Co-transport and retention of zwitterionic ciprofloxacin with nano-biochar in saturated porous media: Impact of oxidized aging

Green synthesized Zn-based mono and bi-metallic nanoparticles for improved micronutrient delivery: A futuristic study in hydroponic crop culture system

Hydroponic farming is gaining importance due to the rapid expansion of cities worldwide. However, the significance of nano-enabled nutrient delivery in hydroponic crop culture is still poorly understood. Therefore, ZnO monometallic and Zn-Cu bimetallic nanoparticles (MNP and BNP) were innovatively synthesized through green routes using alcoholic leaf extract (ALE) 1-10 % (w/v) of Chrysalidocarpus lutescens due to its enriched phytochemical profile, prolific radical scavenging efficiency, and reasonably high IC50 values. The structural uniformity and batch-wise yield of MNP and BNP were optimized following response surface methodology. The uniqueness of C. lutescens-derived phytochemicals facilitated the production of anisotropic and crystalline MNP and BNP. It was revealed that structural uniformity and yields were most significant at pH 9 with 3 % ALE for both MNP (Yield/batch -20.54 ± 0.15 g) and BNP (Yield/batch - 18.37 ± 0.30 g). Both nanoparticles were hexagonal 30-85 nm nanocrystals, stable at alkaline pH (∼9) with uniform pore volume, surface area, and surface charge. The hydroponic compatibility of the MNP and BNP were compared with non-nanoscale Zn and Cu by cultivating Cicer arietinum with different doses of MNP, BNP, and other treatments. Among all doses, 250 and 500 mg L-1 doses of MNP and BNP significantly augmented C. arietinum germination by ∼40-45 % and plumule growth by ∼18-22 % and enhanced chlorophyll stability while reducing oxidative stress in the seedlings. The MNP and BNP were ecologically safe for microorganisms (Rhizobium sp. and Salmonella typhi) and were viable within 250 mg L-1 to 2000 mg L-1 of MNP and BNP doses. Overall, the study reveals that the green synthetic routes using C. lutescens phytoextract led to significant yield of productive, biocompatible, and organically rich Zn and Cu-based MNP and BNP that can be easily pursued and sustainably applied in hydroponics or other agriculture platforms.

Co-transport behavior of aged polymeric methyl methacrylate nanoplastics and florfenicol antibiotic in porous media: Effects of electrolyte, pH, and aging duration

This study investigates single and co-transport behavior of aged (14 and 30 days) poly(methyl methacrylate) nanoparticles (14dPMMANPs, 30dPMMANPs) and florfenicol (FF) in saturated porous media, under varying ionic strengths (IS) and pH values. The results indicate that during the aging process, the carbon-oxygen double bonds in the ester group of PMMANPs were the first to be degraded under simulated sunlight exposure. In single transport experiments, the 14dPMMANPs exhibited higher mass recovery percentage, which can be attributed to their smaller hydrodynamic diameter and higher oxygen-containing functional groups. Interestingly, the oxygenated functional groups exposed on the 14dPMMANPs may provide more cation binding sites, resulting in stronger migration inhibition under Ca2+ conditions compared to Na+ conditions. In contrast, the 30dPMMANPs displayed more negative zeta potential and a lower rate of particle size increase, weakening the inhibitory effect of divalent cations. Under co-transport conditions, FF promoted the migration of 30dPMMANPs in low IS, neutral solutions. Overall, FF reached a new equilibrium between transport inhibition (reduced electrostatic repulsion, increased hydrodynamic diameter of PMMANPs, and additional deposition sites on quartz sand (QS)) and transport promotion (PMMANPs as a carrier and competition for deposition sites on the QS surface). Changes in pH disrupted this equilibrium. Furthermore, the extended Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (XDLVO) theory, considering surface roughness (SR), provides a good explanation for the breakthrough curves (BTC) of aged PMMANPs during single and co-transport. The surface collapse, inter-particle aggregation, higher SR, and surface inhomogeneity observed in 30dPMMANPs suggest significant chemical heterogeneity, resulting in a lower energy barrier for migration. This study reveals the dynamic relationship between the physicochemical properties and the migration capacity of PMMANPs at different aging stages, demonstrates the dynamic equilibrium of the competition-carrier effect in the co-transport system (FF and PMMANPs), and uncovers the synergistic effect between cation valence and the coordination ability of surface functional groups on nanoplastics, overcoming the limitation of traditional studies that focus only on ionic strength.

Interactions between nanobiochar and arsenic: Effects of biochar aging methods on arsenic binding capacity and mechanisms

Nano-biochar (nanoBC), produced from biochar aging, exhibits significant molecular heterogeneity that may affect the fate and toxicity of co-occurring pollutants. However, the interaction between nanoBC and arsenic (As) remains unclear. Herein, we simulated biochar aging through water erosion, photoaging, and thermal chemical decomposition to generate three types of nanoBC (nUBC, nPBC, and nHBC). We then investigated their distinct binding affinities and interaction mechanisms with arsenite (AsIII) and arsenate (AsV). Complementary analysis using optical spectrophotometer and high-resolution mass spectrometry revealed significant differences in properties and chemical compositions among the three nanoBCs at a size of 100 nm. Specifically, nHBC had higher yield, nPBC had higher aromaticity, and nUBC had more intricate molecular compositions and larger molecular weights. Binding experiments showed that nHBC and nUBC exhibited the highest conditional distribution coefficient (KD) for AsIII and AsV, respectively. In nHBC, a higher proportion of humic-like fluorescent component C3 enhanced its affinity for AsIII, attributed to lignin-like molecules with CHONS formulas where thiol acted as active binding sites. In contrast, the robust AsV binding capacity of nUBC stemmed from its richness in humic-like fluorescent component C1 and tryptophan-like fluorescent component C2. This is facilitated by lipid-like molecules and CHO formulas in C1 and aliphatic/peptide-like molecules and CHON formulas in C2, which provided oxygenic and nitrogen-containing groups for binding. All nanoBC had a significantly higher binding affinity for As than bulk BC. These findings provide a deeper understanding of As-nanoBC binding mechanisms at the molecular level, facilitating more accurate prediction of As fate in biochar-amended soil and associated ecosystem risks.

Insights into the controlling factors of the transport of tire wear particles in saturated porous media: The facilitative role of aging and fulvic acid

The widespread distribution and potential adverse effects of tire wear particles (TWPs) on soil and groundwater quality pose a growing environmental concern. This study investigated the transport behavior of TWPs in saturated porous media and elucidated the underlying mechanisms influenced by environmental factors. Additionally, the effects of key environmental factors, such as aging, ionic strength, cation species, medium type, and natural organic matter (NOM), on the transport of TWPs were evaluated. The results showed that aging processes simulated through O3 and UV irradiation altered the physicochemical properties of TWPs, increased the mobility of TWPs at low ionic strengths. However, the high ionic strengths and the presence of Ca2+ significantly inhibited the mobility of TWPs due to enhanced aggregation. The transport mechanism of the original and aged TWPs shifted from blocking to ripening under favorable retention conditions (i.e., high ionic strengths, divalent cations, and fine sands). Interestingly, the presence of fulvic acid (FA) inhibited the ripening of the three TWPs, significantly promoting their transport through a spatial site resistance mechanism. The two-site kinetic attachment model (TSKAM), extended Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (XDLVO) theory, and colloid filtration theory (CFT) were applied to describe the transport behavior of the TWPs. The study provided a comprehensive understanding of the transport behavior of TWPs in groundwater environments, highlighting the environmental risks associated with their widespread distribution.

New challenge: Mitigation and control of antibiotic resistant genes in aquatic environments by biochar

With an increase of diverse contaminants in the environment, particularly antibiotics, the maintenance and propagation of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) are promoted by co-selection mechanisms. ARGs are difficult to degrade, cause long-lasting pollution, and are widely transmitted in aquatic environments. Biochar is frequently used to remove various pollutants during environmental remediation. Thus, this review provides a thorough analysis of the current state of ARGs in the aquatic environment as well as their removal by using biochar. This article summarizes the research and application of biochar and modified biochar to remove ARGs in aquatic environments, in order to refine the following contents: 1) fill gaps in the research on the various ARG behaviors mediated by biochar and some influence factors, 2) further investigate the mechanisms involved in effects of biochar on extracellular ARGs (eARGs) and intracellular ARGs (iARGs) in aquatic environments, including direct and the indirect effects, 3) describe the propagation process and resistance mechanisms of ARGs, 4) propose the challenges and prospects of feasibility of application and subsequent treatment in actual aquatic environment. Here we highlight the most recent research on the use of biochar to remove ARGs from aquatic environments and suggest future directions for optimization, as well as current perspectives to guide future studies on the removal of ARGs from aquatic environments.

From Bulk to Nano: Formation, Features, and Functions of Nano-Black Carbon in Biogeochemical Processes

Globally increasing wildfires and widespread applications of biochar have led to a growing amount of black carbon (BC) entering terrestrial ecosystems. The significance of BC in carbon sequestration, environmental remediation, and the agricultural industry has long been recognized. However, the formation, features, and environmental functions of nanosized BC, which is one of the most active fractions in the BC continuum during global climate change, are poorly understood. This review highlights the formation, surface reactivity (sorption, redox, and heteroaggregation), biotic, and abiotic transformations of nano-BC, and its major differences compared to other fractions of BC and engineered carbon nanomaterials. Potential applications of nano-BC including suspending agent, soil amendment, and nanofertilizer are elucidated based on its unique properties and functions. Future studies are suggested to develop more reliable detection techniques to provide multidimensional information on nano-BC in environmental samples, explore the critical role of nano-BC in promoting soil and planetary health from a one health perspective, and extend the multifield applications of nano-BC with a lower environmental footprint but higher efficiency.

Migration Rules and Mechanisms of Nano-Biochar in Soil Columns under Various Transport Conditions

Compared to traditional biochar (BC), nano-biochar (NBC) boasts superior physicochemical properties, promising extensive applications in agriculture, ecological environments, and beyond. Due to its strong adsorption and migration properties, NBC may carry nutrients or pollutants to deeper soil layers or even groundwater, causing serious environmental risks. Nevertheless, the migration rules and mechanisms of NBC in soil are still unclear. Therefore, this study employed soil column migration experiments to systematically explore the migration rules and mechanisms of NBC under various flow rates, initial soil water contents, soil depths, and soil textures. The results showed that regulated by smaller particle size differences and greater surface charges, NBC exhibited a stronger migration ability compared with traditional BC. As the soil texture transitioned from fine to coarse, the migration capability of NBC significantly improved, driven by both pore structure and interaction forces as described by the DLVO theory. The migration ability of NBC was also greatly boosted as the soil transitioned from saturated to unsaturated conditions, primarily because of preferential flow. When the flow rate increased from 70% KS to 100% KS and 130% KS, the migration ability of NBC also increased accordingly, as changes in injection flow rates altered the velocity distribution of pore water. NBC in 25 cm soil columns was more prone to shallow retention compared with 10 cm soil columns, resulting in weaker overall migration ability. In addition, through fitting of the two-site kinetic model and related parameters, the penetration curves of NBC under various variable conditions were effectively characterized. These findings could offer valuable insights for NBC's future efficient, rational, and sustainable utilization, facilitating the evaluation and mitigation of its potential environmental risks.

Influence of surfactant molecular features on tetracycline transport in saturated porous media of varied surface heterogeneities

This study aims to understand how surfactants affect the mobility of tetracycline (TC), an antibiotic, through different aquifer media. Two anionic and cationic surfactants, sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS) and cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB), were used to study their influence on TC mobility through clean sand and humic acid (HA)-coated sand. HA coating inhibits TC mobility due to its strong interaction with TC. Both surfactants promoted TC mobility at pH 7.0 due to competitive deposition, steric effect, and increased hydrophilicity of TC. CTAB had a more substantial effect than SDBS, related to the surfactants' molecular properties. Each surfactant's promotion effects were greater in HA-coated sand than in quartz sand due to differences in surfactant retention. CTAB inhibited TC transport at pH 9.0 due to its significant hydrophobicity effect. Furthermore, in the presence of Ca2+, SDBS enhanced TC transport by forming deposited SDBS-Ca2+-TC complexes. On the other hand, CTAB increased TC mobility due to its inhibition of cation bridging between TC and porous media. The findings highlight surfactants' crucial role in influencing the environmental behaviors of tetracycline antibiotics in varied aquifers.

Unveiling combined ecotoxicity: Interactions and impacts of engineered nanoparticles and PPCPs

Emerging contaminants such as engineered nanoparticles (ENPs), pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are of great concern because of their wide distribution and incomplete removal in conventional wastewater and soil treatment processes. The production and usage of ENPs and PPCPs inevitably result in their coexistence in different environmental media, thus posing various risks to organisms in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. However, the existing literature on the physicochemical interactions between ENPs and PPCPs and their effects on organisms is rather limited. Therefore, this paper summarized the ecotoxicity of combined ENPs and PPCPs by discussing: (1) the interactions between ENPs and PPCPs, including processes such as aggregation, adsorption, transformation, and desorption, considering the influence of environmental factors like pH, ionic strength, dissolved organic matter, and temperature; (2) the effects of these interactions on bioaccumulation, bioavailability and biotoxicity in organisms at different trophic levels; (3) the impacted of ENPs and PPCPs on cellular-level biological process. This review elucidated the potential ecological hazards associated with the interaction of ENPs and PPCPs, and serves as a foundation for future investigations into the ecotoxicity and mode of action of ENPs, PPCPs, and their co-occurring metabolites.

Properties of biochar colloids and behaviors in the soil environment: Influencing the migration of heavy metals

Biochar pyrolyzed by biomass shows excellent application prospects for heavy metal (HM) remediation, but a part of biochar can be inevitably broken into micro- and nano-sized biochar colloids (BCs) under biological and physicochemical actions in soil. BCs derived in the process of remediation have rough surface, rich elemental species and contents, and multiple functional groups, which are similar to biochar. However, BCs have some unique colloidal properties because of their micro and nano scale size. Due to these properties, BCs exhibit strong mobilities in the soil environment, and the mobilities may be influenced by a combination of colloidal properties of BCs and environmental factors including soil colloids and other soil environmental conditions. In addition, BCs may have affinity effects on HMs through electrostatic adsorption, ion exchange, surface complexation, precipitation/co-precipitation, and redox because of the properties such as large specific surface area, and rich oxygen-containing functional groups and minerals on the surface. This review summarizes the physicochemical and migratory properties of BCs, and the internal and external factors affecting the migration of BCs in the soil environment, and the possible effects of BCs on HMs are high-lighted. This review provides a theoretical basis for the optimization of soil contaminated with HMs after remediation using biochar. Notably, the innovative idea that BCs may influence the presence of HMs in soil needs to be further confirmed by more targeted detection and analysis methods in future studies to prevent the possible environmental toxicities of the lateral and vertical diffusion of HM caused by BCs in soil.

Transport and retention of ciprofloxacin with presence of multi-walled carbon nanotubes in the saturated porous media: impacts of ionic strength and cation types

The environmental fate and risks of ciprofloxacin (CIP) in the subsurface have raised intensive concerns. Herein, the transport behaviors of CIP in both saturated quartz sand and sand/multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) mixtures under different solution ionic strength of the solution and coexisting cation types were investigated. Batch adsorption experiments highlighted growing adsorptive capacity for CIP with the increasing content of MWCNTs in the MWCNTs-quartz sand mixtures (from 0.5% to 1.5%, w/w). Breakthrough curves (BTCs) of CIP in the MWCNTs-quartz sand mixtures were well fitted by the two-site chemical nonequilibrium model (R2 > 0.833). The estimated retardation factors for CIP increased from 9.68 to 282 with growing content of MWCNTs in the sand column, suggesting the presence of MWCNTs significantly inhibited the transport of CIP in saturated porous media. Moreover, the values of retardation factors are negatively correlated with the ionic strength and higher ionic strength could facilitate the transport of CIP in the saturated porous media. Compared with monovalent cations (Na+), the presence of divalent cations (Ca2+) significantly facilitated the transport of CIP in the columns due to the complexation between CIP and Ca2+ as well as deposition of MWCNTs aggregates on the sand surface. Results regarding CIP retention in columns indicated that MWCNTs could enhance the accumulation of CIP in the layers close to the influent of sand columns, while they could hinder upward transport of CIP to the effluent. This study improves our understanding for transport behaviors and environmental risk assessments of CIP in the saturated porous media with MWCNTs.

Retention of Ciprofloxacin and Carbamazepine from Aqueous Solutions Using Chitosan-Based Cryostructured Composites

Water pollution is becoming a great concern at the global level due to highly polluted effluents, which are charged year by year with increasing amounts of organic residues, dyes, pharmaceuticals and heavy metals. For some of these pollutants, the industrial treatment of wastewater is still relevant. Yet, in some cases, such as pharmaceuticals, specific treatment schemes are urgently required. Therefore, the present study describes the synthesis and evaluation of promising cryostructured composite adsorbents based on chitosan containing native minerals and two types of reinforcement materials (functionalized kaolin and synthetic silicate microparticles). The targeted pharmaceuticals refer to the ciprofloxacin (CIP) antibiotic and the carbamazepine (CBZ) drug, for which the current water treatment process seem to be less efficient, making them appear in exceedingly high concentrations, even in tap water. The study reveals first the progress made for improving the mechanical stability and resilience to water disintegration, as a function of pH, of chitosan-based cryostructures. Further on, a retention study shows that both pharmaceuticals are retained with high efficiency (up to 85.94% CIP and 86.38% CBZ) from diluted aqueous solutions.

Effects of aging methods on the adsorption of antibiotics in wastewater by soybean straw biochar

BACKGROUND

The environmental pollution and ecological risks caused by the widespread use of antibiotics have attracted attention in recent years. Biochar materials have a rich pore diameter and can effectively adsorb pollutants from wastewater. However, biochar will experience high temperatures, freezing and thawing in nature, affecting its physicochemical properties and adsorption capacity. Three types of aged biochar were prepared by artificial simulated aging using soybean straw as raw material. The aged biochar's elemental composition and functional group species were investigated by characterization analysis, and their adsorption kinetics and adsorption isotherms were studied.

RESULTS

The specific surface area and pore size of the three aged biochars were lower than those of fresh biochars. The increased number of oxygen-containing functional groups of the aged biochars formed a water cluster interaction with norfloxacin (NOR), which was unfavorable to the adsorption of NOR. The adsorption mechanism of biochar on NOR comprises pore filling, electrostatic interaction, ion exchange and complexation.

CONCLUSION

The adsorption of NOR on biochar before and after aging was spontaneous and was described by quasi-second kinetics and the Langmuir equation. Different aging methods influenced the physicochemical properties and adsorption performance of biochar, and the adsorption capacity of biochar was significantly reduced after aging. Therefore, the influence of climatic factors needs to be considered when using biochar to remove target pollutants. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Aggregation of biochar nanoparticles and the impact on bisphenol A sorption: Experiments and molecular dynamics simulations

The unique properties and environmental implications of biochar nanoparticles (BNPs) have attracted increasing attention. The abundant functional groups and aromatic structures in BNPs may promote the aggregation of BNPs, but the mechanism and implications of this aggregation process remain unclear. Thus, this study investigated the aggregation of BNPs and the sorption of bisphenol A (BPA) on BNPs by combining experimental investigations with molecular dynamics simulations. As the concentration of BNP increased from 100 mg/L to 500 mg/L, the particle size increased from approximately 200 nm to 500 nm, and the exposed surface area ratio in the aqueous phase decreased from 0.46 to 0.05, which confirmed the aggregation of BNPs. The sorption of BPA on BNPs decreased with increasing BNP concentration in both the experiments and molecular dynamics simulations because of BNP aggregation. According to a detailed analysis of the BPA molecules adsorbed on BNP aggregates, the sorption mechanisms were hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic effect, and π-π interactions, which were driven by aromatic rings and O- and N-containing functional groups. The aggregation of BNPs embedded some functional groups in the aggregates and thus inhibited sorption. Interestingly, the steady configuration of the BNP aggregates in the molecular dynamics simulations (2000 ps relaxation) also determined the apparent BPA sorption. BPA molecules were adsorbed in the V-shaped interlayers of the BNP aggregates that acted as semi-closed pores, but could not be adsorbed in the parallel interlayers because of their small layer spacing. This study can provide theoretical guidance for the application of BNPs in pollution control and remediation.

A review of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) adsorption by biochar and modified biochar in water

Antibiotics have been used in massive quantities for human and animal medical treatment, and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) are of great concern worldwide. Antibiotics and ARGs are exposed to the natural environment through the discharge of medical wastewater, causing great harm to the environment and human health. Biochar has been widely used as a green and efficient adsorbent to remove pollutants. However, pristine and unmodified biochars are not considered sufficient and efficient to cope with the current serious water pollution. Therefore, researchers have chosen to improve the adsorption capacity of biochar through different modification methods. To have a better understanding of the application of modified biochar, this review summarizes the biochar modification methods and their performance, particularly, molecular imprinting and biochar aging are outlined as new modification methods, influencing factors of biochar and modified biochar in adsorption of antibiotics and ARGs and adsorption mechanisms, wherein adsorption mechanism of ARGs on biochar is found to be different than that of antibiotics. After that, the directions of biochar and modified biochar worthy of research and the issues that need attention are proposed. It can be noted that under the current dual carbon policy, biochar may have wider application prospects in future.

Transport of oxytetracycline through saturated porous media: role of surface chemical heterogeneity

The current state of knowledge on the transport behaviors of oxytetracycline (OTC, a typical tetracycline antibiotic) in porous media with heterogeneous chemical surfaces is inadequate. In this work, the mobility properties of OTC through saturated porous media with different chemical heterogeneities (i.e., quartz sand, montmorillonite (MMT)-, humic acid (HA)-, and goethite (Goe)-coated sands) were investigated. In comparison with the mobility of OTC in the quartz sand, HA and goethite coatings inhibited the mobility of OTC, whereas montmorillonite coating enhanced OTC mobility. HA coating inhibited the transport of OTC that stemmed from the strong interactions between HA and OTC via complexation, π-π stacking, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic interaction. The positively charged iron oxide coating on Goe-coated sand provided favorable sites for OTC deposition through complexation and electrostatic attraction. The enhanced transport of OTC through MMT-coated sand was mainly due to the strong electrostatic repulsion between the anionic OTC species (i.e., OTC^-) and negatively charged porous media. Solution pH (5.0-9.0) posed a negligible effect on the trend of OTC mobility in different porous media. Furthermore, Ca²⁺ inhibited the transport of OTC mobility through various porous media via cation-bridging. The findings of this work contribute significantly to our understanding of the influence of aquifer surface chemical heterogeneities on OTC mobility behaviors in the subsurface environment.

Biochar-microorganism interactions for organic pollutant remediation: Challenges and perspectives

Numerous harmful chemicals are introduced every year in the environment through anthropogenic and geological activities raising global concerns of their ecotoxicological effects and decontamination strategies. Biochar technology has been recognized as an important pillar for recycling of biomass, contributing to the carbon capture and bioenergy industries, and remediation of contaminated soil, sediments and water. This paper aims to critically review the application potential of biochar with a special focus on the synergistic and antagonistic effects on contaminant-degrading microorganisms in single and mixed-contaminated systems. Owing to the high specific surface area, porous structure, and compatible surface chemistry, biochar can support the proliferation and activity of contaminant-degrading microorganisms. A combination of biochar and microorganisms to remove a variety of contaminants has gained popularity in recent years alongside traditional chemical and physical remediation technologies. The microbial compatibility of biochar can be improved by optimizing the surface parameters so that toxic pollutant release is minimized, biofilm formation is encouraged, and microbial populations are enhanced. Biocompatible biochar thus shows potential in the bioremediation of organic contaminants by harboring microbial populations, releasing contaminant-degrading enzymes, and protecting beneficial microorganisms from immediate toxicity of surrounding contaminants. This review recommends that biochar-microorganism co-deployment holds a great potential for the removal of contaminants thereby reducing the risk of organic contaminants to human and environmental health.

ZnO/γ-Fe2O3/Bentonite: An Efficient Solar-Light Active Magnetic Photocatalyst for the Degradation of Pharmaceutical Active Compounds

For applications related to the photocatalytic degradation of environmental contaminants, engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) must demonstrate not only a high photocatalytic potential, but also a low tendency to agglomeration, along with the ability to be easily collected after use. In this manuscript, a two-step process was implemented for the synthesis of ZnO, ZnO/Bentonite and the magnetic ZnO/γ-Fe₂O₃/Bentonite nanocomposite. The synthesized materials were characterized using various techniques, and their performance in the degradation of pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs), including ciprofloxacin (CIP), sulfamethoxazole (SMX), and carbamazepine (CBZ) was evaluated under various operating conditions, namely the type and dosage of the applied materials, pH, concentration of pollutants, and their appearance form in the medium (i.e., as a single pollutant or as a mixture of PhACs). Among the materials studied, ZnO/Bentonite presented the best performance and resulted in the removal of ~95% of CIP (5 mg/L) in 30 min, at room temperature, near-neutral pH (6.5), ZnO/Bentonite dosage of 0.5 g/L, and under solar light irradiation. The composite also showed a high degree of efficiency for the simultaneous removal of CIP (~98%, 5 mg/L) and SMX (~97%, 5 mg/L) within 30 min, while a low degradation of ~5% was observed for CBZ (5 mg/L) in a mixture of the three PhACs. Furthermore, mechanistic studies using different types of scavengers revealed the formation of active oxidative species responsible for the degradation of CIP in the photocatalytic system studied with the contribution of h⁺ (67%), OH (18%), and ·O₂⁻ (10%), and in which holes (h⁺) were found to be the dominant oxidative species.

Effect of nZVI/biochar nanocomposites on Cd transport in clay mineral-coated quartz sand: Facilitation and rerelease

The development and application of nano-biochar synthesized by ball milling technology is still challenging in the field of environmental remediation because of its higher activity with pollutants. The purpose of this study was to investigate the transport behavior of two kinds of biochar nanoparticles (nanobiochar (NBC) and nZVI-modified nanobiochar (nZVI-NBC)) and Cd2+ in clay mineral (kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite)-coated quartz sand columns. The interaction between biochar nanoparticles and Cd2+ in saturated porous media was studied in cotransport experiments. Then, the effect of biochar nanoparticles on the release of Cd2+ in contaminated media was explored by elution experiments. The cotransport experiments showed that the mobility of Cd2+ was enhanced by two kinds of biochar nanoparticles, while the transport of biochar was limited due to the presence of Cd2+. The elution experiments showed that the transport of biochar nanoparticles can be inhibited by Cd2+ previously immobilized in the sand column, and Cd2+ can be rereleased by biochar nanoparticles. The rerelease ability of nZVI-NBC to Cd2+ is weaker than that of NBC because nZVI is more easily retained in the sand column after oxidation, thus strengthening the immobilization of Cd2+. In general, the recoveries of NBC, nZVI-NBC and Cd2+ in saturated porous media were reduced by the presence of clay minerals. The experimental results describing the stability of biochar nanoparticles in sand columns are consistent with those predicted by the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek theory. The transport behavior of Cd2+ and biochar nanoparticles in sand columns can be well simulated by advection-dispersion-reaction. These findings reveal the interaction between biochar nanoparticles and heavy metals in the soil environment and provide new insights into the transport and fate of environmental remediation materials and pollutants in the underground environment.