Neighborhood context and racial/ethnic differences in young children's obesity: structural barriers to interventions

Associations between gestational exposure to neighbourhood socioeconomic deprivation and early childhood weight status

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to examine associations between prenatal neighbourhood socioeconomic deprivation (NSD) with early offspring weight status and to assess potential modification by race and ethnicity.

METHODS

We used data from the Newborn Epigenetics STudy (NEST) cohort. Gestational NSD was assessed as neighbourhood deprivation index (NDI) tertiles. Offspring height and weight were assessed at 6 months (N = 1023), 1 year (N = 1268), 2 years (N = 1033) and 3 years (N = 1038). Multilevel logistic regression models estimated odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for the relationship of NDI with overweight or obesity and rapid infant weight gain, adjusting for gestational parent age, race/ethnicity, marital status and educational attainment. Models were estimated in the total sample and also stratified by race and ethnicity.

RESULTS

Children exposed to NDI in the highest (compared to the lowest) tertile had increased odds of having overweight/obesity at 1 year (OR = 1.53, 95%CI = 1.09-2.15). In stratified models, children of NH Black gestational parents residing in the highest tertile of NDI (compared to the lowest) had increased odds of having overweight/obesity at 1 year (OR = 1.67, 95%CI = 1.00-2.77).

CONCLUSIONS

This findings suggest that higher gestational exposure to NSD may play a role in early childhood weight status, which has important implications for later development and health.

Prenatal and Pediatric Primary Care-Based Child Obesity Prevention: Effects of Adverse Social Determinants of Health on Intervention Attendance and Impact

Background: Adverse social determinants of health (SDoHs), specifically psychosocial stressors and material hardships, are associated with early childhood obesity. Less is known about whether adverse SDoHs modify the efficacy of early childhood obesity prevention programs. Methods: We conducted a secondary analysis of publicly insured birthing parent-child dyads with Latino backgrounds participating in a randomized controlled trial of the Starting Early Program (StEP), a child obesity prevention program beginning in pregnancy. We measured baseline adverse SDoHs categorized as psychosocial stressors (low social support, single marital status, and maternal depressive symptoms) and material hardships (food insecurity, housing disrepair, and financial difficulties) individually and cumulatively in the third trimester. Logistic regression models tested effects of adverse SDoHs on StEP attendance. We then tested whether adverse SDoHs moderated intervention impacts on weight at age 2 years. Results: We observed heterogeneous effects of adverse SDoHs on outcomes in 358 parent-child dyads. While housing disrepair decreased odds of higher attendance [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 0.52, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.29-0.94], high levels of psychosocial stressors doubled odds of higher attendance (aOR 2.36, 95% CI: 1.04-5.34). Similarly, while certain adverse SDoHs diminished StEP impact on weight (e.g., housing disrepair), others (e.g., high psychosocial stress) enhanced StEP impact on weight. Conclusions: Effects of adverse SDoHs on intervention outcomes depend on the specific adverse SDoH. Highest engagement and benefit occurred in those with high psychosocial stress at baseline, suggesting that StEP components may mitigate aspects of psychosocial stressors. Findings also support integration of adverse SDoH assessment into strategies to enhance obesity prevention impacts on families with material hardships. Trial Registration: This study is registered on clinicaltrials.gov: Starting Early Obesity Prevention Program (NCT01541761); https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01541761.

Special considerations for the child with obesity: An Obesity Medicine Association (OMA) clinical practice statement (CPS) 2024

Background

This Obesity Medicine Association (OMA) Clinical Practice Statement (CPS) details assessment and management of the child with overweight or obesity. The term "child" is defined as the child between 2 and 12 years of age. Because children are in a continual state of development during this age range, we will specify when our discussion applies to subsets within this age range. For the purposes of this CPS, we will use the following definitions: overweight in the child is a body mass index (BMI) ≥ 85th and <95th percentile, obesity in the child is a BMI ≥95th percentile, and severe obesity is a BMI ≥120% of the 95th percentile.

Methods

The information and clinical guidance in this OMA Clinical Practice Statement are based on scientific evidence, supported by medical literature, and derived from the clinical perspectives of the authors.

Results

This OMA Clinical Practice Statement provides an overview of prevalence of disease in this population, reviews precocious puberty in the child with obesity, discusses the current and evolving landscape of the use of anti-obesity medications in children in this age range, discusses the child with obesity and special health care needs, and reviews hypothalamic obesity in the child.

Conclusions

This OMA Clinical Practice Statement on the child with obesity is an evidence based review of the literature and an overview of current recommendations. This CPS is intended to provide a roadmap to the improvement of the health of children with obesity, especially those with metabolic, physiological, psychological complications and/or special healthcare needs. This CPS addresses treatment recommendations and is designed to help the clinician with clinical decision making.

Racial Disparities in the Relationship between Parental Incarceration and Childhood Obesity

Despite a developing literature on the consequences of parental incarceration, its effects on childhood obesity are not evident. Our research project fills this knowledge gap by describing the relationship between parental incarceration and childhood obesity among children aged 3 to 15 and determining if and how this association differs across race. We use four consecutive waves of data on 3,302 children from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Our analysis finds little evidence that parental incarceration influences the probability of obesity among all children as a group. Moreover, our findings reveal critical racial disparities in the relationship between parental incarceration and childhood obesity. In particular, parental lifetime incarceration is not associated with risks of obesity for White or Hispanic children but is associated with a significantly decreased chance of obesity for Black children. This research effort can initiate an interdisciplinary conversation on the important intersection of family and corrections in order to alleviate the intergenerational erosion of physical health and well-being.

Bored, afraid, alone: What can we learn from children with paediatric obesity about the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic for future pandemics, care practices and policies?

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to gain insight into the perspectives of children with paediatric obesity themselves, during the pandemic and afterwards, regarding their wellbeing and health, and to solicit their advice on tailoring obesity care to match their daily realities.

DESIGN AND METHODS

We used a 'draw, write and tell' interview technique, conducted walk-alongs, participant observations and a group session with children with paediatric obesity from seldom-heard communities in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Data was analysed using reflexive thematic analysis.

RESULTS

Children reported that during lockdowns they were confined to the house, causing them to feel bored and alone. This triggered them to fall into previous unhealthy patterns, such as an increase in sitting on the couch or lying in bed, gaming or watching TV, feeling hungry a lot and eating more. Some children experienced major events, such as mourning the death of a loved one or taking care of other family members, and thus felt they had to grow up fast.

CONCLUSION

Our study adds to our understanding of the mechanisms of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic from the perspectives of children with paediatric obesity from seldom-heard communities and emphasizes the importance of considering how the pandemic (and related measures) affected the daily - as well as future - lives of children in vulnerable circumstances.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

The recommendations children gave could be explored as pathways for more child-centred, successful and tailored obesity care practices and policies in order to support their (mental) wellbeing and health.

Relationships examined: Parent and child readiness to change and sociodemographic characteristics in family based weight loss treatment

BACKGROUND

Family based treatment is an effective, multipronged approach to address obesity as it plagues families.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationships among sociodemographic characteristics (e.g., education and income), body mass index (BMI) and race/ethnicity with readiness to change for parents enrolled in the Primary care pediatrics, Learning, Activity and Nutrition (PLAN) study.

METHODS

Multivariate linear regressions tested two hypotheses: (1) White parents will have higher levels of baseline readiness to change, when compared to Black parents; (2) parents with higher income and education will have higher levels of readiness to change at baseline.

RESULTS

A positive relationship exists between baseline parent BMI and readiness to change (Pearson correlation, 0.09, p < 0.05); statistically significant relationships exist between parent education level (-0.14, p < 0.05), income (0.04, p < 0.05) and readiness to change. Additionally, a statistically significant relationship exists, with both White (β, -0.10, p < 0.05), and Other, non-Hispanic (-0.10, p < 0.05) parents exhibiting lower readiness to change than Black, non-Hispanic parents. Child data did not indicate significant relationships between race/ethnicity and readiness to change.

CONCLUSIONS

Results demonstrate that investigators should consider sociodemographic characteristic factors and different levels of readiness to change in participants enrolling in obesity interventions.

Racial Inequity in Pediatric Anesthesia

Purpose of Review

Minority health disparities have received renewed attention in the USA following several highly publicized racial injustices in 2020. Though the focus has been largely on adults, children are not immune to these inequities. By reviewing racial disparities in pediatric perioperative care, we aim to engage the anesthesia community in the fight against systemic racism.

Recent Findings

Minority children have higher rates of anesthetic and surgical morbidity compared to White children, including respiratory events, length of stay, hospital costs, and even death. These inequities occur across surgical specialties and environments.

Summary

Racial disparities in the perioperative health and management of children are ubiquitous. Herein, we will summarize recent pediatric health disparity literature, discuss some important contributors to persistent inequities, and propose avenues for anesthesiologists to impact the pursuit of equitable healthcare outcomes.

Longitudinal exposure to neighborhood poverty and obesity risk in emerging adulthood

This study uses data from the longitudinal Panel Study of Income Dynamics data and its Transition to Adulthood (TA) Study (2005-2017), in conjunction with decades of neighborhood-level data from the U.S. decennial census and American Community Survey, to examine the relationship between individuals' neighborhood poverty exposure trajectories in childhood and the likelihood of obesity in emerging adulthood. Latent growth mixture models reveal that exposure to neighborhood poverty differs considerably for white and nonwhite individuals over their childhood life course. Durable exposure to neighborhood poverty confers greater subsequent obesity risks in emerging adulthood than transitory experiences of neighborhood poverty. Racial differences in the changing and persistent trajectories of neighborhood poverty help explain part of the racial differences in obesity risks. Among nonwhites, and compared to consistent nonpoor neighborhood conditions, both durable and transitory neighborhood poverty exposures are significantly associated with higher obesity risks. This study suggests that a theoretical framework that integrates key elements of the life-course perspective is helpful to uncover the individual and structural pathways through which neighborhood histories in poverty shape population health in general.

Severe obesity and fitness in New York City public school youth, 2010-2018

BACKGROUND

Obesity is associated with poorer youth fitness. However, little research has examined the magnitude of this relationship in youth with severe obesity. Therefore, we sought to determine the relationship between increasing weight status and fitness within a sample of children and adolescents from New York City public schools.

METHODS

This study utilized longitudinal data from the NYC Fitnessgram dataset years 2010-2018. Height and weight along with fitness were measured annually during physical education classes. Severity of obesity was defined using body mass index relative to the 95th percentile and then categorized into classes. A composite measure of fitness was calculated based on scores for three fitness tests: aerobic capacity, muscular strength, and muscular endurance. To examine the weight status-fitness relationship, repeated measures mixed models with random-intercepts were constructed. Stratified models examined differences by demographic factors.

RESULTS

The sample included 917,554 youth (51.8% male, 39.3% Hispanic, 29.9% non-Hispanic Black, 14.0%, 4.6%, and 1.6% class I, II and III obesity, respectively). Compared to youth with healthy weight, increasing severity of obesity was associated with decreased fitness: overweight (β = - 0.28, 95% CI:-0.29;-0.28), class I obesity (β = - 0.60, 95% CI:-0.60; - 0.60), class II obesity (β = - 0.94, 95% CI:-0.94; - 0.93), and class III obesity (β = - 1.28; 95% CI:-1.28; - 1.27). Stratified models showed the association was stronger among male and non-Hispanic White youth.

CONCLUSION

Findings revealed that more severe obesity was associated with lower fitness. Future research is needed to develop targeted interventions to improve fitness in youth with obesity.

Using Explainable Artificial Intelligence to Discover Interactions in an Ecological Model for Obesity

Ecological theories suggest that environmental, social, and individual factors interact to cause obesity. Yet, many analytic techniques, such as multilevel modeling, require manual specification of interacting factors, making them inept in their ability to search for interactions. This paper shows evidence that an explainable artificial intelligence approach, commonly employed in genomics research, can address this problem. The method entails using random intersection trees to decode interactions learned by random forest models. Here, this approach is used to extract interactions between features of a multi-level environment from random forest models of waist-to-height ratios using 11,112 participants from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study. This study shows that methods used to discover interactions between genes can also discover interacting features of the environment that impact obesity. This new approach to modeling ecosystems may help shine a spotlight on combinations of environmental features that are important to obesity, as well as other health outcomes.

Theoretical Approaches to Research on the Social Determinants of Obesity

This article reviews selected theoretical approaches explaining the social determinants of obesity. The significance of this topic for medicine, public health, and other areas of obesity-related research is the growing body of evidence showing that the social environment is often key to understanding the risk of obesity. A review of relevant literature and analysis of empirical evidence linking theory to data in studies of obesity was performed. Several studies show that differences in social behavior and living conditions associated with SES, lifestyles, inequality, and other social variables have important roles in weight gain. Because the social determinants of obesity often begin in childhood, life course theory and its concepts of cumulative advantage/disadvantage and cumulative inequality are initially reviewed, followed by a discussion of how fundamental cause theory, health lifestyle theory, and cultural capital theory can be applied to obesity research. The stress process model and the concepts of social networks and neighborhood disadvantage concerning obesity are also included.

The effectiveness of e-health interventions for the treatment of overweight or obesity in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to examine the effectiveness of e-health interventions for the treatment of children and adolescents with overweight or obesity. Databases were searched up to November 2020. Studies were randomized controlled trials where interventions were delivered via e-health (e.g., computers, tablets, and smartphones, but not phone calls). Studies should target the treatment of overweight or obesity in children or their agent of changes and report body mass index (BMI) or BMI z-score. A meta-analysis using a random-effects model was conducted. Nineteen studies met the inclusion criteria, and 60% were of high quality. The narrative review revealed variation in behavior change strategies and modes of delivery. The pooled mean reduction in BMI or BMI z-score showed evidence for a nonzero effect (standardized mean difference = -0.31, 95% confidence interval -0.49 to -0.13), with moderately high heterogeneity between studies (I²  = 74%, p < 0.001). Subgroup analysis revealed high heterogeneity in studies with a high or unclear risk of bias. E-health interventions can be effective in treating children and adolescents with overweight and obesity and should be considered by practitioners and policymakers. However, an understanding of the most effective and acceptable intervention components, long-term benefits, and sustainability should be further studied.

Work-Family Reconciliation and Children's Well-Being Disparities across OECD Countries

Socioeconomic inequalities in health and well-being are large, beginning early in childhood and accumulating over the life course, but they also vary widely across rich developed nations. Despite this well-known cross-national variation, research has yet to examine why children's health disparities might be larger or smaller based on national policy contexts and macroeconomic conditions. Parental health and well-being suffer under high work-family or economic strain, which may directly impact children's health inequalities by family social class. These childhood health disadvantages, if not substantially improved, compound to even larger adult inequalities. To examine the role of national work-family reconciliation in children's health, we merge country-level policy data with 2006 and 2010 World Health Organization child-level data on mental and physical well-being and family economic disadvantage. Based on adjusted estimates, we find greatly narrowed disparities in children's self-rated health as work flexibility and vacation-sick leave mandates become more generous. However, cash transfer policies including family benefits spending and childcare costs were not associated with the size of children's health disparities. Taken together, our results suggest the distinctive value of better work-family accommodations, rather than any generic cash allowances, for lessening family-based inequalities in children's health and human capital development.

A longitudinal analysis of the effect of maternal region-of-birth on transitions in children's bodyweight status from early childhood to late adolescence in Australia: A population-based cohort study

Although 49% of Australian residents have at least one overseas-born parent, little is known about children's longitudinal bodyweight transitions among the migrant population. This study examines the net associations between maternal region-of-birth and children's longitudinal bodyweight transitions between underweight, normal, and overweight/obese status from ages 2 to 17 years. A sample of 8889 children was drawn from seven waves of a national population-based cohort study, the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children, conducted between 2004 and 2016. A multistate approach was used to investigate (i) the net effect of mother's region-of-birth on children's bodyweight transitions, (ii) the net estimation of cumulative transition probabilities, and (ii) the net conditional bodyweight expectancy, controlling for child-, family-, and neighbourhood-factors associated with children's bodyweight. Our results showed children of Oceania and African mothers had unfavourable outcomes (i.e., lower remission from or higher incidence of underweight or overweight/obese status) than children of non-migrants. Toddlers with suboptimal bodyweight status (especially those from disadvantaged groups) had higher net cumulative probabilities of staying in that status as a 17-year-old adolescent unless they managed to transfer to normal weight in the primary school years. The 15-year bodyweight expectancy depended on the initial bodyweight status at age two years, with some children of migrant mothers affected longer by suboptimal bodyweight status. In Australia, region-of-birth related disparities in bodyweight started early and were of significant duration throughout development until late adolescence. Culturally tailored health programs should begin at least as early as two years of age.

[Entorno social y obesidad infantil: implicaciones para la investigación y la práctica en Estados Unidos y en los países latinoamericanos]

The environments of children influence their risk for childhood obesity through, among other factors, a child's weight-related behaviors (i.e., diet and physical activity). In this article, we present evidence on social environmental factors associated with a child's diet and physical activity, and more generally, the prevention and control of childhood obesity among Hispanic/Latinx children in the United States and children from countries in Latin America. Using a socio-ecologic lens, we present evidence from cross-sectional and longitudinal studies conducted in the United States involving Hispanic/Latinx children, and evidence from studies involving children in Latin America. Studies examining parenting factors in the home environment (e.g., parenting strategies) are especially emphasized, with more limited evidence on social environmental factors in other lived contexts (e.g., school). The influence of acculturation on social relationships cuts across levels of the socio-ecological framework. Intervention research identified strategies and research gaps for intervening on social factors to promote healthy behaviors and reduce risk for childhood obesity. Community health workers and others forms of peer support were identified as relevant approaches at multiple levels of the socio-ecological framework. This article concludes with directions for future research to further understand the environment using newer information and communication technologies.

The social environment and childhood obesity: Implications for research and practice in the United States and countries in Latin America

The environments of children influence their risk for childhood obesity through, among other factors, a child's weight-related behaviors (i.e., diet and physical activity). In this article, we present evidence on social environmental factors associated with a child's diet and physical activity, and more generally, the prevention and control of childhood obesity among Hispanic/Latinx children in the United States and children from countries in Latin America. Using a socio-ecologic lens, we present evidence from cross-sectional and longitudinal studies conducted in the United States involving Hispanic/Latinx children, and evidence from studies involving children in Latin America. Studies examining parenting factors in the home environment (e.g., parenting strategies) are especially emphasized, with more limited evidence on social environmental factors in other lived contexts (e.g., school). The influence of acculturation on social relationships cuts across levels of the socio-ecological framework. Intervention research identified strategies and research gaps for intervening on social factors to promote healthy behaviors and reduce risk for childhood obesity. Community health workers and others forms of peer support were identified as relevant approaches at multiple levels of the socio-ecological framework. This article concludes with directions for future research to further understand the environment using newer information and communication technologies.

Association Between Childhood Neighborhood Quality and the Risk of Cognitive Dysfunction in Chinese Middle-Aged and Elderly Population: The Moderation Effect of Body Mass Index

Background: Identification of early modifiable factors is crucial to delay or prevent the development of cognitive impairment and reduce the social and economic burden. Objective: This study aimed to examine the longitudinal associations of childhood neighborhood quality (CNQ) with the risk of later-life cognitive dysfunction and the role of body mass index (BMI) in this association. Methods: A total of 8,289 community-dwelling middle-aged and elderly population from wave 2011, wave 2013, and wave 2015 of the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) were included. Cognitive function and CNQ were measured by standardized questionnaires. Multilevel linear regression models were used to estimate the associations of CNQ and cognitive function. The interactions of BMI with CNQ in the progress of cognitive function were also estimated. Results: The participants with higher CNQ had a significantly low risk of cognitive impairment than those with lower CNQ score (β = 0.067, 95% CI: 0.031, 0.103), and the results remained similar (β = 0.039, 95% CI: 0.004, 0.075) after controlling other confounding variables. Furthermore, there was an interaction between BMI with CNQ score (P < 0.001) for the risk of cognitive impairment. In BMI-stratified analysis, we found that the association of CNQ and cognitive function was not statistically significant in overweight or obese population (β = 0.019, 95% CI: -0.032, 0.070), but was statistically significant in people with lower BMI (β = 0.059, 95% CI: 0.010, 0.107). Conclusions: Higher CNQ score is significantly associated with the lower risk of cognitive dysfunction in adulthood. BMI may moderate the associations of CNQ with the risk of cognitive function.

Household socioeconomic status modifies the association between neighborhood SES and obesity in a nationally representative sample of first grade children in the United States

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We investigate household SES, neighborhood SES and childhood obesity.

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Sample was nationally representative of US first graders in 2011.

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Both SES variables–household and neighborhood SES–were associated with obesity.

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No evidence of greater prevalence of obesity due to low SES on both dimensions.

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In low SES neighborhoods, high household SES did not mitigate obesity prevalence.

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In low SES households, high neighborhood SES did not mitigate obesity prevalence.

Both low family socioeconomic status (SES) and low neighborhood SES have been associated with higher levels of childhood obesity. However, little is known about how these two factors operate together. The purpose of this study was to determine if the association between neighborhood SES and obesity varies across household SES. We used the first-grade round of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2011 (ECLS-K:2011). Household SES was defined based on income, education, and occupation. Neighborhood SES was defined by the percent of households living in poverty in the child’s school district. Log-binomial regression models estimated the association between neighborhood SES and obesity and tested whether this association varied by household SES. We found the association between neighborhood SES and obesity varied significantly by household SES (p-interaction = 0.002). For children in the lowest tertile of neighborhood SES, prevalence of obesity was not statistically significantly different comparing children with low, middle or high household SES (Predicted probability (PP)_lowest 0.20 (95% CI: 0.17, 0.23), PP_middle 0.21 (95%CI: 0.18, 0.24), PP_highest 0.16 (95%CI: 0.12, 0.20)). Conversely, within the highest and the middle tertiles of neighborhood SES, children with high household SES have significantly lower prevalence of obesity compared to children with the lowest household SES (PP: 0.09 (95%CI: 0.07, 0.11) vs 0.19 (0.16, 0.21) and (PP: 0.07 (95%CI: 0.05, 0.09) vs 0.17 (0.13, 0.21) for highest vs lowest household SES in middle and high neighborhood SES, respectively). Hence, low-SES in either variable is enough to be associated with increased prevalence of obesity.

Neighborhood disadvantage and children's cognitive skill trajectories

This study examined how neighborhood poverty is associated with children's trajectories of growth in math and reading skills in early elementary school, and how these associations vary by student characteristics, using multilevel growth models with nationally representative data from the 2011 Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort. About one-quarter (25.6%) of children lived in communities of concentrated poverty. Findings suggest that achievement gaps by neighborhood disadvantage are large and present before Kindergarten, shrink during the Kindergarten year, but then widen the year following, and remain relatively consistent in the first years of elementary school. Growth in math skills appeared to vary more with neighborhood poverty than growth in reading skills. There was limited evidence that the relationship between neighborhood poverty and test score trajectories varied by child race, ethnicity, early education and Kindergarten experience, and parents' immigration status, but growth differences across student characteristics were small. Policy and research implications are discussed.

Does context matter? A multilevel analysis of neighborhood disadvantage and children's sleep health

OBJECTIVES

To determine how demographic, socioeconomic, and neighborhood characteristics are associated with bedtimes among US kindergarteners.

DESIGN

Parents reported bedtimes of their children as well as personal, household, and residential characteristics via interviews in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten (ECLS-K) Class of 1998-1999. The ECLS-K links individual households to US Census tracts.

SETTING

A random selection of 1,280 schools and surrounding communities in the US.

PARTICIPANTS

A random selection of 16,936 kindergarteners and their parents.

MEASUREMENTS

The 2 outcomes were regular and latest weekday bedtimes of kindergarteners. Through a series of nested multilevel regression models, these outcomes were regressed on individual- and neighborhood-level variables, including race/ethnicity, sex, family type, household income, mother's educational attainment, neighborhood disorder, and several additional neighborhood characteristics.

RESULTS

Models showed significant (P < .05) bedtime disparities by race/ethnicity, sex, family income, and mother's educational attainment. Additionally, models tended to indicate that kindergarteners from disadvantaged neighborhoods experienced later bedtimes than children from more advantaged areas. Neighborhood characteristics accounted for a portion of racial/ethnic differences, suggesting that bedtime disparities are partly rooted in disparate environmental conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Reducing disparities in childhood sleep may require programs that target not only children and their parents, but also the communities in which they reside.

An exploratory spatial analysis of overweight and obesity among children and adolescents in Shandong, China

OBJECTIVE

Identifying the spatial patterns of childhood overweight/obesity (OW/OB) can help to guide resource allocation for preventive intervention in China. This study aims to estimate rates of childhood OW/OB across counties within Shandong Province, using geographic techniques to identify sex-specific spatial patterns of childhood OW/OB as well as the presence of spatial clusters.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Shandong Province in China.

PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS

Data on 6 216 076 children and adolescents aged 7-18 years from the Primary and Secondary Schoolchildren Physical Examination Database for Shandong Province were used in this study. Spatial patterns of sex-specific prevalence of childhood OW/OB were mapped. Global autocorrelation statistic (Moran's I) and the Local Indicator of Spatial Association (LISA) were applied to assess the degree of spatial autocorrelation.

RESULTS

The overall prevalence of childhood OW/OB in Shandong province were 15.05% and 9.23%, respectively. Maps of the sex-specific prevalence of OW/OB demonstrate a marked geographical variation of childhood OW/OB in different regions. Prevalence of childhood OW/OB had a significant positive spatial autocorrelation among both boys and girls. LISA analysis identified significant clusters (or 'hot spots') of childhood OW/OB in the eastern coastal region, central region and southwestern region.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of childhood OW/OB is highly spatially clustered. Geographically focused appropriate intervention should be introduced in current childhood OW/OB prevention and control strategy.

Protecting children's health in a calorie-surplus context: Household structure and child growth in the United States

Studies from the social and health sciences have tended to view the household as the locus of access to and distribution of care, resources, monitoring and modeling for children's wellbeing. Obesity may present a special case for the study of investments in children, being a component of health for which more of certain inputs may not lead to better outcomes. We expanded on common measures of household structure in the child health literature by considering co-residence and relatedness of parents, grandparents, other relatives, and other children. Data were from a longitudinal sample of 6,700 children participating in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Kindergarten Class of 1998-99 (ECLS-K), the largest U.S. national dataset with measures of child anthropometrics and household structure at seven time-points over nine years. We used lagged survey-adjusted regressions to estimate associations between household structure and subsequent changes in children's weight between ages 5 and 14 years in terms of BMI gain and incident obesity. Adjusting for household structure more thoroughly, children living in households with two parents rather than one parent did not experience advantages in terms of less excess weight gain or lower incidence of obesity during elementary and middle school. Children living with a grandmother gained more weight than children not living with a grandmother. Living with siblings and with non-related adults was associated with less weight gain. These findings corroborate a scenario in which, for health problems associated with caloric surplus, classic household factors have more complex associations with child wellbeing.

Spatial analysis of factors influencing choice of paediatric practice for mothers from low-income and minority populations

AIM

Publicly reported quality data theoretically enable parents to choose higher-performing paediatric practices. However, little is known about how parents decide where to seek paediatric care. We explored the relationship between geographic factors, care quality and choice of practice to see if the decision-making process could be described in terms of a 'gravity model' of spatial data.

METHODS

In the context of a randomised controlled trial, we used a geographic information system to calculate flow volume between practice locations and participants' homes, to locate subjects within a census tract, to determine distances between points and to perform exploratory mapping. Generalised linear modelling was then used to determine whether the data fit a gravity model, which is a spatial model that evaluates factors impacting travel from one set of locations to another.

RESULTS

A total of 662 women and 52 paediatric practices were included in the analysis. Proximity of a practice to home was the most important factor in choosing a practice (Z = -15.01, P < 0.001). Practice size was important to a lesser extent, with larger practices more likely to be chosen (Z = 8.96, P < 0.001). A practice's performance on quality measures was associated with choice only for women who had received an intervention to increase use of quality data (Z = 2.51, P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The gravity model and the concept of flow can help explain the choice of paediatric practice in a predominantly low-income, racially ethnic minority (non-White) urban population. This has important ramifications for the potential impact of publicly reported quality data.

Design and methods of the Healthy Kids & Families study: a parent-focused community health worker-delivered childhood obesity prevention intervention

Background

One third of U.S. children and two thirds of adults are overweight or obese. Interventions to prevent obesity and thus avert threats to public health are needed. This paper describes the design and methods of the Healthy Kids & Families study, which tested the effect of a parent-focused community health worker (CHW)-delivered lifestyle intervention to prevent childhood obesity.

Methods

Participants were English or Spanish-speaking parent-child dyads (n = 247) from nine elementary schools (grades K-6) located in racial/ethnically diverse low-income communities in Worcester, Massachusetts. Using a quasi-experimental design with the school as the level of allocation, the study compared the lifestyle intervention vs. an attention-control comparison condition. The lifestyle intervention was guided by social cognitive theory and social ecological principles. It targeted the child’s social and physical home environment by intervening with parental weight-related knowledge, beliefs, and skills for managing child obesogenic behaviors; and addressed families’ needs for community resources supportive of a healthy lifestyle. The two-year CHW-delivered intervention was structured based on the 5As model (Agenda, Assess, Advise, Assist, Arrange follow up) and included two in person sessions and two telephone follow-ups per year with the parent, with a personalized letter and print materials sent after each contact. Parents also received quarterly newsletters, Facebook messages, and invitations to community events. The attention-control comparison condition used the same format and contact time as the intervention condition, but targeted positive parenting skills. Measurements occurred at baseline, and at 6-, 12-, 18- and 24-month follow-up. Assessments included anthropometrics, accelerometry, global positioning system (GPS), and self-report surveys. The primary outcome was child body mass index (BMI) z score. Secondary outcomes were parent BMI; and parent and child diet, physical activity, sedentariness, and utilization of community resources supportive of a healthy lifestyle.

Discussion

A CHW-delivered parent-focused lifestyle intervention may provide a translatable model for targeting the high priority public health problem of childhood obesity among low-income diverse communities. If demonstrated effective, this intervention has potential for high impact.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials NCT03028233. Registered January 23,2017. The trial was retrospectively registered.

Associations of extracurricular physical activity patterns and body composition components in a multi-ethnic population of UK children (the Size and Lung Function in Children study): a multilevel modelling analysis

Background

Body Mass Index (BMI) is a common outcome when assessing associations between childhood overweight and obesity and physical activity patterns. However, the fat and fat-free components of BMI, measured by the Fat Mass Index (FMI) and Fat-Free Mass Index (FFMI), may show contrasting associations with physical activity, while ethnic groups may vary in both physical activity patterns and body composition. Body composition must therefore be evaluated when assessing the associations between childhood overweight and obesity and physical activity in multi-ethnic populations.

Methods

This cross-sectional study investigated associations of BMI, FMI and FFMI z-scores with extracurricular physical activity for 2171 London primary schoolchildren (aged 5–11 years) of black, South Asian and white/other ethnicity. Multilevel mixed-effects ordered logistic modelling was used, adjusting for age, sex and family and neighbourhood socioeconomic status as potential confounders.

Results

Controlling for ethnicity and individual, family and neighbourhood socioeconomic confounders, actively commuting children had significantly lower Odds Ratios for being in high BMI (Odds Ratio (OR) = 0.678; 95 % Confidence Interval (CI) = 0.531 − 0.865; p − value = 0.002) and FMI z-score groups (OR = 0.679; 95 % CI = 0.499 − 0.922; p = 0.013), but not FFMI z-score groups, than passive commuters. Children doing sports less than once a week had lower Odds Ratios for being in high BMI (OR = 0.435; 95 % CI = 0.236 − 0.802; p = 0.008) and FFMI (OR = 0.455; 95 % CI = 0.214 − 0.969; p = .041) z-score categories compared to daily active children. Differences in FMI between groups did not reach the significance threshold. A trend towards statistical significance was obtained whereby children’s complete inactivity was associated with higher odds for being in higher BMI (OR = 2.222 : 95 % CI = 0.977 − 5.052; p = .057) and FMI z-score groups (OR = 2.485 : 95 % CI = 0.961 − 6.429; p = .060). FFMI z-scores did not show a similar trend with complete inactivity.

Conclusions

Active commuting was objectively associated with lower adiposity, while more frequent extracurricular sports participation was correlated with greater fat-free mass accretion. These relationships were independent of ethnicity and individual, family or neighbourhood socioeconomic confounding factors.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12889-019-6883-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Do Neighborhoods Matter? A Systematic Review of Modifiable Risk Factors for Obesity among Low Socio-Economic Status Black and Hispanic Children

BACKGROUND

Childhood obesity increases the risk of obesity and harmful comorbidities later in life. It is influenced by characteristics of a child's neighborhood, particularly among underserved groups. Our objective was to systematically review the evidence relating neighborhood environment and obesity risk among urban, low socioeconomic status (SES) Black and Hispanic children.

METHODS

We included studies published from 1993 through early 2017 from PubMed, SCOPUS, Web of Science, and Sociological Abstracts databases investigating relationships between empirically measured neighborhood characteristics and obesity risk factors in the populations of interest. Databases were last searched on May 8, 2018. Initial analysis took place during 2014 and was completed during 2017. We extracted data on study population, design, and associations between neighborhood characteristics and obesity risk factors.

RESULTS

We identified 2011 unique studies; 24 were included. Few studies demonstrated consistent patterns of association. Most neighborhood characteristics were not examined across multiple studies. BMI may be related to living in a lower-income neighborhood or convenience store access.

CONCLUSIONS

This review found that the body of evidence relating neighborhood exposures and obesity risk factors among urban, low SES Black (also commonly referred to in the literature as "non-Hispanic Black" or African American) and Hispanic children is limited. Given the high risk of obesity and cardiovascular disease among these populations throughout the life course, research on neighborhood determinants of obesity should specifically include these populations, ensuring adequate power and methodological rigor to detect differences.

Severe housing-cost burden and obesity among preschool-aged low-income children in Los Angeles County

Despite high rates of housing-cost burden in the United States, little is known regarding its impact on childhood obesity. In this article, we determine whether low-income 2–5-year-olds living in housing-cost burdened households are more likely to be obese and examine the potential moderators and behavioral and psychosocial mediators of this relationship. We used data from a triennial survey (2011, 2014) of a random sample of Los Angeles County participants of the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (n = 2307). Logistic regression was used to examine the association between child's obesity status (Body Mass Index for age and sex ≥ 95th percentile) and severe housing-cost burden (finding it very difficult to pay for housing). Mother's depressive symptoms and child's diet and screen time were tested for mediation. We found that 16% of children lived in severe housing-cost burdened households. Severe housing-cost burden was associated with an increase in the odds of childhood obesity [aOR (95%CI) = 1.33 (1.00, 1.78)] and household size moderated this relationship. Child's diet and screen time and mother's depressive symptoms were not mediators. Given the high and vacillating rates of early childhood obesity and the increasing burden of housing costs in low-income populations, there is an urgency to better understand the role of housing-cost burden in epidemiologic investigations of early childhood obesity.

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Children in severe housing-cost burdened households had more chronic stressors.

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Severe housing-cost burden was associated with greater odds of childhood obesity.

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Child's behavior and mother's mental well-being were not mediators of the relationship.

Neighborhood and Social Environmental Influences on Child Chronic Disease Prevalence

We investigate how distinct residential environments uniquely influence chronic child disease. Aggregating over 200,000 pediatric geocoded medical records to the census tract of residence and linking them to neighborhood-level measures, we use multiple data analysis techniques to assess how heterogeneous exposures of social and environmental neighborhood conditions influence an index of child chronic disease (CCD) prevalence for the neighborhood. We find there is a graded relationship between degree of overall neighborhood disadvantage and children's chronic disease such that the highest neighborhood CCD scores reside in communities with the highest concentrated disadvantage. Finally, results show that higher levels of neighborhood concentrated disadvantage and air pollution exposure associate with higher risks of having at least one chronic condition for children after also considering their individual- and family-level characteristics. Overall, our analysis serves as a comprehensive start for future researchers interested in assessing which neighborhood factors matter most for child chronic health conditions.

School-Level Body Mass Index Shapes Children's Weight Trajectories

BACKGROUND

Embedded within children's weight trajectories are complex environmental contexts that influence obesity risk. As such, the normative environment of body mass index (BMI) within schools may influence children's weight trajectories as they age from kindergarten to fifth grade.

METHODS

I use 5 waves of the ECLS-K-Kindergarten Class 1998-1999 data and a series of multilevel growth models to examine whether attending schools with higher overall BMI influences children's weight status over time.

RESULTS

Results show that, net of child, family, and school sociodemographic characteristics, children who attend schools with higher rates of obesity have increased weight compared to children who attend schools with lower rates of obesity, and this effect increases annually.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings indicate that the overall weight status of schools influence child obesity, and further speak to the importance of school-based intervention programs.

Cardiometabolic Dysfunction Among U.S. Adolescents and Area-Level Poverty: Race/Ethnicity-Specific Associations

PURPOSE

To examine race/ethnicity-specific associations between area-level poverty and cardiometabolic dysfunction among U.S. adolescents.

METHODS

Data were from 10,415 adolescents aged 12-19 in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (1999-2012), linked with census tract data on area-level poverty (the percent population living in poverty, grouped into race/ethnicity-specific quartiles). Cardiometabolic dysfunction was parameterized by summing z-scores of six cardiometabolic biomarkers, grouped into quintiles. Hierarchical ordinal models estimated overall and race/ethnicity specific associations. Posthoc analysis explored associations between area-level poverty and family poverty-to-income ratio.

RESULTS

Overall, compared to adolescents residing in areas with the lowest area-level poverty (i.e., first quartile), residents in third (OR 1.32, 95% CI 1.13, 1.53) and fourth (OR 1.27, 95% CI 1.08, 1.50) quartiles of area-level poverty experienced elevated odds of cardiometabolic dysfunction. Area-level poverty predicted cardiometabolic dysfunction between non-Hispanic white and Mexican American adolescents, but not between non-Hispanic black adolescents.

CONCLUSIONS

We found race/ethnicity-specific associations between area-level poverty and cardiometabolic dysfunction among U.S. adolescents, highlighting the moderating effect of race-ethnicity. Among non-Hispanic black adolescents, neither higher area-level nor family-level socioeconomic status is associated with cardiometabolic health, in contrast to non-Hispanic white adolescents. Similar associations among non-Hispanic white and Mexican American groups aligns with evidence of the Hispanic Paradox. Future studies of effect of area-level determinants of cardiometabolic dysfunction may consider race/ethnicity-specific associations.

Community characteristics modify the relationship between obesity prevention efforts and dietary intake in children: the Healthy Communities Study

BACKGROUND

The influence of community characteristics on the effectiveness of childhood obesity prevention efforts is not well understood.

OBJECTIVE

Examine the interaction of community characteristics with the relationship between community programmes and policies (CPPs) and dietary intake.

METHODS

An observational study of 5138 children in grades K-8 in 130 US communities was conducted in 2013-2015. Key informant interviews identified and characterized CPPs. CPP scores were generated for the number of target behaviours (CPP-Behav) and the number of behaviour change strategies (CPP-Strat) addressed by all CPPs and CPPs with nutrition goals over the prior 6 years in each community. Dietary intake was assessed by dietary screener and included intake of sugar from sugar-sweetened beverages; energy-dense foods; fruits and vegetables; whole grains; and fibre. Multivariate statistical models assessed the interactions between US region, urbanicity, community-level income, and community-level race/ethnicity and CPP scores in relation to dietary intake.

RESULTS

CPP-Strat was positively associated with healthier dietary intakes in the Northeast and West, and in high Hispanic communities; the reverse was true in the South, and in high African-American and low-income communities. The CPP-Behav was positively associated with healthier dietary intakes in the South and rural areas, and the reverse was true in the West.

CONCLUSION

The relationships between CPP index scores and dietary intake were most strongly influenced by region and urbanicity and to a lesser extent by community-level race/ethnicity and income. Findings suggest that different considerations may be needed for childhood obesity prevention efforts in communities with different characteristics.

The neighborhood environment and obesity: Understanding variation by race/ethnicity

Neighborhood characteristics have been associated with obesity, but less is known whether relationships vary by race/ethnicity. This study examined the relationship between soda consumption - a behavior strongly associated with obesity - and weight status with neighborhood sociodemographic, social, and built environments by race/ethnicity. We merged data on adults from the 2011-2013 California Health Interview Survey, U.S. Census data, and InfoUSA (n=62,396). Dependent variables were soda consumption and weight status outcomes (body mass index and obesity status). Main independent variables were measures of three neighborhood environments: social (social cohesion and safety), sociodemographic (neighborhood socioeconomic status, educational attainment, percent Asian, percent Hispanic, and percent black), and built environments (number of grocery stores, convenience stores, fast food restaurants, and gyms in neighborhood). We fit multi-level linear and logistic regression models, stratified by individual race/ethnicity (NH (non-Hispanic) Whites, NH African Americans, Hispanics, and NH Asians) controlling for individual-level characteristics, to estimate neighborhood contextual effects on study outcomes. Lower neighborhood educational attainment was associated with higher odds of obesity and soda consumption in all racial/ethnic groups. We found fewer associations between study outcomes and the neighborhood, especially the built environment, among NH African Americans and NH Asians. While improvements to neighborhood environment may be promising to reduce obesity, null associations among minority subgroups suggest that changes, particularly to the built environment, may alone be insufficient to address obesity in these groups.

Trends in Socioeconomic Disparities in Obesity Prevalence among Low-Income Children Aged 2-4 Years in Los Angeles County, 2003-2014

BACKGROUND

Obesity prevalence among low-income preschool-aged children in the United States decreased between 2010 and 2014. However, this decreasing trend may be varied across socioeconomic subgroups. This study examined trends in obesity prevalence among low-income children from 2003 to 2014 by child's age and household and neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES).

METHODS

This study used administrative data for all children, aged 2-4 years, participating in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) in Los Angeles County (LAC) during the years 2003-2014. Obesity was defined as having a BMI ≥95th percentile of CDC's age- and sex-specific growth charts. Household income and household educational attainment were indicators of household SES. Neighborhood median household income was an indicator of neighborhood SES.

RESULTS

Childhood obesity prevalence increased sharply from 15.7% in 2003 to 19.1% in 2005, and remained constant until 2010, when it started decreasing. During most years, the prevalence of obesity was higher among the lowest SES groups. Despite the recent decreasing trend, the 2014 estimates were still generally higher than the 2003 levels except among some low-income children living in less-poor and more-educated households.

CONCLUSIONS

The decreasing trend between 2010 and 2014 among WIC-participating children in LAC is encouraging and mirrors national trends among WIC-participating children. However, continued efforts should be made to focus obesity prevention efforts on low-income children, especially those who are the most vulnerable as they have experienced significant gains in obesity since 2003.

Where Children Live: Examining Whether Neighborhood Crime and Poverty Is Associated With Overweight and Obesity Among Low-Income Preschool-Aged Primary Care Patients

Introduction: Low-income and racial/ethnic minority preschoolers (aged 2-5 years) are disproportionately affected by obesity and its associated health consequences. Individual-level factors (e.g., diet) and environmental factors (e.g., neighborhood conditions) contribute to these disparities. However, there is limited research examining the role of neighborhood factors on obesity risk specifically among high-risk preschoolers. The objectives of this study are to describe the geographic distribution of preschool patients receiving care at two primary care pediatrics clinics affiliated with an academic medical center, and explore whether exposure to neighborhood crime and poverty is associated with obesity risk among this population. Methods: Cross-sectional multilevel study linking clinical administrative data on patient visits between 2007 and 2012 with data from the American Community Survey and the Baltimore City Police Department. Home addresses of 2-5 year-old patients were geocoded to their neighborhood (i.e., census block group) of residence. We used logistic regression to examine the cross-sectional relationship between obesity and overweight and neighborhood-level factors. All analyses were adjusted for age and gender, and stratified by race/ethnicity (Black, Hispanic, and White). Results: The majority of preschool patients lived in moderate or high crime (84%) or high poverty (54%) neighborhoods. A significantly higher proportion of Black preschoolers lived in high poverty neighborhoods compared to White preschoolers (61% vs. 38%, p < 0.001). Among this clinic-based sample of preschoolers, living in high crime or high poverty neighborhoods was not associated with a clinically significant increased odds of overweight or obesity. Conclusions: This study examines the association between neighborhood factors and obesity and overweight among a clinic-based population of low-income racial/ethnic minority preschoolers. The neighborhoods where preschoolers in this sample lived, on average had higher crime counts and poverty than the citywide average for Baltimore. Our findings also suggest that Black preschoolers are exposed to higher levels of neighborhood poverty compared to Whites. While no meaningful association between these neighborhood factors and odds of obesity or overweight was found in this cross-sectional analysis, our findings suggest avenues for future studies informative to the development of clinic-based obesity management interventions aimed at effectively addressing neighborhood contributors to early childhood obesity disparities.

Social Determinants of Overweight and Obesity Rates by Elementary School in a Predominantly Hispanic School District

OBJECTIVE

This study analyzes the social determinants associated with the overweight or obesity prevalence of 85 elementary schools during the 2010-11 academic year in a predominantly Hispanic school district.

METHODS

A binomial logistic regression is used to analyze the aggregate overweight or obesity rate of a school by the percent of Hispanic students in each school, selected school and neighborhood characteristics, and its geographical location.

RESULTS

The proportion of Hispanic enrollment more readily explains a school's aggregate overweight or obesity rate than social determinants or spatial location. Number of fast food establishments and the academic ranking of a school appear to slightly impact the aggregate prevalence rate. Spatial location of school is not a significant factor, controlling for other determinants.

CONCLUSIONS

An elementary school's overall overweight or obesity rate provides a valuable health indicator to study the social determinants of obesity among Hispanics and other students within a local neighborhood.

Ethnic density, immigrant enclaves, and Latino health risks: A propensity score matching approach

Whether minority concentration in a neighborhood exposes residents to, or protects them from, health risks has generated burgeoning scholarly interests; yet endogeneity as a result of neighborhood selection largely remains unclear in the literature. This study addresses such endogeneity and simultaneously investigates the roles of co-ethnic density and immigrant enclaves in influencing high blood pressure and high cholesterol level among Latinos, the largest minority group in the United States. Pooled cross-sectional data that included both native and foreign-born Latinos of Puerto Rican, Mexican, and other origins (N = 1563) from the 2006 and 2008 Southeastern Pennsylvania Household Health Survey were linked to census-tract profiles from the 2005-2009 American Community Survey. Results from both multilevel regression and propensity score matching analysis confirmed the deleterious effect of residential co-ethnic density on Latino adults' health risks over and above individual risk factors. We also found selection bias associated with the observed protective effect of immigrant concentration, which is likely a result of residential preference.

Health-equity issues related to childhood obesity: a scoping review

PURPOSE

The purpose of this scoping review was to determine the health-equity issues that relate to childhood obesity.

METHODS

Health-equity issues related to childhood obesity were identified by analyzing food environment, natural and built environment, and social environment. The authors searched Medline, PubMed, and Web of Science, using the keywords "children" and "obesity." Specific terms for each environment were added: "food desert," "advertising," "insecurity," "price," "processing," "trade," and "school" for food environment; "urban design," "land use," "transportation mode," "public facilities," and "market access" for natural and built environment; and "financial capacity/poverty," "living conditions," "transport access," "remoteness," "social support," "social cohesion," "working practices," "eating habits," "time," and "social norms" for social environment. Inclusion criteria were studies or reports with populations under age 12, conducted in the United States, and published in English in 2005 or later.

RESULTS

The final search yielded 39 references (16 for food environment, 11 for built environment, and 12 for social environment). Most food-environment elements were associated with obesity, except food insecurity and food deserts. A natural and built environment that hinders access to physical activity resources and access to healthy foods increased the risk of childhood obesity. Similarly, a negative social environment was associated with childhood obesity. More research is needed on the effects of food production, living conditions, time for shopping, and exercise, as related to childhood obesity.

CONCLUSIONS

Most elements of food, natural and built, and social-environments were associated with weight in children under age 12, except food insecurity and food deserts.

A scoping review of epidemiologic risk factors for pediatric obesity: Implications for future childhood obesity and dental caries prevention research

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

What are the non-modifiable (socioeconomic, genetic) and modifiable factors (physical activity, dietary behaviors) related to childhood (under age 12) obesity? How can this knowledge be applied to oral health professionals' efforts to prevent or manage dental caries in children?

OBJECTIVES

Studies have identified risk factors for childhood obesity. The purpose of this scoping review was to develop a conceptual model to identify non-modifiable and modifiable risk factors for childhood obesity and to illustrate how these findings are relevant in developing interventions aimed at preventing obesity and dental caries in children.

METHODS

The authors searched PubMed and Embase and limited the study to English-language publications. A total of 2,572 studies were identified. After de-duplication, 2,479 studies remained and were downloaded into a citation-management tool. Two authors screened the titles and abstracts for relevance. Two hundred and sixty studies remained and were retrieved for a full-text review, and 80 studies were excluded, resulting in 180 studies included in the scoping review. An inductive content analytic methods was used to organize all statistically significant obesity risk factors into seven domains, which were classified as non-modifiable or modifiable; then a conceptual model of common risk factors associated with childhood obesity and dental caries was developed.

RESULTS

Non-modifiable obesity risk factors include biological and developmental (e.g., genes, developmental conditions, puberty), sociodemographic and household (e.g., race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, parent education, unemployment), cultural (e.g., degree of acculturation), and community (e.g., neighborhood composition). Modifiable risk factors included behavioral (e.g., diet, physical activity, weight), psychosocial (e.g., maternal stress, family functioning, parenting practices, child temperament), and medical (e.g., parent smoking, maternal health, child health).

CONCLUSIONS

Identifying common risk factors has important implications for future oral health research aimed at preventing childhood obesity and dental caries. Epidemiologic knowledge gleaned from the literature can be used to develop rigorous interventions and programs aimed at preventing these highly prevalent diseases and improving health outcomes for children.

School Context Matters: The Impacts of Concentrated Poverty and Racial Segregation on Childhood Obesity

BACKGROUND

Schools are important sites for interventions to prevent childhood obesity. This study examines how variables measuring the socioeconomic and racial composition of schools and counties affect the likelihood of obesity among third to fifth grade children.

METHODS

Body mass index data were collected from third to fifth grade public school students by teachers from 317 urban and rural North Carolina schools in 38 counties. Multilevel models are used to examine county-, school-, and individual-level effects.

RESULTS

Low concentrations of poverty at the school level are associated with lower odds of obesity. Schools in rural counties had significantly higher rates of obesity, net the other variables in the model. Students in minority-segregated schools had higher rates of obesity than those in more racially diverse schools, but the effect was not statistically significant once school-level poverty was controlled.

CONCLUSIONS

Place-based inequalities are important determinants of health inequalities. The results of this study show that school-level variables related to poverty are important for understanding and confronting childhood obesity.

Neighbourhood Determinants of Caries Experience in Preschool Children: A Multilevel Study

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the association between neighbourhood factors and decayed, missing, and filled teeth (dmft) index among preschool children.

METHODS

The sample of this cross-sectional study comprised 1,110 children (0-5 years old) clustered in 16 official neighbourhoods of Canoas city, southern Brazil. Multilevel binomial models were used to estimate the association of contextual variables at neighbourhood level (Human Development Index, average income, and public primary health care units) with two oral health outcomes: decayed teeth (dt) and missing or filled teeth (mft), after adjusting for individual variables (gender, age, maternal education, equivalent household income logarithm, household, and point of care).

RESULTS

Overall, 24.9% of the sample had dental caries experience (dmft >0), and 92.3% of the dmft was untreated caries. There was no statistical significant association (p > 0.05) of contextual characteristics with the decay component. The teeth of children living in richer areas had 2.87 (95% CI: 1.05-7.86) times more chances of being treated (mft component). Variance attributed to neighbourhood level was estimated as 5.9% (p < 0.01) and 4.1% (p = 0.17) for dt and mft, respectively, in adjusted models.

CONCLUSIONS

Intra-urban areas seem homogeneous, with small variability between neighbourhoods, having no contextual effect on untreated dental caries (dt). Contextual variables may influence treatment access (mft) through the use of dental services in preschool children.

The Linked CENTURY Study: linking three decades of clinical and public health data to examine disparities in childhood obesity

Background

Despite the need to identify the causes of disparities in childhood obesity, the existing epidemiologic studies of early life risk factors have several limitations. We report on the construction of the Linked CENTURY database, incorporating CENTURY (Collecting Electronic Nutrition Trajectory Data Using Records of Youth) Study data with birth certificates; and discuss the potential implications of combining clinical and public health data sources in examining the etiology of disparities in childhood obesity.

Methods

We linked the existing CENTURY Study, a database of 269,959 singleton children from birth to age 18 years with measured heights and weights, with each child’s Massachusetts birth certificate, which captures information on their mothers’ pregnancy history and detailed socio-demographic information of both mothers and fathers.

Results

Overall, 74.2 % were matched, resulting in 200,343 children in the Linked CENTURY Study with 1,580,597 well child visits. Among this cohort, 94.0 % (188,334) of children have some father information available on the birth certificate and 60.9 % (121,917) of children have at least one other sibling in the dataset.

Using maternal race/ethnicity from the birth certificate as an indicator of children’s race/ethnicity, 75.7 % of children were white, 11.6 % black, 4.6 % Hispanic, and 5.7 % Asian. Based on socio-demographic information from the birth certificate, 20.0 % of mothers were non-US born, 5.9 % smoked during pregnancy, 76.3 % initiated breastfeeding, and 11.0 % of mothers had their delivery paid for by public health insurance. Using clinical data from the CENTURY Study, 22.7 % of children had a weight-for-length ≥ 95^th percentile between 1 and 24 months and 12.0 % of children had a body mass index ≥ 95^th percentile at ages 5 and 17 years.

Conclusions

By linking routinely-collected data sources, it is possible to address research questions that could not be answered with either source alone. Linkage between a clinical database and each child’s birth certificate has created a unique dataset with nearly complete racial/ethnic and socio-demographic information from both parents, which has the potential to examine the etiology of racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in childhood obesity.

It is Hard to Swim Upstream: Dietary Acculturation Among Mexican-Origin Children

Health and immigration researchers often implicate dietary acculturation in explanations of Mexican children of immigrants' weight gain after moving to the U.S., but rarely explore how diet is shaped by immigrants' structural incorporation. We used data from the 1999/00-2009/10 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey to assess how indicators of Mexican-origin children's acculturation and structural incorporation influence two outcomes: how healthy and how "Americanized" children's diets are. Indicators of acculturation were strongly associated with more Americanized and less healthy diets. However, structural incorporation indicators were mostly unrelated to diet outcomes net of acculturation. An exception was that parental education was positively associated with consuming a healthy diet. Finally, children of natives consumed more Americanized, unhealthy diets than children of immigrants and these differences were largely explained by differences in the acculturation. Children of natives would have consumed an even less healthy diet were it not for their higher levels of parental education. Overall, the results suggest that the process of adapting to the U.S. life style is associated with the loss of cultural culinary preferences and less healthy eating behaviors despite improvements in socioeconomic status.