Indicators of subjective social status: Differential associations across race and sex

Association of objective and subjective socioeconomic status with intrinsic capacity deficits among community-dwelling middle-aged and older adults in China: A cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Intrinsic capacity (IC), representing an individual's full range of physical and mental abilities, is influenced by objective socioeconomic status (SES); however, the impact of subjective SES remains unclear.

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to assess IC and investigate the relationship between SES and IC deficits, with a particular focus on the role of subjective SES.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study SETTING: 45 communities in two provinces in China PARTICIPANTS: Community-dwelling middle-aged and older adults aged 50 and above MEASUREMENTS: IC was assessed following the Integrated Care for Older People guideline. SES was measured through objective SES (education and occupation) and subjective SES (measured by MacArthur Scale). Ordinal logistic regression models were performed to estimate the association between SES and IC.

RESULTS

Among 3,058 participants (61.3 ± 8.05 years, 54.8 % women), 2,333 (76.3 %) showed deficits in at least one IC subdomain, particularly sensory (63.5 %), vitality (25.8 %) and cognition (18.4 %). A dose-response association was observed between SES and IC deficits. Individuals with high subjective SES (OR: 0.72, 0.60-0.87), high education (OR: 0.54, 0.38-0.75), and high occupation (OR: 0.64 0.50-0.81) exhibited lower IC deficits risk compared with counterparts. Individuals with high education and middle subjective SES or high occupation and middle subjective SES had 67 % (OR: 0.33, 0.18-0.60) and 49 % (OR: 0.51, 0.35-0.74) lower risk than those with low SES.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that individuals with low SES may be more vulnerable to IC deficits. Addressing social inequalities in the early assessment of IC is crucial for reducing health disparities and promoting healthy ageing.

'Fat', Female and Unprivileged: Exploring Intersectionality, Perceiver Characteristics, and Eye Movements

The aim of this research was to examine the role of body self-esteem, Body Mass Index (BMI), and the tendency toward social desirability as predictors of anti-fat stereotypes and prejudices, and gender, 'fat' status, and social status as moderators of this relationship, as well as eye movements of subjects when observing 'fat' individuals. Three studies examined the research aims. In the first study (N = 311; 60.8% female), body self-esteem, self-reported BMI, and social desirability were assessed as predictors of anti-fat stereotypes and prejudice, with 'fat' status as a moderating variable. The second study (N = 311; 60.8% female) replicated this approach, adding perceived social status as a moderator. The third study (N = 191; 61.5% female) assessed body self-esteem and collected precise body-related measurements (weight, body fat, visceral fat, muscle percentage, metabolism, and BMI) using the OMRON body composition monitor. Additionally, it measured anti-fat stereotypes, prejudice, and eye movements in response to 'fat' and 'non-fat' stimuli. The results of the first study suggest that body self-esteem, BMI, and the tendency toward social desirability can predict anti-fat stereotypes and prejudices. 'Fat' women were evaluated most negatively. The second study indicates that the social status of stimulus individuals is also a significant moderator of the relationships described above. 'Fat' women of low social status are evaluated most negatively. In the third study, we obtained information on the following eye movement parameters: (1) First view, (2) Duration of fixations, (3) Fixations and (4) Revisits. Eye movement parameters can be predicted by body self-esteem and body condition parameters, while gender and 'fat' status of stimuli are significant moderators in this relationship. The study explains the role of BMI and body self-esteem in anti-fat bias, highlights the importance of gender and social status in perceiving 'fat' individuals, as well as the importance of considering nuanced body composition measures, such as visceral fat and muscle percentage, in understanding individual differences in perceptual bias. Differences in viewing patterns between genders underscore the interplay of stereotypes.

Sex Differences for Social Determinants Associated with Lewy Body Dementia Onset and Diagnosis

INTRODUCTION

Multiple studies report sex and gender differences in Lewy body dementia (LBD); however, there is a paucity of research investigating social determinants associated with LBD.

METHODS

Participants with LBD (51 females, 79 males) and controls with similar age (64 females, 60 males) completed remote surveys assessing various social and demographic variables, and age at LBD onset for LBD group. Sex-stratified comparisons for LBD and control groups, and comparisons of females and males with LBD were done for social determinants. Sex differences for onset age were further analyzed with linear models adjusting for significantly differing social variables between the sexes.

RESULTS

LBD group had lower years of education, income, subjective social status than controls, with larger differences for males than females (p < 0.05 for all). Higher percentage of females with LBD was living alone (p = 0.016) and not married/partnered (p = 0.002) compared to males with LBD. Adjusting for social variables that differed between the sexes, females were younger at cognitive impairment onset (p = 0.037) and diagnosis (p = 0.032). For the overall cohort, being ethnoracial minoritized, sexual and gender minoritized, and having lower education quality were associated with younger age at symptom onset (p < 0.049 for all). For females, lower childhood subjective social status (p = 0.037), and for males, being ethnoracial minoritized (p < 0.001) and lower years of education (p = 0.031) were associated with younger age at diagnosis.

CONCLUSION

Social determinants, even during childhood, can impact the LBD onset differently for females and males. Interactions between biological and social factors need to be investigated further with inclusive and diverse cohorts in LBD.

Subjective social status, depressive symptoms, and suicidal ideation in U.S. college students: A cross-sectional examination on race and gender

Objective: Grounded in the Social Rank Theory, this study examined the levels and associations of subjective social status (SSS), depressive symptoms (DEP), and suicidal ideation (SI). Participants: Participants included 956 U.S. college students (Mage = 19.94, SDage = 2.78; 75% females [n = 716], 24% males [n = 228], 41% Whites [n = 395], 59% students of color [n = 561]. Methods: Participants completed a questionnaire including their SSS, DEP, and SI. Results: Females scored significantly higher than males on DEP and SI. There was a significant, negative SSS-DEP correlation in males, females, Whites, students of color, males and females of color. A significant, negative SSS-DEP correlation was found in males, females, Whites, students of color, and females of color, except in males of color. The negative SSS-DEP and SSS-SI links were stronger in students of color than Whites. Conclusion: Study contributions, limitations, and practical implications are discussed.

Parental wellbeing, parenting, and child mental health in families with young children in Arghakhanchi, Nepal

BACKGROUND

Children's social-emotional development and mental well-being are critical to adult mental health. However, little is known about the mechanisms or factors that contribute to poor child mental health in low- and middle-income countries. Given the lack of child mental health research to guide interventions or social-emotional learning programs and policy planning, the present study aimed to address these knowledge gaps by examining the psychopathology mechanism involved in the development of childhood mental health problems.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study recruited parents (N = 393) whose children attended preschool to primary classes in the Arghakhanchi district of Nepal. Data were gathered through parent interviews. Structural Equation Modeling was used to examine the pathways of the mediational mechanism that examined the influence of parental well-being on parenting and children's mental health outcomes.

RESULTS

Approximately 22% of the parents were at risk for moderate to severe mental health problems (anxiety: 24%, depression:19%). Parental mental health problems were higher in families who reported food insecurity, among female parents, less educated parents, and those who perceived themselves on a lower social ladder. Parental mental health, social support, and perceived class were associated with parent-child conflict. Greater parent-child conflict was associated with decreased social competence and increased anger, anxiety, and depression in children.

CONCLUSION

The results partially support the mediational model that Nepali parents' well-being (especially in mental health symptoms, social support, and perception of family's social class domains) is associated with less optimal parenting and, in turn, greater child mental health problems and lower social competence. This study provides new evidence of cross-cultural consistency in child psychopathology and guides the development of evidence-based programs to prevent and promote mental health among Nepali children and families.

Development and Preliminary Evaluation of a Food Literacy Measure for Use With Young People in Canada

BACKGROUND

This article presents the culmination of a multiyear research project aimed at creating a comprehensive food literacy framework and corresponding measure. Specifically, this article documents the development and validation of a food literacy measure for young people facing social inequities.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to identify items to measure 12 attributes of food literacy; test the measure with the identified target groups, considering attribute, face, and content validity, inter-rater reliability and test-retest reliability; and refine the measure.

DESIGN

The study's design consisted of a 5-phase approach that included drafting the food literacy measure, expert review, cognitive interviews, pilot testing, and validity and reliability testing.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Seven international experts provided feedback on the measure, and 25 individuals aged 16 to 25 years participated in cognitive interviews. Two hundred fifty-five young people completed the test survey, and 147 completed a retest survey 2 weeks later. These surveys identified food literacy factors. To further evaluate the validity of these factors, 193 participants completed a confirmatory test that was used for confirmatory factor analysis to assess the final model's fit. Interview participants were recruited from local programs and services from across Ontario, Canada, and survey participants were recruited from across Canada via social media. The research study was conducted between January 2018 and December 2019.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The main outcome measures were validity and reliability scores for a food literacy measurement tool that consisted of 50 questions across 10 attributes of food literacy.

STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED

Interview analyses were guided by the 4 stages of cognitive processing. Exploratory factor analysis was used to identify the factors that improved the Cronbach's alpha of the food literacy measure. Test-retest reliability was assessed using percent agreement, Cohen's kappa, and weighted kappa. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to produce an acceptable final model with a root mean square error of approximation estimate.

RESULTS

The final food literacy measure consisted of 50 questions addressing 10 food literacy attributes. Exploratory factor analysis showed an improvement in Cronbach's alpha when compared with the initial attribute construction. Test-retest reliability showed percent agreement ranging from 64% to 97%, with most items having fair (0.21 to 0.40) to moderate (0.41 to 0.60) kappa values. Confirmatory factor analysis produced an acceptable final model with a root mean square error of approximation estimate of 0.0437.

CONCLUSIONS

The food literacy measure is a comprehensive tool for assessing food literacy among young people. Additional research is needed to explore the measure's modularity, its use as an evaluation tool, and its suitability for use with diverse samples, including individuals from varied gender, geographic locations, ethnicities, and cultural backgrounds.

Diversity and representation in ADHD psychosocial treatment research: A comprehensive synthesis with data from over 10,000 participants

Demographic data from nearly 50 years of treatment research for children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are synthesized. Comprehensive search identified ADHD treatment studies that were between-group designs, included a psychosocial, evidence-based treatment, and were conducted in the United States. One hundred and twenty-six studies that included 10,604 youth were examined. Reporting of demographics varied with 48% of studies (k = 61) reporting ethnicity, 73% (k = 92) reporting race, 80% (k = 101) reporting age (M age = 8.81, SD = 2.82), and 88% (k = 111) reporting gender. Most participants identified as non-Hispanic/Latine (15.99% Hispanic/Latine), White (62.54%), and boys (74.39%; 24.47% girls). Since the 1970s, zero youth in ADHD treatment studies identified as Middle Eastern/North African, 0.1% were American Indian/Alaskan Native or Native Hawaiian Pacific Islander, 1.77% were Asian, 15.10% were Black, and 3.14% were Multiracial. Based on publication year, the proportions of girls, racially minoritized youth, and Hispanic/Latine youth included in ADHD treatment research have increased over time. Girls, non-binary and non-cisgender youth, young children, adolescents, Hispanic/Latine youth, and youth from all racial groups other than White are underrepresented in ADHD treatment research. Research gaps are discussed, and recommendations for comprehensive demographic reporting in child and adolescent psychological research are provided.

Biobehavioral Predictors of Pain Intensity, Pain Interference, and Chronic Pain Episodes: A Prospective Cohort Study of African-American Adults

Racial disparities in pain experiences are well-established, with African-American (AA) adults reporting higher rates of daily pain, increased pain severity, and greater pain-related interference compared to non-Hispanic Whites. However, the biobehavioral factors that predict the transition to chronic pain among AA adults are not well understood. This prospective cohort study provided a unique opportunity to evaluate predictors of chronic pain onset among 130 AA adults (81 women), ages 18 to 44, who did not report chronic pain at their baseline assessment and subsequently completed follow-up assessments at 6- and 12-months. Outcome measures included pain intensity, pain-related interference, and chronic pain status. Comprehensive assessments of sociodemographic and biobehavioral factors were used to evaluate demographics, socioeconomic status, stress exposure, psychosocial factors, prolonged hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal secretion, and quantitative sensory testing responses. At baseline, 30 adults (23.1%) reported a history of prior chronic pain. Over the 12-month follow-up period, 13 adults (10.0%) developed a new chronic pain episode, and 18 adults (13.8%) developed a recurrent chronic pain episode. Whereas socioeconomic status measures (ie, annual income, education) predicted changes in pain intensity over the follow-up period, quantitative sensory testing measures (ie, pain threshold, temporal summation of pain) predicted changes in pain interference. A history of chronic pain and higher depressive symptoms at baseline independently predicted the onset of a new chronic pain episode. The present findings highlight distinct subsets of biobehavioral factors that are differentially associated with trajectories of pain intensity, pain-related interference, and onset of chronic pain episodes in AA adults. PERSPECTIVE: This prospective study sought to advance understanding of biobehavioral factors that predicted pain outcomes over a 12-month follow-up period among AA adults without chronic pain at their initial assessment. Findings revealed distinct subsets of factors that were differentially associated with pain intensity, pain-related interference, and onset of chronic pain episodes.

Subjective social status, health and well-being among older adults in China and South Korea: a cross-sectional analysis

INTRODUCTION

Social status, which encompasses various psychosocial dimensions, such as income, education and social relationships, can have a significant impact on physical and mental health outcomes. The study aims to explore the association among subjective social status, health and well-being among individuals aged 55 years and older in China and South Korea.

PARTICIPANTS

Sample population included individuals aged 55 years and older: China (n=1779) and South Korea (n=421).

OUTCOME MEASURES

Outcome measures included self-reported health status and well-being which were assessed by life satisfaction and general happiness.

RESULTS

The percentage of participants who reported a 'very good' health condition was higher in South Korea (14.5%) than in China (11.0%). The percentage of participants who reported feeling very satisfied (14.7%) with their life was lower in South Korea (11.8%). In China, 6.7% of the respondents reported their health as 'very bad' (rating 5), while in South Korea, this percentage was higher at 18.1%. Regression analysis revealed an inverse association among higher social status and poorer health, lower life satisfaction and lower happiness levels. For example, individuals who placed themselves in the highest social status category had 0.26 times lower odds (95% CI=0.13 to 0.55) of reporting poorer self-rated health status than those in the lowest category. Similarly, compared with individuals who place themselves in the lowest social status category, those who place themselves in the highest social status category have 0.03 times lower odds of reporting lower life satisfaction (95% CI=0.02 to 0.07).

CONCLUSION

Overall, the results highlight a significant association among social status, subjective health, life satisfaction and general happiness in both the countries. Health policymakers should identify effective strategies to promote healthy ageing and reduce disparities in health and well-being outcomes among older adults from different social backgrounds.

The role of differential exposure and susceptibility to heavy drinking linking income inequalities and tooth loss: An investigation of the alcohol harm paradox using a four-way decomposition analysis

OBJECTIVES

To examine the extent to which the effect of income inequalities on tooth loss is attributable to differential exposure and susceptibility to heavy drinking in older Brazilian adults.

METHODS

We conducted a secondary analysis using data from The Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSI-Brazil 2015-2016), a nationally representative sample of community-dwelling people aged 50 years and over. Causal mediation analysis based on the counterfactual outcome framework decomposed the effect of income on tooth loss mediated by heavy drinking into four components (four-way decomposition): controlled direct effect (neither mediation nor interaction), reference interaction (interaction only), mediated interaction (both mediation and interaction) and pure indirect effect (mediation only). Proportions of effect attributable to each component were calculated to estimate the differential exposure (the sum of the third and fourth components) and differential susceptibility (the sum of the second and third components) to heavy drinking.

RESULTS

The analytical sample comprised 8114 participants. After adjusting for covariates, 7.3% (95% CI: 3.8%; 10.9%) and -39.5% (95% CI: -75.8%; -3.3%) of the effects of income on tooth loss were attributable to differential exposure and susceptibility to heavy drinking, respectively, consistent with the alcohol harm paradox. When setting non-functional dentition as outcome, only the effect of differential susceptibility remained (-81.7% [95% CI: -128.2%; -35.2%]).

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that individuals of low-income groups appear to be more susceptible to the effects of heavy drinking on tooth loss.

Family history of substance problems among African Americans: Associations with drug use, drug use disorder, and prescription drug misuse

A family history of substance problems is a well-known risk factor for substance use and use disorders; however, much of this research has been conducted in studies with predominantly White subjects. The aim of this study was to examine the associations between family history density of substance problems and drug use, risk for drug use disorder, and prescription drug misuse in a sample of African American adults. Results indicate that family history density of substance problems increased the risk for all drug outcomes in the full sample. However, when subgroup analyses by gender were conducted, family history was not a risk factor among men for prescription drug misuse.

The progressive place paradox: Status-based health inequalities are magnified in more economically progressive Swiss localities

Low socioeconomic status (measured both objectively and subjectively) is systematically associated with worse health. Amid renewed interest in contextual influences on health inequalities, we ask whether variation in the prevailing ideological climate moderates the size of the health gap between low and high status individuals. Based on the minority stress hypothesis, we expect that living in an economically progressive place within Switzerland - places where more residents endorse the need for change to the economic status quo - will reduce the magnitude of the health gap. Multilevel modelling of MOSAiCH 2015-2020 data shows the opposite: low status individuals in progressive places report markedly lower subjective health and life satisfaction than similarly low status individuals in conservative places, such that status-based health inequalities are maximised in progressive places. We interpret this apparent progressive place paradox in terms of collective inefficacy and system frustration, which we argue is the corollary of system justification.

Racial and ethnic disparities in self-reported sleep duration: Roles of subjective socioeconomic status and sleep norms

OBJECTIVES

There are racial and ethnic disparities in sleep duration, with members of historically marginalized groups typically reporting shorter sleep than White Americans. This study examines subjective social status (SSS) as a moderator, and variation in ideal sleep norms as a mediator, of differences in sleep duration between racial/ethnic groups.

METHODS

Asian, Black, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic White respondents in an online survey reported their typical weeknight and weekend-night sleep duration, along with estimates of ideal sleep duration norms. Objective and subjective indicators of socioeconomic status were also assessed. A conditional process analysis was used to examine whether racial or ethnic differences in sleep duration were a) moderated by SSS and b) mediated by ideal sleep duration norms.

RESULTS

Racial/ethnic disparities in sleep duration varied by group. Hispanic participants reported shorter weeknight sleep than White participants. In Asian and Black participants, shorter weeknight sleep relative to White participants was only observed at medium (Black) or high (Black and Asian) levels of SSS. Shorter norms for ideal sleep duration partially mediated differences in sleep duration between Black and White adults, but not the other racial/ethnic groups. There was no evidence of moderated mediation. Neither income nor education moderated racial/ethnic disparities in sleep duration.

CONCLUSIONS

Racial and ethnic disparities in sleep duration may partially depend on SSS. Continued research into moderators and mediators of racial/ethnic differences in sleep duration is warranted.

Subjective Social Status and Longitudinal Changes in Systemic Inflammation

BACKGROUND

Subjective social status (SSS) refers to a person's perception of their social rank relative to others and is cross-sectionally linked to systemic inflammation independently of objective socioeconomic status.

PURPOSE

We test the extent to which SSS relates to multiyear changes in inflammation, or if associations differ by race or sex.

METHODS

Healthy adults (N = 331; 30-51 years) completed a baseline visit and 278 participants returned for a second visit 2.85 years later. At both visits, participants underwent a fasting blood draw and completed community (SSSC) and US (SSSUS) versions of the MacArthur Scale. Multiple linear regression analyses examined change in interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (CRP) predicted by each type of SSS, adjusting for time between visits, sex, race, age, body mass index, smoking, baseline inflammation, and objective socioeconomic status. Additional analyses further adjusted for hopelessness and depressive symptoms. Interactions examined moderations by sex and race.

RESULTS

Lower SSSC was longitudinally associated with greater IL-6 independently of all covariates, including education and income (β = -0.06), hopelessness (β = -0.06), and depressive symptoms (β = -0.06). Lower SSSUS was longitudinally associated with greater IL-6 independently of demographic covariates including education and income (β = -0.06), but was slightly attenuated after adjusting for hopelessness (β = -0.06) and depressive symptoms (β = -0.06). There were no associations for CRP or moderation by race or sex.

CONCLUSIONS

Lower SSS may be associated with greater circulating markers of inflammation over time as suggested by increases in IL-6.

What Does the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status Measure? Separating Economic Circumstances and Social Status to Predict Health

BACKGROUND

Subjective socioeconomic status is robustly associated with many measures of health and well-being. The MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status (i.e., the MacArthur ladder) is the most widely used measure of this construct, but it remains unclear what exactly the MacArthur ladder measures.

PURPOSE

The present research sought to explore the social and economic factors that underlie responses to the MacArthur ladder and its relationship to health.

METHODS

We investigated this issue by examining the relationship between scores on the MacArthur ladder and measures of economic circumstances and noneconomic social status, as well as health and well-being measures, in healthy adults in the USA.

RESULTS

In three studies (total N = 1,310) we found evidence that economic circumstances and social status are distinct constructs that have distinct associations with scores on the MacArthur ladder. We found that both factors exhibit distinct associations with measures of health and well-being and accounted for the association between the MacArthur ladder and each measure of health and well-being.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that the MacArthur ladder's robust predictive validity may result from the fact that it measures two factors-economic circumstances and social status-that are each independently associated with health outcomes. These findings provide a novel perspective on the large body of literature that uses the MacArthur ladder and suggests health researchers should do more to disentangle the social and economic aspects of subjective socioeconomic status.

A decline in perceived social status leads to post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in adults half a year after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic: consideration of the mediation effect of perceived vulnerability to disease

Background/purpose

In December 2019, Wuhan, Hubei, China firstly reported the existence of the COVID-19 virus. It is crucial to prioritize the psychological well-being of citizens in lockdown cities and make more strides in the academic field of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) to prepare for the post-pandemic era.

Methods

We took the cognitive-relational theory as our basis and collected Hubei province-level data (N = 3,465) to examine the impact of perceived social status decline on the prevalence of PTSD symptoms, and checked the mediating effect of perceived vulnerability to disease (PVD) during the period of psychological adjustment.

Results

Using propensity score matching, we estimate the average treatment effect of perceived social status decline on PTSD level, and we robustly regress the two with weight adjustment generated in matching. We found that more decline in perceived social status is associated with a worse degree of PTSD symptoms, and confirmed PVD's buffering role although the mediating effect was not as high as hypothesized.

Conclusion and implications

Our study confirmed the decisive role of subject social status in health prediction compared to traditional socioeconomic measures, which extends the cognitive-relational in examining socioeconomic status and contributes to the dialog on socioeconomic inequality. We also suggested providing more social support at the community level and enhancing individuals' positive understanding to protect mental health.

An intersectional approach to understanding the correlates of depression in college students: Discrimination, social status, and identity

OBJECTIVE

We assessed the impact of bearing multiple marginalized identities, experiencing discrimination and perceived social status on the prevalence of depression in college students using an intersectional approach.

PARTICIPANTS

Public health students at a diverse urban public university in Northern California (N = 338, response rate = 85%; 77% women, mean age 22).

METHODS

We used a cross-sectional survey to assess demographics, depression, discrimination and social standing using validated scales and estimate the relations between depression and co-factors.

RESULTS

25.4% of students reported depression. Discrimination was associated with a higher level of depression and more severe symptoms. Higher perceived social status was associated with a lower level of depression and less severe symptoms. Hispanic/Latinx first generation women had three times the prevalence of depression as non-Hispanic/Latinx non-first generation men and there was a significant disparity in depression severity.

CONCLUSIONS

Intersectional approaches can shed light on the experiences of marginalized groups.

Subjective socioeconomic status: an alternative to objective socioeconomic status

BACKGROUND

Subjective "ladder" measurements of socio-economic status (SES) are easy-to-administer tools that ask respondents to rate their own SES, allowing them to evaluate their own material resources and determine where it places them relative to their community. Here, we sought to compare the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social status to the WAMI, an objective measure of SES that includes data on water and sanitation, asset ownership, education, and income.

METHODS

Leveraging a study of 595 tuberculosis patients in Lima, Peru, we compared the MacArthur ladder score to the WAMI score using weighted Kappa scores and Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. We identified outliers that fell outside the 95^th percentile and assessed the durability of the inconsistencies between scores by re-testing a subset of participants. We then used Akaike information criterion (AIC) to compare the predictability of logistic regression models evaluating the association between the two SES scoring systems and history of asthma.

RESULTS

The correlation coefficient between the MacArthur ladder and WAMI scores was 0.37 and the weighted Kappa was 0.26. The correlation coefficients differed by less than 0.04 and the Kappa ranged from 0.26 to 0.34, indicating fair agreement. When we replaced the initial MacArthur ladder scores with retest scores, the number of individuals with disagreements between the two scores decreased from 21 to 10 and the correlation coefficient and weighted Kappa both increased by at least 0.03. Lastly, we found that when we categorized WAMI and MacArthur ladder scores into three groups, both had a linear trend association with history of asthma with effect sizes and AICs that differed by less than 15% and 2 points, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrated fair agreement between the MacArthur ladder and WAMI scores. The agreement between the two SES measurements increased when they were further categorized into 3-5 categories, the form in which SES is often used in epidemiologic studies. The MacArthur score also performed similarly to WAMI in predicting a socio-economically sensitive health outcome. Researchers should consider subjective SES tools as an alternative method for measuring SES, particularly in large health studies where data collection is a burden.

Turning their backs on the 'ladder of success'? Unexpected responses to the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status

Subjective social status measures a person's perception of their social class relative to other people and has theoretically and empirically been positively associated with health and wellbeing. A widely used measure of this construct is the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status, which asks people to report their social status by placing themselves on a ladder which represents the social hierarchy of their society or community; the scale has been used with many different populations across many countries. In this research note, we describe two cases where we encountered unexpected reactions to the MacArthur Scale that we believe highlight (a) the salience of relative social status for people's wellbeing in contemporary society and (b) the concomitant sensitivities raised by measuring this subjective experience. We discuss the implications of these observations for future research.

Studying Socioeconomic Status: Conceptual Problems and an Alternative Path Forward

Socioeconomic status (SES; or social class) is considered an important determinant of psychological and life outcomes. Despite this importance, how to appropriately conceive of and measure it remains unsettled. In this article, I argue that SES is, under conventional conceptions of the construct, an unmeasurable construct and present an alternative strategy for studying socioeconomic conditions. I make this argument using several lines of analysis. First, a literature review of 20 years of psychological research on SES reveals that psychologists rarely define SES theoretically (79.6% of articles did not) but call a great number of operationalizations measures of SES (147 in total). Second, current recommendations for studying SES permit contradictory predictions, rendering the recommendations unsatisfactory. Third, the appropriate measurement model for SES inhibits accumulation of results across studies, which makes studying the construct practically impossible. To rectify these issues, I reconceptualize SES as a set of socioeconomic conditions and develop a measurement strategy for studying these conditions. I conclude by considering implications for ongoing research on socioeconomic conditions and for interpreting past research on SES.

Turning their backs on the 'ladder of success'? Unexpected responses to the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status

Subjective social status measures a person's perception of their social class relative to other people and has theoretically and empirically been positively associated with health and wellbeing. A widely used measure of this construct is the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status, which asks people to report their social status by placing themselves on a ladder which represents the social hierarchy of their society or community; the scale has been used with many different populations across many countries. In this research note, we describe two cases where we encountered unexpected reactions to the MacArthur Scale that we believe highlight (a) the salience of relative social status for people's wellbeing in contemporary society and (b) the concomitant sensitivities raised by measuring this subjective experience. We discuss the implications of these observations for future research.

Associations between parent posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) and later child PTSS: Results from an international data archive

The extant literature indicates that parent and child posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) are associated. However, the magnitude of this association at different time points and in the context of covariates has been difficult to quantify due to the methodological limitations of past studies, including small sample sizes. Using data from the Prospective studies of Acute Child Trauma and Recovery Data Archive, we harmonized participant-level parent and child data from 16 studies (N = 1,775 parent-child dyads) that included prospective assessment of PTSS during both the acute and later posttrauma periods (i.e., 1-30 days and 3-12 months after exposure to a potentially traumatic event, respectively). Parent and child PTSS demonstrated small-to-moderate cross-sectional, ρs = .22-.27, 95% CI [.16, .32], and longitudinal associations, ρ = .30, CI [.23, .36]. Analyses using actor-partner interdependence models revealed that parent PTSS during the acute trauma period predicted later child PTSS. Regression analyses demonstrated that parent gender did not moderate the association between parent and child PTSS. The findings suggest that parent PTSS during the acute and later posttrauma periods may be one of a constellation of risk factors and indicators for child PTSS.

Discrimination, Mediating Psychosocial or Economic Factors, and Antihypertensive Treatment: A 4-Way Decomposition Analysis in the Health and Retirement Study

Untested psychosocial or economic factors mediate associations between perceived discrimination and suboptimal antihypertensive therapy. This study included 2 waves of data from Health and Retirement Study participants with self-reported hypertension (n = 8,557, 75% non-Hispanic White, 15% non-Hispanic Black, and 10% Hispanic/Latino) over 4 years (baselines of 2008 and 2010, United States). Our primary exposures were frequency of experiencing discrimination, in everyday life or across 7 lifetime circumstances. Candidate mediators were self-reported depressive symptoms, subjective social standing, and household wealth. We evaluated with causal mediation methods the interactive and mediating associations between each discrimination measure and reported antihypertensive use at the subsequent wave. In unmediated analyses, everyday (odds ratio (OR) = 0.86, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.78, 0.95) and lifetime (OR = 0.91, 95% CI: 0.85, 0.98) discrimination were associated with a lower likelihood of antihypertensive use. Discrimination was associated with lower wealth, greater depressive symptoms, and decreased subjective social standing. Estimates for associations due to neither interaction nor mediation resembled unmediated associations for most discrimination-mediator combinations. Lifetime discrimination was indirectly associated with reduced antihypertensive use via depressive symptomatology (OR = 0.99, 95% CI: 0.98, 1.00). In conclusion, the impact of lifetime discrimination on the underuse of antihypertensive therapy appears partially mediated by depressive symptoms.

Social position and personal versus social focus: A multinational study of managerial values