degradation. The degradation pathways and kinetics are also considered to provide the reader with an insight into the photocatalytic mechanism of removal. In addition, through the use of two key platforms (the technology readiness level scale and electrical energy per order), the crucial parameters associated with advancing photocatalysis for phthalate ester removal are discussed. These include enhanced surface interaction, catalyst platform development, improved light delivery systems and overall system energy requirements with a view towards pilot scale and industrial deployment.

Are Melamine and Its Derivatives the Alternatives for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substance (PFAS) Fabric Treatments in Infant Clothes?

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and melamine (MEL)-based compounds are used in textile finishing as grease, stain, and water repellents. Here, we investigated the occurrence of a large suite of PFAS and MEL compounds in 86 infant clothing items. The ∑MEL concentrations ranged from below the method detection limit to 250,000 ng/g with a median concentration of 78.2 ng/g, significantly higher (p < 0.05) than the ∑PFAS levels (1.22-203 ng/g; median 3.62 ng/g). MEL and its derivatives were most abundant in nylon clothes (median 32,800 ng/g), followed by organic cotton (median 6120 ng/g). In a simulated laundering experiment, the ∑MEL concentrations in clothing decreased on an average by ∼60 and 90% when washed in cool (20 °C) and warm (50 °C) water, respectively. This removal rate increased to 97% when the samples were washed with a detergent. The estimated daily intakes of MEL and PFAS through dermal absorption from nylon clothes were three orders of magnitude higher than those from the non-nylon clothes and decreased by more than half for washed clothes. Our findings demonstrate that MEL-based compounds are abundant in infant clothing and suggest that this group of compounds could be used as potential PFAS replacements in textile finishing.

Phthalates in preschool children's clothing manufactured in seven Asian countries: Occurrence, profiles and potential health risks

Phthalates could be introduced into clothing as chemical additives or impurities, becoming a potential source of human exposure. We measured the concentrations of 15 phthalates in new preschool children's clothing manufactured in seven Asian countries. Phthalates were prevalent in all samples, and total concentrations were 2.92-223 μg/g, indicating a moderate contamination level. Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, di(isobutyl) phthalate and di-n-butyl phthalate were the most abundant phthalates measured, representing a median of 48.5 %, 13.6 % and 13.4 % of the total concentrations, respectively. Total concentrations did not differ significantly by country of manufacture, while the concentrations of individual phthalates and their composition profiles varied widely. We also found differing phthalate levels by item type, fabric composition, and color. Under the assumed two exposure scenarios, the median of summed dermal exposure doses of six phthalate were 539 and 950 ng/kg of body weight per day, respectively. When children wore trousers, long-sleeved shirts, briefs and socks at the same time, the reproductive risks exceeded acceptable level, although the carcinogenic risk of DEHP was low. Our results suggested that new clothing is an important route of phthalate exposure to preschool children. More research is required to investigate the contaminations and associated with risks in child clothing.

Determination of melamine and its derivatives in textiles and infant clothing purchased in the United States

Melamine-based resins are used extensively in fabrics to impart fire and heat resistance as well as wrinkle-free properties. Little is known, however, regarding the occurrence of melamine and its derivatives in textiles. In this study, concentrations of melamine, ammeline, ammelide, and cyanuric acid were determined in 77 textile samples and infant clothing purchased from Albany, New York, USA. All textile samples contained one or more target analytes, at concentration ranges of 1.19-81,800, 3.21-17,800, <1.20-25,700, and <0.50-550 ng/g for melamine, cyanuric acid, ammeline, and ammelide, respectively. Melamine was the predominant compound, accounting for 52% of the total concentrations of four analytes (i.e., ∑melamines). Significant positive correlations were found between the concentrations of melamine and its three derivatives (0.347 < r < 0.862, p < .01). The concentrations of ∑melamines were significantly higher in cotton fabrics (mean: 10,500 ng/g) and cotton clothes (10,200 ng/g) than in synthetic fabrics (1,380 ng/g) and socks (40.0 ng/g) (p < .01). Simulated laundry experiments suggested that a single round of washing with water removed 76-90% of melamine from clothing. The calculated dermal exposure doses of melamine and cyanuric acid were three to four orders of magnitude below the reference value. This study provides the first evidence of the occurrence of melamine derivatives in textiles and clothing purchased in the United States. CAPSULE: Melamine and cyanuric acid are widely distributed in textiles and infant clothing collected from the United States.

Feminine Hygiene Products-A Neglected Source of Phthalate Exposure in Women

Phthalates have been associated with reproductive toxicity and precocious puberty in females, but the occurrence of these toxicants in feminine hygiene products is rarely reported. In this study, eight phthalates were determined in 120 feminine hygiene products (56 feminine care products and 64 sanitary napkins) collected from China. Phthalates were found in 86% and 98% of feminine care products and sanitary napkins, respectively, with the total concentrations varying between not detectable and 813 μg/g (median: 0.26 μg/g) and 0.25 and 8.76 μg/g (1.43 μg/g), respectively. Diethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, and bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate were the major compounds, accounting for >60% of the total concentrations. The plastic materials used on the top and bottom layers and the hot melt adhesive used during the manufacturing process are the potential sources of phthalates in sanitary napkins. The range of daily exposure doses of phthalates in women from the use of feminine care products and sanitary napkins was <0.001-0.156 μg/kg-bw/day and <0.001-0.731 μg/kg-bw/day, respectively. Sanitary napkins contributed to 8.2% of the total exposure, and the levels of exposure to several phthalates from sanitary napkins were much higher than those reported from indoor dust ingestion but were lower than those of dietary intakes. Our study confirmed a new source of women's exposure to phthalates, sanitary napkins.

Occurrence and Distribution of Phthalates in Sanitary Napkins from Six Countries: Implications for Women's Health

Chemicals in feminine hygiene products can exert adverse health effects as a result of strong absorptive capacity of the vagina and vulva. However, little information is available on phthalates in sanitary napkins. We measured the concentrations of 15 phthalates in sanitary napkins collected from six countries and found total concentrations in the range of 1733-11942 ng/g. Di(isobutyl)phthalate (DiBP), bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), and di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) were the dominant congeners, representing a median of 27.3, 26.7, and 20.4% of the total median phthalate concentrations across all countries, respectively. The phthalates likely originated mainly from the introduction in the manufacturing process, and some may have been from the use of plastic or paper materials. The estimated intake (at the 90th percentile) of DiBP, DnBP, and DEHP from sanitary napkins approximately represented 6.35-23.6, 3.35-9.90, and 1.06-9.57%, respectively, of the total exposure, indicating that sanitary napkins are a relevant source of exposure to these chemicals. The calculated health risks of phthalates in sanitary napkins were generally low, but the carcinogenic risks in some samples exceeded acceptable levels. More research is required to investigate the contaminations in sanitary napkins and those associated with risks to women.