Bioconversion of fruit and vegetable waste into earthworms as a new protein source: The environmental impact of earthworm meal production

Navigating the nexus: unraveling the impact of sustainability and the circular economy on food safety

Sustainable food production systems can be achieved through a circular economy, yet the whole system remains susceptible to various known, emerging, or even unknown/novel food safety hazards and contaminants. These upcycled foods can introduce related risks for human or animal health and ecological balance. These potential risks can be effectively mitigated by adopting integrated smart "safe-by-design" approaches. These multi-effective strategies can cascade far beyond consequences by addressing all potential food safety risks at each stage of the food supply chain, even at the post-consumption stage. Sustainability through circularity without harming food production systems can be achieved by integrating and harmonizing evidence-based risk control strategies, fostered with extensive and objective-oriented research and development and preemptive ideological relationships with relevant stakeholders. The current review aimed at addressing the possible occurrence and risks associated with potential emerging or unknown hazards/contaminants linked to various production systems, along with relevant mitigation strategies. It also highlights the importance of implementing quality control measures and safety precautions throughout the food supply chain to prevent the occurrence and propagation of hazardous substances. Agricultural production systems can be transformed into sustainable entities by vigilant monitoring of end-products quality through the use of upcycled technologies.

Effect of compositions and physical properties on 3D printability of gels from selected commercial edible insects: Role of protein and chitin

Compositions and rheological properties of alternative protein sources, including honey bee pupa, grasshopper, cricket, earthworm, and scorpion, and their relationships with 3D printing behaviors were investigated. Protein was found to be the major composition in all insects, while chitin exhibited the most variation. At optimal moisture contents, honey bee pupa and earthworm gels displayed sufficient fluidity but resulted in unstable printed structures, as observed visually and microstructurally. Grasshopper and scorpion gels possessed weak fluidity but produced more stable printed structures. Cricket gel exhibited the most balanced flow behavior and self-supportability. Protein-to-chitin mass ratio proved to be a main factor affecting the 3D printing behavior of the gels. Possible mechanisms on how compositions and properties affected the printing behavior of the gels were proposed. Suggestions for improving the 3D printability of insect and invertebrate resembling insect gels were provided based on these proposed mechanisms.

The use of animal by-products in a circular bioeconomy: Time for a TSE road map 3?

In 2005 and 2010, the European Commission (EC) published two subsequent 'Road Maps' to provide options for relaxation of the bans on the application of animal proteins in feed. Since then, the food production system has changed considerably and demands for more sustainability and circularity are growing louder. Many relaxations envisioned in the second Road Map have by now been implemented, such as the use of processed animal proteins (PAPs) from poultry in pig feed and vice versa. However, some legislative changes, in particular concerning insects, had not been foreseen. In this article, we present a new vision on legislation for increased and improved use of animal by-products. Six current legislative principles are discussed for the bans on animal by-products as feed ingredients: feed bans; categorization of farmed animals; prohibition unless explicitly approved; approved processing techniques, the categorization of animal by-products, and monitoring methods. We provide a proposal for new guiding principles and future directions, and several concrete options for further relaxations. We argue that biological nature of farmed animals in terms of dietary preferences should be better recognised, that legal zero-tolerance limits should be expanded if safe, and that legislation should be revised and simplified.

Emerging challenges for the agro-industrial food waste utilization: A review on food waste biorefinery

Modernization and industrialization has undoubtedly revolutionized the food and agro-industrial sector leading to the drastic increase in their productivity and marketing thereby accelerating the amount of agro-industrial food waste generated. In the past few decades the potential of these agro-industrial food waste to serve as bio refineries for the extraction of commercially viable products like organic acids, biochemical and biofuels was largely discussed and explored over the conventional method of disposing in landfills. The sustainable development of such strategies largely depends on understanding the techno economic challenges and planning for future strategies to overcome these hurdles. This review work presents a comprehensive outlook on the complex nature of agro-industrial food waste and pretreatment methods for their valorization into commercially viable products along with the challenges in the commercialization of food waste bio refineries that need critical attention to popularize the concept of circular bio economy.

Leveraging Life Cycle Assessment to Better Promote the Circular Economy: A First Step Using the Concept of Opportunity Cost

In economics, opportunity cost is defined as the benefit foregone by choosing another course of action. Considering opportunity costs enables the improved handling of trade-offs to better support strategic decision-making. We introduce the concept of opportunity cost into life cycle assessment (LCA). In our framework, opportunity cost extends the system expansion paradigm to support better alignment with a circular economy (CE). Opportunity cost thinking is considered to be most useful for the efficient allocation of scarce economic capital for the creation of economic value. In the environmental domain, we use such thinking to account for the implications of ‘wasting waste’. In this paper, we consider a case of treated wastewater sludge being used as a source of nutrients as a vehicle to study the points at which LCA can support a CE. Our conclusions, however, have wider repercussions because there are many more situations in which product systems are analytically demarcated from the web of connections in which they are embedded.

Vermicomposting of cow manure: Effect of time on earthworm biomass and chemical, physical, and biological properties of vermicompost

Vermicomposting is a biological process for efficient cattle manure treatment, but the vermicomposting time determines the quality of the vermicompost. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of cattle manure vermicomposting time on earthworm biomass and the changes in physical, chemical, and biological in properties of the vermicompost. The cattle manure was inoculated with Eisenia andrei earthworms and conducted vermicomposting for 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, and 120 days. The analysis of 44 chemical, physical, and biological properties allowed the vermicomposting process to be divided into initial (<45 days) and final (45-120 days) phases. The initial phase was characterized by high microbial activity and the final by high physical-chemical transformation of the vermicompost and an increase in earthworm density. The organic matter aromaticity increased until the 45th day, subsequently decreasing. Although 30 d of vermicompost are sufficient to obtain a high-quality organic fertilizer, 120 d are necessary for producing matrices.

Driving Management of Novel Foods: A Network Analysis Approach

The food industry has confronted, in recent years, numerous issues including meeting a food demand for individual well-being in a sufficient and healthy manner, also due to the effects of the world population growth. In this scenario, alternative food sources may be a key element both for their contribution to food needs and for the promotion of sustainable and innovative production patterns. These food sources, new compared to traditional food styles, have been regulated by specific European Union regulations under the definition of novel foods. Their importance in the world has raised different topics of scientific research. The present paper aimed to seize the direction of scientific studies in the world focused on the thematic area of novel foods, from a management point of view. This study analyzed 209 papers and carried out a descriptive analysis and a network analysis of the thematic areas under examination also with the help of the software VOSviewer. The results highlighted the importance of scientific research in the world also for the contributions on the exploration of existing markets as well as for the innovative solutions it provides, which aim to expand market possibilities. Finally, the existence of several elements and factors, which may discourage the propensity to consume and therefore the development of the novel foods market, seemed to emerge, and for this reason, many surveys focused on finding solutions to overcome these potential obstacles.

Fruit and Vegetable Wholesale Market Waste: Safety and Nutritional Characterisation for Their Potential Re-Use in Livestock Nutrition

Compared to other food categories, fruits and vegetables are the most wasted. This leads to the squandering of economic, social, and environmental resources. The reallocation of fruit and vegetable waste (FVW) into animal feed contributes to the sustainability of livestock production, reducing the impact of feed production for land use. In this study, the fruit and vegetable waste from the General Wholesale Market of Milan was considered. FVW samples were collected for one year and were analysed for safety parameters and nutritional, vitamin, and mineral composition. Data showed that dry matter (DM) was on average 10.82 ± 1.21% and neutral detergent fibre (NDF) was on average 22.43 ± 4.52% DM. The presence of soluble sugars (30.51 ± 7.61% DM, on average) was also detected. However, the high moisture content of this waste makes it easily perishable, with detrimental effects on quality, storage, and transportation. A strategy was therefore proposed to reduce the water content of FVW by pressing. Overall, the results highlighted the significant nutritional value of FVW from the wholesale market and the need to develop appropriate technologies to maintain the food chain line safe.

Sustainable Agri-Food Processes and Circular Economy Pathways in a Life Cycle Perspective: State of the Art of Applicative Research

This study aims at providing a systematic and critical review on the state of the art of life cycle applications from the circular economy point of view. In particular, the main objective is to understand how researchers adopt life cycle approaches for the measurement of the empirical circular pathways of agri-food systems along with the overall lifespan. To perform the literature review, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol was considered to conduct a review by qualitative synthesis. Specifically, an evaluation matrix has been set up to gather and synthesize research evidence, by classifying papers according to several integrated criteria. The literature search was carried out employing scientific databases. The findings highlight that 52 case studies out of 84 (62% of the total) use stand-alone life cycle assessment (LCA) to evaluate the benefits/impacts of circular economy (CE) strategies. In contrast, only eight studies (9.5%) deal with the life cycle costing (LCC) approach combined with other analyses while no paper deals with the social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) methodology. Global warming potential, eutrophication (for marine, freshwater, and terrestrial ecosystems), human toxicity, and ecotoxicity results are the most common LCA indicators applied. Only a few articles deal with the CE assessment through specific indicators. We argue that experts in life cycle methodologies must strive to adopt some key elements to ensure that the results obtained fit perfectly with the measurements of circularity and that these can even be largely based on a common basis.

Nutrient recovery from pineapple waste through controlled batch and continuous vermicomposting systems

The largest portion of pineapple peels and pulp generated from production points is disposed of haphazardly contributing to a number of environmental and health challenges. However, these wastes contain valuable plant nutrients that could be recovered to boost soil fertility, and increase agricultural production. This study evaluated the variation in physico-chemical parameters in batch and continuous vermicomposting systems as potential pathways for nutrient recovery from pineapple waste. The study compared the efficiency of waste reduction and nutrient recovery for batch (B), and continuous (C) vermicomposting systems during a 60-day period. The substrates were pineapple peels (PW), and cattle manure (CM) fed in a ratio of 4:1 (w/w). Control reactors were fed with 100% CM in both the feeding modes. Results indicated that waste degradation was 60%, and 54% while earthworm biomass increased by 57% and 129% for BPW, and CPW, respectively. pH significantly decreased with time in both systems. Total phosphorous increased with vermicomposting time with that of B being significantly higher than C systems. Nitrogen, potassium, and sodium significantly increased in the control experiments while the three elements significantly reduced for BPW, and CPW owing to high leachate production in the latter. The N, P, K, and C retention in vermicompost was 24.2%, 90.4%, 67.5%, 41.1%, and 32.6%, 91.2%, 79.3%, 46.1%, for BPW and CPW, respectively. Continuous systems produced higher earthworm biomass and retained more nutrients in vermicompost than batch systems, and can therefore, be recommended as better systems for pineapple waste vermicomposting.

Unraveling the environmental impacts of bioactive compounds and organic amendment from grape marc

In a society that produces large amounts of solid waste, the search for new methods of valorisation has led to the development of techniques that make it possible to obtain new products from waste. In the case of bio-waste, biological treatment such as anaerobic digestion or composting appear to be suitable options for producing bio-energy or bio-fertilizers respectively. Vermicomposting is a method of converting solid organic waste into resources through bio-oxidation and stabilization of the organic waste by earthworms. The purpose of this study is to establish the environmental impacts of a complete route for the valorisation of grape pomace in order to identify environmental hotspots. In this valorisation route, different value-added products are produced with potential application in the cosmetic, food and pharmaceutical sectors. Priority was given to the use of primary data in the elaboration of the data inventories needed to perform the life cycle assessment (LCA). The main findings from this study reported that the energy requirement of the distillation process is an important hot spot of the process. Although the valorisation route has some poor results in terms of the two environmental indicators (carbon footprint and normalised impact index), when economic revenues were included in this analysis, its environmental performance was better than that of other alternatives for bio-waste recovery.

Earthworm as an alternative protein source in poultry and fish farming: Current applications and future perspectives

Among the different agricultural activities, the livestock is one of the most impacting on the environment. The feeding of animals is often the main responsible of the adverse environmental impact related to animal productions. Above all for intensive production, the consumption of protein feed is a key aspect for the achievement of sustainable production processes. The actual consumption of soybean meal and fish meal is not sustainable due to the related environmental impact and to the increasing prices. Among the different alternative protein sources, in the last 20 years, the attention of research centres and private companies focused on insects, algae and other invertebrates but, up to now, little consideration was paid to the use of fresh earthworm or earthworm meal as a protein feed for monogastric animals. The use of earthworms as an alternative protein source for fish and poultry feeding is an opportunity for providing environmental services via cleaner technologies. Thanks to earthworms, organic wastes and by-products generated by livestock activities can be valorised and become a resource for animal feeding in a circular perspective. In this context, this manuscript was designed to summarize the productivity, suitability and effectiveness issues connected with the utilization of earthworms as alternative protein feed in poultry production as well as in aquaculture. The studies investigating the earthworm meal use are quite old above all those carried out in Europe; however, some general indications can be drawn: both for broiler and fish, the parameters usually evaluated are body weight gain, growth rate, feed intake and feed conversion rate, the acceptability level of earthworm meal in broiler diet is lower than 15% while in trout diet ranges between 25 and 30%. The inclusion of earthworm meal in diets with an inclusion level lower than the acceptability threshold allows good productive performances without affecting the quality of the final food products.

From a Food Safety Prospective: The Role of Earthworms as Food and Feed in Assuring Food Security and in Valuing Food Waste

The Sustainable Development Goals are a set of global goals that provide a framework for shared action. These goals also include the reduction of food waste and the definition of sustainable solutions to achieve food security. In this context, the aim of the study was to describe all phases of a pilot earthworm rearing project started in September 2017 and concluded in December 2017, together with a risk analysis carried out in order to evaluate if earthworms can represent a safe and sustainable protein source for human consumption and/or animal nutrition. The conversion rate, that in this study is more appropriately identified as the "waste reduction efficiency," was also calculated in order to define the extent to which earthworm rearing can contribute to the objective of reducing fruit and vegetable waste (FVW). The results showed that earthworms can bio-convert 3750 kg of FVW in three months producing 1050 kg of compost and 82 kg of fresh earthworms with minimal environmental impact showing good waste reduction efficiency. Moreover, the risk analysis conducted on earthworm rearing highlighted a microbiological hazard after the freeze-drying phase. The critical control point was therefore identified, and, in order to guarantee the total food safety of the finished product, corrective action was taken consisting in the implementation of heat treatment-sterilization at 121 °C for 20 min. The results of microbiological analyses carried out on the earthworm meal after the sterilization treatment showed that the treatment guarantees microbiological safety for the consumer and ensures a balanced approach in relation to two main topics-public health and food-borne diseases. In conclusion, earthworm meal is a concentrate of valuable nutrients useful for human and animal nutrition and can also transform fruit and vegetable waste into a resource.

Characterizing the phenolic constituents of baobab (Adansonia digitata) fruit shell by LC-MS/QTOF and their in vitro biological activities

Baobab (Adansonia digitata) fruit is a part of the baobab tree, a revered multi-purpose tree native to Africa with a myriad of potentials in providing shelter, food, medicine, clothing and as a valuable source of natural antioxidants. A massive quantity of baobab fruit shells (BFS) is generated as a waste from the baobab fruit processing representing significant economic and environmental challenges at the same time an opportunity for its valorization and commercial utilization. The present study explored the potentials of BFS as a source of phenolic compounds. For this purpose, the phenolic constituents of BFS were identified by LC-MS/QTOF analysis. Also, the Total Phenolic Chromatographic Index (TPCI), TPC, TFC, and antioxidant capacity were compared with the baobab seeds and pulp. The antidiabetic potential through α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities was also compared with that of acarbose. The LC-MS/QTOF analysis led to the identification of 45 compounds, including quercetin, kaempferol, proanthocyanidins, phenolic acids and their derivatives, several of which had never been reported in baobab fruit. Moreover, the BFS showed higher TPC, TFC, and antioxidant capacity than the baobab seeds and pulp and inhibited α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes activities with much higher potency than acarbose. This research demonstrated the promising potentials of BFS as a good source of phenolic compounds that can further be utilized for food and pharmaceutical applications.