Distribution of microplastics in freshwater systems in an urbanized region: A case study in Flanders (Belgium)

Are polylactic acid (PLA) microplastics a risk to marine organisms? Acute and chronic effects on the amphipods Gammarus aequicauda

Conventional plastics have become a major environmental concern due to their persistence and accumulation in marine ecosystems. Recently, the development of bio-based polymers, such as polylactic acid (PLA), has gained particular attention as an alternative to limit plastic pollution, as these materials can be degraded under certain conditions. This study investigated the ecotoxicity of polylactic acid (PLA) microplastics (38-220 μm) in the marine amphipod Gammarus aequicauda. To achieve this, juvenile amphipods (2-4 mm) were exposed to PLA in acute toxicity tests to assess mortality after 96 hours. In addition, the effects of chronic exposure (60 days) to PLA microplastics were assessed on the growth and fertility (reproduction, embryonic development and aborted eggs). The results showed a low acute effect with a LC₅₀ of 91.57 mgPLA/L, but exposure to sublethal concentrations (5 and 10 mgPLA/L) of MPs resulted in lower growth and reproduction success compared to control ones. The mean time spent by males and females of G. aequicauda in the precopulation and the time of appearance of the first ovigerous females were not affected by PLA exposure. However, the total number of ovigerous females and the total number of neonates per female were significantly reduced at sublethal concentrations of MP-PLA. Finally, reproductive failures (aborted eggs) were higher at 5 and 10 mgPLA/L. The results provide interesting food for thought and underline that although PLA is known as an innovative biodegradable polymer, its impact on marine biota should not be minimized and the use of biodegradable plastics should be strongly cautioned.

Microplastic pollution in surface waters of urban canals in a highly urbanized city (Dunkirk, Northern France): influence of dry and wet periods on discharge to the sea

Microplastic (MP) pollution is a growing environmental concern, with urban waterways constituting critical pathways for transporting MPs into marine ecosystems. This study investigated the distribution, abundance, diversity, and flux of MPs in six urban canals influenced by urban and industrial activities in the city of Dunkirk, during dry and wet (rainy) periods. Plastic abundance was higher during the wet period (18.25 ± 22.16 particles/m3) compared to the dry period (8.14 ± 7.76 particles/m3), reflecting increased inputs from surface runoff and stormwater discharge. Spatial trends revealed distinct site-specific patterns, with the most urbanized sites (S1 and S6) exhibiting the highest abundances. Fibers were the dominant type accounting for over 75% of particles at all sites. PET was the main polymer in urban sites, while PE and PP were more prevalent in industrial zones. The estimated annual flux of MP at the outlet ranged from 19.21 × 106 ± 26.12 × 105 particles/year/m3 (dry period) to 23.97 × 107 ± 19.41 × 106 particles/year/m3 (wet period), revealing the significant contributions of urban canals to coastal pollution. These results highlight the need for improved source control and stormwater management to better assess and mitigate MP pollution in urban aquatic systems.

Seabed microplastics in the European continental shelf: Unravelling physical and biological transport pathways and reciprocal fauna-Polymer relationships

Marine sediments are recognized as major sinks for microplastics, including remote areas which were previously considered "plastic-free". The understanding of microplastic dynamics in marine sediments is however limited due to the numerous pelagic and benthic pathways involved, and how these are influenced by physico-chemical interactions with the particles. European continental shelves border densely populated areas and face a high risk of microplastic contamination. In this study we quantified microplastics in soft-sediments of European coastal seas and characterized their polymer composition separating surface sediments from deeper layers. We then analyzed the influence of water column and sediment properties on spatial variability of seabed microplastics and investigated the relationship with macrofauna communities. A higher proportion of negatively buoyant polymers in surface sediments (0-1 cm) across stations was explained by seawater salinity and sediment microalgal detritus, highlighting the role of riverine input and possibly the formation of hetero-aggregates in defining polymer deposition. Additionally, we found that seawater temperature influenced polymer composition in deeper sediment layers (0-3 cm), likely together with biological activities performed by macrobenthos such as ingestion and burial. Finally, we demonstrate that seabed microplastics contribute to the spatial variability in macrobenthos, highlighting that marine ecosystem functioning effects of microplastic pollution are likely mediated via the benthos.

Adverse effects of environmentally relevant microplastics on in vivo endpoints, oxidative stress, and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway and multixenobiotic resistance system in the marine rotifer Brachionus plicatilis

This study compared the toxicological effects of environmentally relevant microplastics (MPs) on the marine rotifer Brachionus plicatilis, focusing on MPs derived from various sources, including fossil fuel-based low-density polyethylene, bio-based polylactic acid (PLA), biodegradable poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate), and a novel PLA modified with β-cyclodextrin. We assessed in vivo effects such as reproductive output and mortality, alongside in vitro oxidative stress responses, including oxidative stress, antioxidant enzyme activities, and activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway and the multixenobiotic resistance (MXR) system. Reproductive output and lifespan reduced significantly across all MP types, ranging from 0.5 to 10 mg L-1, indicating compromised reproductive fitness and life maintenance. At an environmentally relevant concentration of 0.5 mg L-1, in vitro assessments revealed differential modulation of reactive oxygen species levels and antioxidant enzyme activities, contingent upon the specific MP type. Moreover, MAPK signaling pathway and MXR assays showed changes in phosphorylation and detoxification proteins depending on the type of MPs. This study highlights the ecological risks that various MPs, including bio-based, biodegradable, and petrochemical-based MPs, could pose in marine environments.

Microplastics are detected in bull epididymal sperm and polystyrene microparticles impair sperm fertilization†

An increase in global infertility has coincided with the accumulation of microplastics (MPs) in the environment. This trend is particularly troubling because only 10% of male infertility cases can be attributed to identifiable causes, leaving a knowledge gap in our understanding of their underlying factors. To bridge this, it is important to explore the connection between the accumulation of MPs and the observed decline in male fertility. We assessed the presence of microplastics in epididymal sperm from bulls and used it as baseline concentrations for sperm exposure. MPs were detected in all epidydimal sperm (ES) samples, with a mean concentration of 0.37 μg mL-1. Next, to investigate the effects of MPs on fertility, bovine sperm was exposed to three different concentrations of a mixture of 1.1, 0.5, and 0.3 μm polystyrene (PS) beads: (1) 0.7 μg mL-1, blood concentration of PS in cows (bPS); (2) 0.37 μg mL-1, based on the concentration of total MPs found in ES (esMP); and (3) 0.026 μg mL-1, based on the concentration of PS found in ES (esPS). All sperm samples incubated with PS exhibited reduced motility compared with the control at 0.5 h. However, PS exposure did not affect acrosome integrity or induced oxidative stress. Embryos produced from sperm exposed to PS had reduced blastocyst rates, in addition to increased ROS formation and apoptosis. By employing physiological exposure, this research provided evidence of MPs in bovine epididymal sperm and demonstrated the detrimental effect of PS on sperm functionality.

Microplastics in ecosystems: Critical review of occurrence, distribution, toxicity, fate, transport, and advances in experimental and computational studies in surface and subsurface water

Microplastics (MPs), particles under 5 mm, pervade water, soil, sediment, and air due to increased plastic production and improper disposal, posing global environmental and health risks. Examining their distribution, quantities, fate, and transport is crucial for effective management. Several studies have explored MPs' sources, distribution, transport, and biological impacts, primarily focusing on the marine environment. However, there is a need for a comprehensive review of all environmental systems together for enhanced pollution control. This review critically examines the occurrence, distribution, fate, and transport of MPs in the following environments: freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems. The concentration of MPs is highly variable in the environment, ranging from negligible to significant amounts (0.003-519.223 items/liter in water and 0-18,000 items/kg dry weight sediment, respectively). Predominantly, these MPs manifest as fibers and fragments, with primary polymer types including polypropylene, polystyrene, polyethylene, and polyethylene terephthalate. A complex interplay of natural and anthropogenic actions, including wastewater treatment plant discharges, precipitation, stormwater runoff, inadequate plastic waste management, and biosolid applications, influences MPs' presence and distribution. Our critical synthesis of existing literature underscores the significance of factors such as wind, water flow rates, settling velocities, wave characteristics, plastic morphology, density, and size in determining MPs' transport dynamics in surface and subsurface waters. Furthermore, this review identifies research gaps, both in experimental and simulation, and outlines pivotal avenues for future exploration in the realm of MPs.

Impacts of microplastics on ecosystem services and their microbial degradation: a systematic review of the recent state of the art and future prospects

Microplastics are tiny plastic particles with a usual diameter ranging from ~ 1 μ to 5 µm. Recently, microplastic pollution has raised the attention of the worldwide environmental and human concerns. In human beings, digestive system illness, respiratory system disorders, sleep disturbances, obesity, diabetes, and even cancer have been reported after microplastic exposure either through food, air, or skin. Similarly, microplastics are also having negative impacts on the plant health, soil microorganisms, aquatic lives, and other animals. Policies and initiatives have already been in the pipeline to address this problem to deal with microplastic pollution. However, many obstacles are also being observed such as lack of knowledge, lack of research, and also absence of regulatory frameworks. This article has covered the distribution of microplastics in water, soil, food and air. Application of multimodel strategies including fewer plastic item consumption, developing low-cost novel technologies using microorganisms, biofilm, and genetic modified microorganisms has been used to reduce microplastics from the environment. Researchers, academician, policy-makers, and environmentalists should work jointly to cope up with microplastic contamination and their effect on the ecosystem as a whole which can be reduced in the coming years and also to make earth clean.

The combination of detection and simulation for the distribution and sourcing of microplastics in Shing Mun River estuary, Hong Kong

For the first time, combined detection and simulation was performed on microplastic (MP) debris in surface water, sediment, and oyster samples at ten coastal sites of Shing Mun River estuary, Hong Kong at different tidal conditions. The MP debris were extracted and detected using Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, and the simulation was conducted using Weather Research & Forecasting Model (WRF) / Regional Ocean Modelling System (ROMS) coupled hydro-dynamic modelling and the subsequent Lagrangian particle tracking. The results demonstrated the majority of polyethylene (with partial chlorine substitution) debris among all the MPs found, and great spatial and tidal variabilities of MP concentrations were observed. The combination of MP observation and simulations referred to the interpretation that a considerable percentage of MPs found in this study originated from South China Sea. Those MPs were probably transported to Tolo Harbour through sea currents and drifted inshore and offshore with tides. This study provided baseline measures of MP concentrations in Shing Mun River estuary and comprehensive understanding for how MPs transport and distribute within a dynamic estuarine system.

Microplastics monitoring in freshwater systems: A review of global efforts, knowledge gaps, and research priorities

The escalating production of synthetic plastics and inadequate waste management have led to pervasive microplastic (MP) contamination in aquatic ecosystems. MPs, typically defined as particles smaller than 5 mm, have become an emerging pollutant in freshwater environments. While significant concern about MPs has risen since 2014, research has predominantly concentrated on marine settings, there is an urgent need for a more in-depth critical review to systematically summarize the current global efforts, knowledge gaps, and research priorities for MP monitoring in freshwater systems. This review evaluates the current understanding of MP monitoring in freshwater environments by examining the distribution, characteristics, and sources of MPs, alongside the progression of analytical methods with quantitative evidence. Our findings suggest that MPs are widely distributed in global freshwater systems, with higher abundances found in areas with intense human economic activities, such as the United States, Europe, and China. MP abundance distributions vary across different water bodies (e.g., rivers, lakes, estuaries, and wetlands), with sampling methods and size range selections significantly influencing reported MP abundances. Despite great global efforts, there is still a lack of harmonized analyzing framework and understanding of MP pollution in specific regions and facilities. Future research should prioritize the development of standardized analysis protocols and open-source MP datasets to facilitate data comparison. Additionally, exploring the potential of state-of-the-art artificial intelligence for rapid, accurate, and large-scale modeling and characterization of MPs is crucial to inform effective strategies for managing MP pollution in freshwater ecosystems.

Occurrence, potential sources, and ecological risk assessment of microplastics in the inland river basins in Northern China

Microplastics (MPs) are the pollutants, found widely across various environmental media. However, studies on the MP pollution in urban rivers and the necessary risk assessments remain limited. In this study, the abundance and characteristics of microplastics in a typical urban river were examined to evaluate their distribution, sources, and ecological risks. It was observed that the abundance of MPs in sediments (220-2840 items·kg-1 dry weight (DW)) was much higher than that in surface water (2.9-10.3 items·L-1), indicating that the sediment is the "sink" of river MPs. Surface water and sediment were dominated by small particle size MPs (< 0.5 mm). Fiber and debris were common shapes of MPs in rivers and sediments. The microplastics in river water and sediments were primarily white and transparent, respectively. Polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE) were the major polymers found.

Aerosolization of micro- and nanoplastics via sea spray: Investigating the role of polymer type, size, and concentration, and potential implications for human exposure

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) can enter the atmosphere via sea spray aerosols (SSAs), but the effects of plastic characteristics on the aerosolization process are unclear. Furthermore, the importance of the transport of MNPs via these SSAs as a possible new exposure route for human health remains unknown. The aim of this study was two-fold: (1) to examine if a selection of factors affects aerosolization processes of MNPs, and (2) to estimate human exposure to MNPs via aerosols inhalation. A laboratory-based bubble bursting mechanism, simulating the aerosolization process at sea, was used to investigate the influence of MNP as well as seawater characteristics. To determine the potential human exposure to microplastics via inhalation of SSAs, the results of the laboratory experiments were extrapolated to the field based on sea surface microplastic concentrations and the volume of inhaled aerosols. Enrichment seemed to be influenced by MNP size, concentration and polymer type. With higher enrichment for smaller particles and denser polymers. Experiments with different concentrations showed a larger range of variability but nonetheless lower concentrations seemed to result in higher enrichment, presumably due to lower aggregation. In addition to the MNP characteristics, the type of seawater used seemed to influence the aerosolization process. Our human exposure estimate to microplastic via inhalation of sea spray aerosols shows that in comparison with reported inhaled concentrations in urban and indoor environments, this exposure route seems negligible for microplastics. Following the business-as-usual scenario on plastic production, the daily plastic inhalation in coastal areas in 2100 is estimated to increase but remain far below 1 particle per day. This study shows that aerosolization of MNPs is a new plastic transport pathway to be considered, but in terms of human exposure it seems negligible compared to other more important sources of MNPs, based on current reported environmental concentrations.

Differentiating Microplastics from Natural Particles in Aqueous Suspensions Using Flow Cytometry with Machine Learning

Microplastics (MPs) in natural waters are heterogeneously mixed with other natural particles including algal cells and suspended sediments. An easy-to-use and rapid method for directly measuring and distinguishing MPs from other naturally present colloids in the environment would expedite analytical workflows. Here, we established a database of MP scattering and fluorescence properties, either alone or in mixtures with natural particles, by stain-free flow cytometry. The resulting high-dimensional data were analyzed using machine learning approaches, either unsupervised (e.g., viSNE) or supervised (e.g., random forest algorithms). We assessed our approach in identifying and quantifying model MPs of diverse sizes, morphologies, and polymer compositions in various suspensions including phototrophic microorganisms, suspended biofilms, mineral particles, and sediment. We could precisely quantify MPs in microbial phototrophs and natural sediments with high organic carbon by both machine learning models (identification accuracies over 93%), although it was not possible to distinguish between different MP sizes or polymer compositions. By testing the resulting method in environmental samples through spiking MPs into freshwater samples, we further highlight the applicability of the method to be used as a rapid screening tool for MPs. Collectively, this workflow can be easily applied to a diverse set of samples to assess the presence of MPs in a time-efficient manner.

Implications of polystyrene and polyamide microplastics in the adsorption of sulfonamide antibiotics and their metabolites in water matrices

Microplastics (MP) and antibiotics coexist in the environment and their combined exposure represents a source of increasing concern. MP may act as carriers of antibiotics because of their sorption capacity. Knowledge of the interactions between them may help improve understanding of their migration and transformation. In this work, the adsorption behaviour of a group of sulfonamides and their acetylated metabolites on different sizes of polyamide (PA) and polystyrene (PS) MP were investigated and compared. Sulfonamides were adsorbed on both MP (qmax up to 0.699 and 0.184 mg/g, for PA and PS, respectively) fitting to a linear isotherm model (R2 > 0.835). A low particle size and an acidic and salinity medium significantly enhances the adsorption capacity of sulfonamides (i.e. removal of sulfamethoxazole increased from 8 % onto 3 mm PA pellets to 80 % onto 50 mm of PA pellets). According to characterization results, adsorption mechanism is explained by pore filling and hydrogen bonds (for PA) and hydrophobic interactions (for PS). After adsorption, surface area was increased in both MP as result of a potential ageing of the particles and the intensity of XRD peaks was higher denoting a MP structure more amorphized. Metabolites were adsorbed more efficiently than their parent compounds on PS while the opposite effect was observed on PA explained by the acetylation of the amine group and, subsequently the reduction of hydrogen bond interactions. Although the dissolved organic matter inhibits sulfonamides adsorption, removal up to 65.2 % in effluent wastewater and up to 72.1 % in surface water were observed in experiments using real matrices denoting the role of MP as vectors of sulfonamide antibiotics in aquatic media.

Occurrence, bioaccumulation, fate, and risk assessment of emerging pollutants in aquatic environments: A review

Significant concerns on a global scale have been raised in response to the potential adverse impacts of emerging pollutants (EPs) on aquatic creatures. We have carefully reviewed relevant research over the past 10 years. The study focuses on five typical EPs: pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), drinking water disinfection byproducts (DBPs), brominated flame retardants (BFRs), and microplastics (MPs). The presence of EPs in the global aquatic environment is source-dependent, with wastewater treatment plants being the main source of EPs. Multiple studies have consistently shown that the final destination of most EPs in the water environment is sludge and sediment. Simultaneously, a number of EPs, such as PFASs, MPs, and BFRs, have long-term environmental transport potential. Some EPs exhibit notable tendencies towards bioaccumulation and biomagnification, while others pose challenges in terms of their degradation within both biological and abiotic treatment processes. The results showed that, in most cases, the ecological risk of EPs in aquatic environments was low, possibly due to potential dilution and degradation. Future research topics should include adding EPs detection items for the aquatic environment, combining pollution, and updating prediction models.

Microplastics in drinking water: A review on methods, occurrence, sources, and potential risks assessment

Microplastics in drinking water captured widespread attention following reports of widespread detection around the world. Concerns have been raised about the potential adverse effects of microplastics in drinking water on human health. Given the widespread interest in this research topic, there is an urgent need to compile existing data and assess current knowledge. This paper provides a systematic review of studies on microplastics in drinking water, their evidence, key findings, knowledge gaps, and research needs. The data collected show that microplastics are widespread in drinking water, with large variations in reported concentrations. Standardized methodologies of sampling and analysis are urgently needed. There were more fibrous and fragmented microplastics, with the majority being <10 μm in size and composed of polyester, polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene. Little attention has been paid to the color of microplastics. More research is needed to understand the occurrence and transfer of microplastics throughout the water supply chain and the treatment efficiency of drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs). Methods capable of analyzing microplastics <10 μm and nanoplastics are urgently needed. Potential ecological assessment models for microplastics currently in use need to be improved to take into account the complexity and specificity of microplastics.

Exposure to Polystyrene Microplastics Promotes the Progression of Cognitive Impairment in Alzheimer's Disease: Association with Induction of Microglial Pyroptosis

We focused on investigating the effects and mechanisms of polystyrene (PS) microplastics in Alzheimer's disease (AD). PS could promote the cognitive impairment in mice and antagonize the action of PS. Meanwhile, it could promote microglial pyroptosis and aggravate neuroinflammation. In vitro results also showed that PS induced pyroptosis of BV2 and RAW264.7, after GSDMD silencing, such pyroptosis was inhibited. Our study found that PS aggravated neuroinflammation by inducing microglial pyroptosis, thereby promoting the progression of cognitive impairment in AD. This finding offers new support and reference for the induction of AD progression by environmental factors.

The path of microplastics through the rare biodiversity estuary region of the northern Bay of Bengal

Due to its harmful effects on ecosystems and human health, microplastic (MP) pollution has become a significant environmental problem on a global scale. Although MPs' pollution path and toxic effects on marine habitats have been examined worldwide, the studies are limited to the rare biodiversity estuary region of Hatiya Island from the northern Bay of Bengal. This study aimed to investigate the MP pollution path and its influencing factors in estuarine sediments and water in rare biodiversity Hatiya Island in the northern Bay of Bengal. Sixty water and sediment samples were collected from 10 sampling sites on the Island and analyzed for MPs. The abundance of MPs in sediment ranged from 67 to 143 pieces/kg, while the abundance in water ranged from 24.34 to 59 pieces/m3. The average concentrations of MPs in sediment and water were 110.90 ± 20.62 pieces/kg and 38.77 ± 10.09 pieces/m3, respectively. Most identified MPs from sediment samples were transparent (51%), while about 54.1% of the identified MPs from water samples were colored. The fragment was the most common form of MP in both compartments, with a value of 64.6% in sediment samples and 60.6% in water samples. In sediment and water samples, almost 74% and 80% of MP were <0.5 mm, respectively. Polypropylene (PP) was the most abundant polymer type, accounting for 51% of all identified polymers. The contamination factor, pollution load index, polymer risk score, and pollution risk score values indicated that the study area was moderately polluted with MPs. The spatial distribution patterns and hotspots of MPs echoed profound human pathways. Based on the results, sustainable management strategies and intervention measures were proposed to reduce the pollution level in the ecologically diverse area. This study provides important insights into evaluating estuary ecosystem susceptibility and mitigation policies against persistent MP issues.

Machine learning: Next promising trend for microplastics study

Microplastics (MPs), as an emerging pollutant, pose a significant threat to humans and ecosystems. However, traditional MPs characterization methods are limited by sample requirements and characterization time. Machine Learning (ML) has emerged as a vital technology for analyzing MPs pollution due to its accuracy, broad application, and powerful feature extraction. Nevertheless, environmental scientists require threshold knowledge before using ML, restricting the ML application in MPs research. Furthermore, imbalanced development of ML in MPs research is a pressing concern. In order to achieve a wide ML application in MPs research, in this review, we comprehensively discussed the size and sources of MPs datasets in relevant literature to help environmental scientists deepen their understanding of the construction of MPs datasets. Commonly used ML algorithms are analyzed from the perspective of interpretability and the need for computer facilities. Additionally, methods for improving and evaluating ML model performance, such as dataset pre-processing, model optimization, and model assessment metrics, are discussed. According to datasets and characterization techniques, MPs identification using ML was divided into three categories in this work: spectral identification, image identification, and spectral imaging identification. Finally, other applications of ML in MPs studies, including toxicity analysis, pollutants adsorption, and microbial colonization, are comprehensively discussed, which reveals the great application potential of ML. Based on the discussion above, this review suggests an algorithm selection strategy to assist researchers in selecting the most suitable ML algorithm in different situations, improving efficiency and decreasing the costs of trial and error. We believe that this work sheds light on the application of ML in MPs study.

Assessment of road run-off and domestic wastewater contribution to microplastic pollution in a densely populated area (Flanders, Belgium)

Plastics are omnipresent in our daily life. Unfortunately, the produced plastics will partly end up in the environment including aquatic ecosystems. People often refer to littering or illegal waste dumping as sources of plastic emission to the environment. However, daily-life sources could also, unknowingly, contribute considerably to the total microplastic pollution in the ecosystem. Hence, there is an urgent need to study these potential sources. In this research, two common sources, i.e. domestic wastewater and road run-off from tire and road wear particles, were studied in detail to quantify the relative contribution of both domestic sources towards microplastic pollution in freshwater ecosystems in Flanders, Belgium. This assessment shows that every person (in studied area) emits on average 1145 microplastics (25-1000 μm) daily through domestic wastewater, resulting in a yearly discharge of 418,000 microplastic particles per person. The road run-off samples contained between 0.02 and 9.2 mg tire wear particles per litre per day, which corresponds to an emission of 10.8 mg tire wear particles per driven vehicle km. The gross and net emissions of both above mentioned microplastic sources were extrapolated to the whole Flanders region using an emission model. From the yearly gross microplastic pollution in the domestic wastewater, 623 kg (20%) will be discharged in the freshwater. The highest losses originated from the households that have a private drain or are not (yet) connected to an active wastewater treatment plant. In Flanders, the yearly net microplastic emission into the aquatic environment of tire wear particles is estimated to be 246 tonnes (38%), mainly from the direct run-off from the road surface. Based on the results, specific mitigation measures can be installed to reduce the emission of microplastics towards the freshwater ecosystem. Other sources should be quantified in a similar way for a more holistic strategy to counteract plastic pollution.