The Cys/N-degron pathway in the ubiquitin-proteasome system and autophagy

Targeting mitochondria with natural polyphenols for treating Neurodegenerative Diseases: a comprehensive scoping review from oxidative stress perspective

Neurodegenerative diseases are a class of conditions with widespread detrimental impacts, currently lacking effective therapeutic drugs. Recent studies have identified mitochondrial dysfunction and the resultant oxidative stress as crucial contributors to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. Polyphenols, naturally occurring compounds with inherent antioxidant properties, have demonstrated the potential to target mitochondria and mitigate oxidative stress. This therapeutic potential has garnered significant attention in recent years. Investigating the mitochondrial targeting capacity of polyphenols, their role in functional regulation, and their ability to modulate oxidative stress, along with exploring novel technologies and strategies for modifying polyphenol compounds and their formulations, holds promise for providing new avenues for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

USP1 inhibits influenza A and B virus replication in MDCK cells by mediating RIG-I deubiquitination

The post-translational modification and stability regulation of RIG-I play critical roles in promoting IFN-I production and maintaining immune homeostasis. In this study, we found that ubiquitin-specific peptidase 1 (USP1) promotes RIG-I protein stability through deubiquitination, which in turn enhances antiviral immunity through the production of inflammatory cytokines, and inhibits the replication of influenza virus in MDCK cells. In contrast, USP1 knockdown inhibited the deubiquitination of RIG-I, decreased the RIG-I protein level, and significantly increased the influenza virus titer. Meanwhile, inhibition of USP1 expression did not have a significant effect on the proliferation of MDCK cells, suggesting that USP1 could be used as a target gene to establish a vaccine-producing MDCK cell line. The above results provide a more comprehensive understanding of the function of USP1 and the antiviral response mechanism, and provide a theoretical and methodological basis for the screening of target genes for the artificial establishment of high-yield MDCK cell lines for vaccine production.

IGF2BP2: an m6A reader that affects cellular function and disease progression

Insulin-like growth factor 2 messenger RNA (mRNA)-binding protein 2 (IGF2BP2) is a widely studied N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification reader, primarily functioning to recognize and bind to m6A modification sites on the mRNA of downstream target genes, thereby enhancing their stability. Previous studies have suggested that the IGF2BP2-m6A modification plays an essential role in cellular functions and the progression of various diseases. In this review, we focus on summarizing the molecular mechanisms by which IGF2BP2 enhances the mRNA stability of downstream target genes through m6A modification, thereby regulating cell ferroptosis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), stemness, angiogenesis, inflammatory responses, and lipid metabolism, ultimately affecting disease progression. Additionally, we update the related research progress on IGF2BP2. This article aims to elucidate the effects of IGF2BP2 on cell ferroptosis, EMT, stemness, angiogenesis, inflammatory responses, and lipid metabolism, providing a new perspective for a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between IGF2BP2 and cell functions such as ferroptosis and EMT, as well as the potential for targeted IGF2BP2 therapy for tumors and other diseases.

3D Histology visualizing hypoxia-induced upregulation of N-terminal cysteine using de novo fluorophore generation

Our research group developed a novel fluorescence staining strategy based on the DNFC targeting N-Cys in proteins. By treating biological samples with non-fluorogenic citrate and coupling reagents, we achieved strong cyan fluorescence, enabling effective visualization of N-Cys proteins in cells and tissues. The DNFC reaction occurs specifically on N-Cys residues, making it highly ideal for monitoring protein processing events, particularly within the Arg/N-degron pathway. Under hypoxic conditions, DNFC fluorescence is significantly enhanced, likely due to the increased presence of N-Cys-containing proteins. Using immunoassays and mass spectrometry, we identified Class 2 actin as a target protein under hypoxia, emphasizing the utility of 3D histopathology for analyzing actin's spatial distribution. Furthermore, we have identified a novel finding indicating a significant presence of RGS5 in red blood cells (RBCs), a discovery that has not been previously reported. Our fluorescence imaging studies, conducted across various cell types, animal tissues, and human clinical samples suggest that DNFC staining, when combined with tissue-clearing techniques, enables detailed 3D imaging of N-Cys proteins and may offer a means to assess molecular responses to hypoxia within tissues. This study highlights the potential of DNFC as a valuable tool for imaging and quantitative analysis of N-proteomes and providing a foundation for 3D histopathology in hypoxia-related disease research.

Redox regulation: mechanisms, biology and therapeutic targets in diseases

Redox signaling acts as a critical mediator in the dynamic interactions between organisms and their external environment, profoundly influencing both the onset and progression of various diseases. Under physiological conditions, oxidative free radicals generated by the mitochondrial oxidative respiratory chain, endoplasmic reticulum, and NADPH oxidases can be effectively neutralized by NRF2-mediated antioxidant responses. These responses elevate the synthesis of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, as well as key molecules like nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and glutathione (GSH), thereby maintaining cellular redox homeostasis. Disruption of this finely tuned equilibrium is closely linked to the pathogenesis of a wide range of diseases. Recent advances have broadened our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underpinning this dysregulation, highlighting the pivotal roles of genomic instability, epigenetic modifications, protein degradation, and metabolic reprogramming. These findings provide a foundation for exploring redox regulation as a mechanistic basis for improving therapeutic strategies. While antioxidant-based therapies have shown early promise in conditions where oxidative stress plays a primary pathological role, their efficacy in diseases characterized by complex, multifactorial etiologies remains controversial. A deeper, context-specific understanding of redox signaling, particularly the roles of redox-sensitive proteins, is critical for designing targeted therapies aimed at re-establishing redox balance. Emerging small molecule inhibitors that target specific cysteine residues in redox-sensitive proteins have demonstrated promising preclinical outcomes, setting the stage for forthcoming clinical trials. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the intricate relationship between oxidative stress and disease pathogenesis and also discuss how these insights can be leveraged to optimize therapeutic strategies in clinical practice.

Development of an enhanced anti-pan-N-formylmethionine-specific antibody

Both bacterial and eukaryotic ribosomes can initiate protein synthesis with formylmethionine (fMet), but detecting fMet-bearing peptides and fMet-bearing proteins has been challenging due to the lack of effective anti-pan-fMet antibodies. Previously, we developed a polyclonal anti-fMet antibody using a fMet-Gly-Ser-Gly-Cys pentapeptide that detects those fMet-bearing peptides and fMet-bearing proteins regardless of their sequence context. In this study, we significantly improved the antibody's specificity and affinity by using a mixture of fMet-Xaa-Cys tripeptides (Xaa, any of the 20 amino acids) as the immunogen. This newly optimized anti-fMet antibody is a powerful, cost-effective tool for detecting fMet-bearing proteins across species. Furthermore, this approach provides a foundation for developing anti-pan-specific antibodies targeting other N-terminal modifications through acylation, alkylation, oxidation, arginylation, etc.

Novel prospects in targeting neurodegenerative disorders via autophagy

Protein aggregation occurs as a consequence of dysfunction in the normal cellular proteostasis, which leads to the accumulation of toxic fibrillar aggregates of certain proteins in the cell. Enhancing the activity of proteolytic pathways may serve as a way of clearing these aggregates in a cell, and consequently, autophagy has surfaced as a promising target for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. Several strategies involving small molecule compounds that stimulate autophagic pathway of cell have been discovered. However, despite many compounds having demonstrated favorable outcomes in experimental disease models, the translation of these findings into clinical benefits for patient's remains limited. Consequently, alternative strategies are actively being explored to effectively target neurodegeneration via autophagy modulation. Recently, newer approaches such as modulation of expression of autophagic genes have emerged as novel and interesting areas of research in this field, which hold promising potential in neuroprotection. Similarly, as discussed for the first time in this review, the use of autophagy-inducing nanoparticles by utilizing their physicochemical properties to stimulate the autophagic process, rather than relying on their role as drug carriers, offers a completely fresh avenue for targeting neurodegeneration without the risk of drug-associated adverse effects. This review provides fresh perspectives on developing autophagy-targeted therapies for neurodegenerative disorders. Additionally, it discusses the challenges and impediments of implementing these strategies to alleviate the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders in clinical settings and highlights the prospects and directions of future research in this context.

Delineation of the substrate recognition domain of MARCHF6 E3 ubiquitin ligase in the Ac/N-degron pathway and its regulatory role in ferroptosis

Nα-terminal acetylation in eukaryotic proteins creates specific degradation signals (Ac/N-degrons) targeted for ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis via the Ac/N-degron pathway. Despite the identification of key components of the Ac/N-degron pathway over the past 15 years, the precise recognition domain (Ac/N domain) remains unclear. Here, we defined the Ac/N domain of the endoplasmic reticulum MARCHF6 E3 ubiquitin ligase through a systematic analysis of its cytosol-facing regions using alanine-stretch mutagenesis, chemical crosslinking-based co-immunoprecipitation-immunoblotting, and split-ubiquitin assays in human and yeast cells. The Ac/N domain of MARCHF6 exhibits preferential binding specificity to Nα-terminally acetylated proteins and peptides over their unacetylated counterparts, mediating the degradation of Ac/N-degron-bearing proteins, such as the G-protein regulator RGS2 and the lipid droplet protein PLIN2. Furthermore, abolishing the recognition of Ac/N-degrons by MARCHF6 stabilized RGS2 and PLIN2, thereby increasing the resistance to ferroptosis, an iron-dependent lipid peroxidation-mediated cell death. These findings provide mechanistic and functional insights into how MARCHF6 serves as a rheostatic modulator of ferroptosis by recognizing Ac/N-degron substrates via its Ac/N domain and non-Ac/N-degron substrates via distinct recognition sites.

The lowdown on breakdown: Open questions in plant proteolysis

Proteolysis, including post-translational proteolytic processing as well as protein degradation and amino acid recycling, is an essential component of the growth and development of living organisms. In this article, experts in plant proteolysis pose and discuss compelling open questions in their areas of research. Topics covered include the role of proteolysis in the cell cycle, DNA damage response, mitochondrial function, the generation of N-terminal signals (degrons) that mark many proteins for degradation (N-terminal acetylation, the Arg/N-degron pathway, and the chloroplast N-degron pathway), developmental and metabolic signaling (photomorphogenesis, abscisic acid and strigolactone signaling, sugar metabolism, and postharvest regulation), plant responses to environmental signals (endoplasmic-reticulum-associated degradation, chloroplast-associated degradation, drought tolerance, and the growth-defense trade-off), and the functional diversification of peptidases. We hope these thought-provoking discussions help to stimulate further research.

Hyperglycemia-induced Sirt3 downregulation increases microglial aerobic glycolysis and inflammation in diabetic neuropathic pain pathogenesis

BACKGROUND

Hyperglycemia-induced neuroinflammation significantly contributes to diabetic neuropathic pain (DNP), but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the role of Sirt3, a mitochondrial deacetylase, in hyperglycemia-induced neuroinflammation and DNP and to explore potential therapeutic interventions.

METHOD AND RESULTS

Here, we found that Sirt3 was downregulated in spinal dorsal horn (SDH) of diabetic mice by RNA-sequencing, which was further confirmed at the mRNA and protein level. Sirt3 deficiency exacerbated hyperglycemia-induced neuroinflammation and DNP by enhancing microglial aerobic glycolysis in vivo and in vitro. Overexpression of Sirt3 in microglia alleviated inflammation by reducing aerobic glycolysis. Mechanistically, high-glucose stimulation activated Akt, which phosphorylates and inactivates FoxO1. The inactivation of FoxO1 diminished the transcription of Sirt3. Besides that, we also found that hyperglycemia induced Sirt3 degradation via the mitophagy-lysosomal pathway. Blocking Akt activation by GSK69093 or metformin rescued the degradation of Sirt3 protein and transcription inhibition of Sirt3 mRNA, which substantially diminished hyperglycemia-induced inflammation. Metformin in vivo treatment alleviated neuroinflammation and diabetic neuropathic pain by rescuing hyperglycemia-induced Sirt3 downregulation.

CONCLUSION

Hyperglycemia induces metabolic reprogramming and inflammatory activation in microglia through the regulation of Sirt3 transcription and degradation. This novel mechanism identifies Sirt3 as a potential drug target for treating DNP.

The Role of Ubiquitination in Osteosarcoma Development and Therapies

The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) maintains intracellular protein homeostasis and cellular function by regulating various biological processes. Ubiquitination, a common post-translational modification, plays a crucial role in the regulation of protein degradation, signal transduction, and other physiological and pathological processes, and is involved in the pathogenesis of various cancers, including osteosarcoma. Osteosarcoma, the most common primary malignant bone tumor, is characterized by high metastatic potential and poor prognosis. It is a refractory bone disease, and the main treatment modalities are surgery combined with chemotherapy. Increasing evidence suggests a close association between UPS abnormalities and the progression of osteosarcoma. Due to the complexity and pleiotropy of the ubiquitination system, each step in the ubiquitination process can be targeted by drugs. In recent years, research and development of inhibitors targeting the ubiquitin system have increased gradually, showing great potential for clinical application. This article reviews the role of the ubiquitination system in the development and treatment of osteosarcoma, as well as research progress, with the hope of improving the therapeutic effects and prognosis of osteosarcoma patients by targeting effective molecules in the ubiquitination system.

N-terminal cysteine acetylation and oxidation patterns may define protein stability

Oxygen homeostasis is maintained in plants and animals by O2-sensing enzymes initiating adaptive responses to low O2 (hypoxia). Recently, the O2-sensitive enzyme ADO was shown to initiate degradation of target proteins RGS4/5 and IL32 via the Cysteine/Arginine N-degron pathway. ADO functions by catalysing oxidation of N-terminal cysteine residues, but despite multiple proteins in the human proteome having an N-terminal cysteine, other endogenous ADO substrates have not yet been identified. This could be because alternative modifications of N-terminal cysteine residues, including acetylation, prevent ADO-catalysed oxidation. Here we investigate the relationship between ADO-catalysed oxidation and NatA-catalysed acetylation of a broad range of protein sequences with N-terminal cysteines. We present evidence that human NatA catalyses N-terminal cysteine acetylation in vitro and in vivo. We then show that sequences downstream of the N-terminal cysteine dictate whether this residue is oxidised or acetylated, with ADO preferring basic and aromatic amino acids and NatA preferring acidic or polar residues. In vitro, the two modifications appear to be mutually exclusive, suggesting that distinct pools of N-terminal cysteine proteins may be acetylated or oxidised. These results reveal the sequence determinants that contribute to N-terminal cysteine protein modifications, with implications for O2-dependent protein stability and the hypoxic response.

Essential oil from Fructus Alpinia zerumbet ameliorates atherosclerosis by activating PPARγ-LXRα-ABCA1/G1 signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a progressive chronic disease. Currently, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) caused by AS is responsible for the global increased mortality. Yanshanjiang as miao herb in Guizhou of China is the dried and ripe fruit of Fructus Alpinia zerumbet. Accumulated evidences have confirmed that Yanshanjiang could ameliorate CVDs, including AS. Nevertheless, its effect and mechanism on AS are still largely unknown.

PURPOSE

To investigate the role of essential oil from Fructus Alpinia zerumbet (EOFAZ) on AS, and the potential mechanism.

METHODS

A high-fat diet (HFD) ApoE-/- mice model of AS and a oxLDL-induced model of macrophage-derived foam cells (MFCs) were reproduced to investigate the pharmacological properties of EOFAZ on AS in vivo and foam cell formation in vitro, respectively. The underlying mechanisms of EOFAZ were investigated using Network pharmacology and molecular docking. EOFAZ effect on PPARγ protein stability was measured using a cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA). Pharmacological agonists and inhibitors and gene interventions were employed for clarifying EOFAZ's potential mechanism.

RESULTS

EOFAZ attenuated AS progression in HFD ApoE-/- mice. This attenuation was manifested by the reduced aortic intima plaque development, increased collagen content in aortic plaques, notable improvement in lipid profiles, and decreased levels of inflammatory factors. Moreover, EOFAZ inhibited the formation of MFCs by enhancing cholesterol efflux through activiting the PPARγ-LXRα-ABCA1/G1 pathway. Interestingly, the pharmacological knockdown of PPARγ impaired the beneficial effects of EOFAZ on MFCs. Additionally, our results indicated that EOFAZ reduced the ubiquitination degradation of PPARγ, and the chemical composition of EOFAZ directly bound to the PPARγ protein, thereby increasing its stability. Finally, PPARγ knockdown mitigated the protective effects of EOFAZ on AS in HFD ApoE-/- mice.

CONCLUSION

These findings represent the first confirmation of EOFAZ's in vivo anti-atherosclerotic effects in ApoE-/- mice. Mechanistically, its chemical constituents can directly bind to PPARγ protein, enhancing its stability, while reducing PPARγ ubiquitination degradation, thereby inhibiting foam cell formation via activation of the PPARγ-LXRα-ABCA1/G1 pathway. Simultaneously, EOFAZ could ameliorates blood lipid metabolism and inflammatory microenvironment, thus synergistically exerting its anti-atherosclerotic effects.

Emerging Role of Sorting Nexin 17 in Human Health and Disease

The distortion of the cellular membrane transport pathway has a profound impact on cell dynamics and can drive serious physiological consequences during the process of cell sorting. SNX17 is a member of the Sorting Nexin (SNX) family and plays a crucial role in protein sorting and transport in the endocytic pathway. SNX17, SNX27, and SNX31 belong to the SNX-FERM subfamily and possess the FERM domain, which can assist in endocytic transport and lysosomal degradation. The binding partners of SNX27 have been discovered to number over 100, and SNX27 has been linked to the development of Alzheimer's disease progression, tumorigenesis, cancer progression, and metastasis. However, the role and potential mechanisms of SNX17 in human health and disease remain poorly understood, and the function of SNX17 has not been fully elucidated. In this review, we summarize the structure and basic functions of SNX protein, focusing on providing current evidence of the role and possible mechanism of SNX17 in human neurodegenerative diseases and cardiovascular diseases.

DegronMD: Leveraging Evolutionary and Structural Features for Deciphering Protein-Targeted Degradation, Mutations, and Drug Response to Degrons

Protein-targeted degradation is an emerging and promising therapeutic approach. The specificity of degradation and the maintenance of cellular homeostasis are determined by the interactions between E3 ubiquitin ligase and degradation signals, known as degrons. The human genome encodes over 600 E3 ligases; however, only a small number of targeted degron instances have been identified so far. In this study, we introduced DegronMD, an open knowledgebase designed for the investigation of degrons, their associated dysfunctional events, and drug responses. We revealed that degrons are evolutionarily conserved and tend to occur near the sites of protein translational modifications, particularly in the regions of disordered structure and higher solvent accessibility. Through pattern recognition and machine learning techniques, we constructed the degrome landscape across the human proteome, yielding over 18,000 new degrons for targeted protein degradation. Furthermore, dysfunction of degrons disrupts the degradation process and leads to the abnormal accumulation of proteins; this process is associated with various types of human cancers. Based on the estimated phenotypic changes induced by somatic mutations, we systematically quantified and assessed the impact of mutations on degron function in pan-cancers; these results helped to build a global mutational map on human degrome, including 89,318 actionable mutations that may induce the dysfunction of degrons and disrupt protein degradation pathways. Multiomics integrative analysis unveiled over 400 drug resistance events associated with the mutations in functional degrons. DegronMD, accessible at https://bioinfo.uth.edu/degronmd, is a useful resource to explore the biological mechanisms, infer protein degradation, and assist with drug discovery and design on degrons.

The pro-tumorigenic cytokine IL-32 has a high turnover in multiple myeloma cells due to proteolysis regulated by oxygen-sensing cysteine dioxygenase and deubiquitinating enzymes

IL-32 is a pro-inflammatory cytokine expressed by several types of cancer cells and immune cells. Currently, no treatment targeting IL-32 is available, and its intracellular and exosomal localization make IL-32 less accessible to drugs. We previously showed that hypoxia promotes IL-32 expression through HIF1α in multiple myeloma cells. Here, we demonstrate that high-speed translation and ubiquitin-dependent proteasomal degradation lead to a rapid IL-32 protein turnover. We find that IL-32 protein half-life is regulated by the oxygen-sensing cysteine-dioxygenase ADO and that deubiquitinases actively remove ubiquitin from IL-32 and promote protein stability. Deubiquitinase inhibitors promoted the degradation of IL-32 and may represent a strategy for reducing IL-32 levels in multiple myeloma. The fast turnover and enzymatic deubiquitination of IL-32 are conserved in primary human T cells; thus, deubiquitinase inhibitors may also affect T-cell responses in various diseases.

The role of E3 ubiquitin ligases and deubiquitinases in bladder cancer development and immunotherapy

Bladder cancer is one of the common malignant urothelial tumors. Post-translational modification (PTMs), including ubiquitination, acetylation, methylation, and phosphorylation, have been revealed to participate in bladder cancer initiation and progression. Ubiquitination is the common PTM, which is conducted by E1 ubiquitin-activating enzyme, E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme and E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase. E3 ubiquitin ligases play a key role in bladder oncogenesis and progression and drug resistance in bladder cancer. Therefore, in this review, we summarize current knowledge regarding the functions of E3 ubiquitin ligases in bladder cancer development. Moreover, we provide the evidence of E3 ubiquitin ligases in regulation of immunotherapy in bladder cancer. Furthermore, we mention the multiple compounds that target E3 ubiquitin ligases to improve the therapy efficacy of bladder cancer. We hope our review can stimulate researchers and clinicians to investigate whether and how targeting E3 ubiquitin ligases acts a novel strategy for bladder cancer therapy.

Insights into self-degradation of cysteine esters and amides under physiological conditions yield new cleavable chemistry

An unprecedented H₂S release from cysteine esters and amides (CysO/NHR) under physiological conditions was discovered and the plausible mechanism was proposed. Alkylation of the amino moiety of cysteine esters enables the H₂S release to be tuned and further provides support to the mechanistic insights. This discovery not only provides new insights into several fundamental science issues including non-enzymatic H₂S-produced pathways, but also inspires new tunable cleavable motifs for sustained release of arylthiols and even for prodrug design.

Protein Termini 2022: central roles of protein ends

Although locating at the protein ends, N- and C-termini are at the center of numerous cellular functions. This topic engages an increasing number of scientists, recently forming the International Society of Protein Termini (ISPT). Protein Termini 2022 gathered this interdisciplinary community to discuss how protein ends may steer protein functionality.

N-Terminally arginylated ubiquitin is attached to histone H2A by RING1B E3 ligase in human cells

Ubiquitin (Ub) is highly conserved in all eukaryotic organisms and begins at the N-terminus with Met and Gln. Our recent research demonstrates that N-terminally (Nt-) arginylated Ub can be produced in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. However, the existence of Nt-arginylated Ub in multicellular organisms remains unknown. Here we explore the mechanism for creating Nt-arginylated Ub using human embryonic kidney HEK293 cells that express various Nt-modified Ubs. We found that Gln-starting Q-Ub was converted into Glu-starting E-Ub by NTAQ1 Nt-deamidase and subsequently Nt-arginylated by ATE1 arginyltransferase in HEK293 cells. We also found that the resulting Arg-Glu-starting RE-Ub was mainly deposited on the Lys119 residue of histone H2A. Furthermore, RING1B E3 Ub ligase mediated the attachment of RE-Ub to H2A. These findings reveal a previously unknown type of histone ubiquitylation which greatly increases the combinatorial complexity of histone and ubiquitin codes.

Inflammatory signaling on cytochrome P450-mediated drug metabolism in hepatocytes

Cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes are membrane-bound blood proteins that are vital to drug detoxification, cell metabolism, and homeostasis. CYP450s belonging to CYP families 1-3 are responsible for nearly 80% of oxidative metabolism and complete elimination of approximately 50% of all common clinical drugs in humans liver hepatocytes. CYP450s can affect the body's response to drugs by altering the reaction, safety, bioavailability, and toxicity. They can also regulate metabolic organs and the body's local action sites to produce drug resistance through altered drug metabolism. Genetic polymorphisms in the CYP gene alone do not explain ethnic and individual differences in drug efficacy in the context of complex diseases. The purpose of this review is to summarize the impact of new inflammatory-response signaling pathways on the activity and expression of CYP drug-metabolizing enzymes. Included is a summary of recent studies that have identified drugs with the potential to regulate drug-metabolizing enzyme activity. Our goal is to inspire the development of clinical drug treatment processes that consider the impact of the inflammatory environment on drug treatment, as well as provide research targets for those studying drug metabolism.