Yeast cell-derived delivery systems for bioactives

Microencapsulation of sacha inchi oil using tannic acid, yeast cells and xanthan gum as wall materials

This study investigated the encapsulation of sacha inchi oil using complex coacervation of recovered yeast cells and xanthan gum via double emulsion. Turbidimetric analysis revealed interactions between yeast cells (YC) and tannic acid (TA), which increased turbidity to a 1:3 YC:XG ratio suggesting that TA could be a promising crosslinking agent for enhancing coacervation. Optimal encapsulation efficiency was achieved at a core-to-wall ratio of 1:1 in a core solution concentration of 1 % relative to the total polymer concentration. Under these conditions, the microparticles exhibited an average particle size of 72.44 ± 1.83 μm, with low water activity and water solubility. Morphological analysis suggests that the microcapsules showed a heterogeneous structure formed by different layers of wall material, potentially making them suitable for use in food matrices. The use of TA to form TA-YC:XG microcapsules improved the oxidative stability (39.84 ± 0.43 meqO2/kg of peroxide value after six simulated months) of the microcapsules and slowed down oil release (approximately 20 % in simulated gastric fluid) during the in vitro digestion test. These finds highlight the potential of microencapsulation using recovered yeast cells as a strategy to enhance encapsulation efficiency and protect against oxidation and digestion challenges. This approach opens new possibilities for the use of sacha inchi oil as a food ingredient.

Preparation and intestinal gastrointestinal delivery performance of Malus baccata (Linn.) polyphenols loaded nanoparticles based on yeast membranes

The currently available polyphenols delivery systems require the complicated preparation process and participation of multiple food-graded materials. Yeast membranes (YMS), as unitary encapsulation material, not only can load natural products by their porous structure but also can be specifically degraded by β-glucanase in intestine. Therefore, this study fabricated Malus baccata (Linn.) polyphenols loaded nanoparticles based on yeast membranes (YMS@MBP) by hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interaction. YMS@MBP with the lamellar aggregated morphology possessed the non-crystalline feature and excellent thermal stability, and their average particle size was 997.2 ± 22.1 nm. Through establishing the model of gastrointestinal digestion in vitro, YMS@MBP presented the sustained release and intestinal targeting release characteristics, and the maximum release rates in gastric and small intestine were 16.04 % and 79.39 %, respectively. HPLC-MS/MS analysis showed that MBP were mainly composed by quercetin and its derivatives, phloretin, catechins, anthocyanins and phenolic acids. After digestion, the phenolic composition of MBP was perfectly protected by encapsulation of YMS, which was much closer to that of undigested MBP. This study provides a new strategy for construction of polyphenols delivery system applied in functional food field.

Microencapsulation of Spent Coffee Extract Within Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cells via Spray Drying and Evaluation of Its In Vitro Bioaccessibility

Spent coffee is rich in bioactive compounds, including chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, and caffeine, which offer health benefits. However, digestive processes can degrade these compounds; therefore, microencapsulation within Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast cells offers a novel method to stabilize these bioactive compounds during digestion. In fact, it is important to mention that this technique of microencapsulation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae has not been previously applied to spent coffee extract. As a result, in this study, spent coffee extract was microencapsulated in non-plasmolyzed (NPCs) and plasmolyzed (PCs) yeast cells using the spray drying method. The physicochemical properties of the extract and the microencapsulates were characterized, and the bioaccessibility of the bioactive compounds was evaluated with digestion in vitro. Encapsulation efficiency (EE) was 38.62% for NPCs and 55.78% for PCs, with loading capacities (LCs) of 126.36 and 242 g/kg, respectively (according to Equations (1) and (2)). The presence of antioxidant compounds, identified by HPLC in spent coffee, was confirmed in the microencapsulates using FTIR. In vitro digestion assays revealed higher bioaccessibility of bioactive compounds in the intestinal phase, greater than 90%, and increased antioxidant activity in beer made with plasmolyzed microcapsules (BPM). These results suggest that yeast microencapsulation effectively stabilizes the bioactive compounds of spent coffee extract, releasing them throughout the gastrointestinal tract in vitro, mainly in the intestinal phase. Thus, microencapsulated compounds could serve as functional additives with a good percentage of intestinal bioaccessibility.

A systematic review of nanocarriers used in medicine and beyond - definition and categorization framework

Nanocarriers are transport and encapsulation systems that primarily serve to protect and improve the dispersibility of predominantly hydrophobic active ingredients but also enable their targeted delivery and controlled release at the site of action. Nanocarriers are mainly made of either organic or inorganic materials, but various combinations of materials in complex structures are also under development. Most nanocarriers represent entities that are rationally designed to meet the functional requirements of a specific application. They can therefore be understood as Advanced Materials. Nanocarrier systems are already being used in medicine, cosmetics, agriculture, food, and household products. They are therefore used in a variety of products, ideally designed to be safe and sustainable, and may need to be registered before they can be placed on the market. Inspired by medical research, nanocarriers are also increasingly being used for precision farming (nano-agrochemicals) or products, such as air fresheners or lithium-ion batteries, and could thus be released into the environment in large quantities. To enable the identification of critical nanocarriers in subsequent investigations, a comprehensive literature review of the broad and heterogeneous research field of nanocarriers is provided, as well as an approach for categorization based on the origin and chemical composition of their constituent materials. A definition of nanocarriers based on size (1-1000 nm) and function is also proposed for their risk assessment.

Comprehensive insights into yeast mannoproteins:structural heterogeneity, winemaking, food processing, and medicine food homology

Mannoproteins (MPs) are primary constituents of yeast cell walls, which are extensively utilized in the winemaking process, in finished wines, and during wine aging to enhance aroma, stabilize pigments, improve wine body, and reduce astringency. However, existing research has mainly focused on the extraction of MPs and certain oenological properties. A review of the literature indicates that our understanding of the targets and mechanisms influenced by MPs related to winemaking characteristics remains limited. Furthermore, as further research on MPs progresses, it also has beneficial effects in other food processing and food healthcare. Therefore, this evaluation examines MPs from three aspects: extraction methods, corresponding structures, and performances, providing a more comprehensive and critical insight into the structure-activity relationship of MPs. In a word, it outlines the primary applications of MPs in food and aims to provide data support for more precise control over the use of MPs from a structural perspective.

Cell-derived biomimetic drug delivery system for inflammatory bowel disease therapy

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic recurrent disease with an increasing incidence year by year. At present, no safe and effective treatment for IBD exists. Thus, there is an urgent need to create new therapeutic options that have decreased adverse effects and positive clinical efficacy. A range of nanomaterials have fueled the advancement of nanomedicine in recent years, which is establishing more appealing and prospective treatment approaches for IBD. However, traditional synthetic nanomaterials still have some problems in the IBD drug delivery process, such as weak targeting ability of vectors, difficulty escaping immune surveillance, and poor biosecurity. Natural sources of biological nanomaterials have been identified to solve the above problems. A drug delivery system based on bionic technology is expected to achieve a new breakthrough in the targeted therapy of IBD by nanotechnology due to its organic integration of low immunogenicity and natural targeting of biological materials and the controllability and versatility of synthetic nanocarrier design. We begin this review by outlining the fundamental traits of both inflammatory and healthy intestinal microenvironments. Subsequently, we review the latest application of a cell-derived bionic drug delivery system in IBD therapy. Finally, we discuss the development prospects of this delivery system and challenges to its clinical translation. Biomimetic nanotherapy is believed to offer a new strategy for the treatment of IBD.

Oxidized paramylon self-assembled nanoparticles loaded with fucoxanthin attenuate insulin resistance in HpeG2 cells

Fucoxanthin (Fx) has garnered significant interest due to its exceptional biological properties. However, its efficacy in enhancing food quality and human health is contingent upon the solubility of the compound in water and its physicochemical stability. Therefore, nanocarriers must be developed to enhance the stability and biocompatibility of Fx. In this study, oxidized paramylon and Fx self-assembled nanoparticles (Fx-OEP) were prepared via the anti-solvent method, with a loading rate of 82.47 % for Fx. The Fx-OEP exhibited robust storage and photostability. In vitro simulated digestion assays demonstrated that Fx-OEP effectively protected Fx from premature gastric release, while achieving a release efficiency of 72.17 % in the intestinal phase. Fx-OEP has the capacity to scavenge a range of reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced by cellular oxidative stress. Treatment with Fx-OEP resulted in a significant reduction in ROS accumulation in insulin-resistant HepG2 cells, which was attributed to the activation of the nuclear factor E2-related factor 2/heme oxygenase-1 (Nrf2/HO-1) pathway. This, in turn, activated insulin receptor substrate 1/glucose transporter type 4 (IRS1/GLUT4), promoting cellular glucose absorption and utilization. These findings indicate the potential of self-assembled nanoparticles based on oxidized paramylon as a new type of nanocarrier for delivering hydrophobic substances.

Using Spent Brewer's Yeast to Encapsulate and Enhance the Bioavailability of Sonochemically Nanostructured Curcumin

This study is aimed at investigating the possibility of using spent cells of brewer's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to encapsulate the plant antioxidant curcumin and the effect of such an approach on the bioavailability of BAS in an in vitro digestion model. Spent brewer's yeast is a significant volume organic waste that is difficult to dispose of, which makes additional options for its use very promising. Encapsulation of curcumin into spent yeast cells was carried out in a nanostructured manner. The encapsulation process was studied using laser dynamic light scattering, inverted and luminescence microscopy, and FTIR analysis. The efficiency and feasibility of curcumin encapsulation process was evaluated by determining the encapsulation efficiency index and modeling the in vitro digestion process. From these studies, it was found that spent yeast cells are capable of acting as a "delivery system" for curcumin. Encapsulation efficiencies of 47.7% can be achieved if curcumin is prenanostructured. Analysis of the potential bioavailability of the plant antioxidant in an in vitro gastric digestion model showed that the technology of encapsulation into yeast cells allows for curcumin retention of 79.5%.

Current insights into yeast application for reduction of patulin contamination in foods: A comprehensive review

Patulin, a fungal secondary metabolite with multiple toxicities, is widely existed in a variety of fruits and their products. This not only causes significant economic losses to the agricultural and food industries but also poses a serious threat to human health. Conventional techniques mainly involved physical and chemical methods present several challenges include incomplete patulin degradation, high technical cost, and fruit quality decline. In comparison, removal of mycotoxin through biodegradation is regarded as a greener and safer strategy which has become popular research. Among them, yeast has a unique advantage in detoxification effect and application, which has attracted our attention. Therefore, this review provides a comprehensive account of the yeast species that can degrade patulin, degradation mechanism, current application status, and future challenges. Yeasts can efficiently convert patulin into nontoxic or low-toxic substances through biodegradation. Alternatively, it can use physical adsorption, which has the advantages of safety, high efficiency, and environmental friendliness. Nevertheless, due to the inherent complexity of the production environment, the sole utilization of yeast as a control agent remains inherently unstable and challenging to implement on a large scale in a practical manner. Integration control, enhancement of yeast resilience, improvement of yeast cell wall adsorption capacity, and research on additional patulin-degrading enzymes will facilitate the practical application of this approach. Furthermore, we analyzed the feasibility of the yeast commercial application in patulin reduction and provided suggestions on how to enhance its commercial value, which is of great significance for the control of mycotoxins in food products.

Advances in carbohydrate-based nanoparticles for targeted therapy of inflammatory bowel diseases: A review

The incidence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), a chronic gastrointestinal disorder, is rapidly increasing worldwide. Unfortunately, the current therapies for IBD are often hindered by premature drug release and undesirable side effects. With the advancement of nanotechnology, the innovative targeted nanotherapeutics are explored to ensure the accurate delivery of drugs to specific sites in the colon, thereby reducing side effects and improving the efficacy of oral administration. The emphasis of this review is to summarize the potential pathogenesis of IBD and highlight recent breakthroughs in carbohydrate-based nanoparticles for IBD treatment, including their construction, release mechanism, potential targeting ability, and their therapeutic efficacy. Specifically, we summarize the latest knowledge regarding environmental-responsive nano-systems and active targeted nanoparticles. The environmental-responsive drug delivery systems crafted with carbohydrates or other biological macromolecules like chitosan and sodium alginate, exhibit a remarkable capacity to enhance the accumulation of therapeutic drugs in the inflamed regions of the digestive tract. Active targeting strategies improve the specificity and accuracy of oral drug delivery to the colon by modifying carbohydrates such as hyaluronic acid and mannose onto nanocarriers. Finally, we discuss the challenges and provide insight into the future perspectives of colon-targeted delivery systems for IBD treatment.

Innovative Oral Nano/Gene Delivery System Based on Engineered Modified Saccharomyces cerevisiae for Colorectal Cancer Therapy

The efficient delivery of RNA-based drugs to solid tumors remains a formidable obstacle. We aim to develop a safe and efficient oral drug delivery system compatible with RNA-based drugs that is urgently needed to overcome challenges such as enzymatic degradation and gastrointestinal barriers to facilitate effective treatment for treating colorectal cancer (CRC). To address these challenges, we utilized engineered modified Saccharomyces cerevisiae to evaluate the delivery efficacy of miR21-antagomir for treating CRC in preclinical mouse models, including adenomatosis polyposis coli mutant transgenic mice ApcMin/+ and in situ tumor-bearing mice. An orally deliverable gene delivery system, YS@NPs21, was designed. This gene delivery system demonstrated effectively suppressed tumor growth in both ApcMin/+ and in situ tumor-bearing mice models. This system exhibited tumor-targeting capability, effective inhibition of tumor growth, and low toxicity toward nontumor cells. Successful implementation of this innovative oral drug delivery system could offer a straightforward, safe, and RNA drug-compatible approach to CRC treatment, ultimately improving patient outcomes and reducing medical costs.

Yeast cell wall capsules for delivery of oat biomarker avenanthramide-C

Avenanthramide-C (AVN-C) is the biomarker for oat with a variety of physiological functions, whereas its application is constrained by low stability and bioavailability. Avenanthramide-C is the biomarker for oat with a variety of physiological functions, whereas its application is constrained by low stability and bioavailability. This study evaluated the potential of yeast cell (YC) and yeast cell wall (YCW) capsules as delivery systems for stabilizing AVN-C. It was observed that these yeast capsules possessed the ellipsoidal morphology and intact structure without visual pores. Additionally, the YCW capsules exhibited higher encapsulation and loading capacity due to the large internal space. The interaction of yeast capsules with AVN-C involved the hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding. Moreover, the loading of AVN-C induced high hydrophobicity inside the yeast capsules, which helped to protect AVN-C against degradation and release AVN-C in a slow and sustained manner in the simulated gastrointestinal tract. The YCW capsules have potential as controlled delivery system for AVN-C, which could be further used as a nutraceutical and added to functional foods.

Yeast Particle Encapsulation of Azole Fungicides for Enhanced Treatment of Azole-Resistant Candida albicans

Addressing the growing problem of antifungal resistance in medicine and agriculture requires the development of new drugs and strategies to preserve the efficacy of existing fungicides. One approach is to utilize delivery technologies. Yeast particles (YPs) are 3-5 µm porous, hollow microspheres, a byproduct of food-grade Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast extract manufacturing processes and an efficient and flexible drug delivery platform. Here, we report the use of YPs for encapsulation of tetraconazole (TET) and prothioconazole (PRO) with high payload capacity and stability. The YP PRO samples were active against both sensitive and azole-resistant strains of Candida albicans. The higher efficacy of YP PRO versus free PRO is due to interactions between PRO and saponifiable lipids in the YPs. Encapsulation of PRO in glucan lipid particles (GLPs), a highly purified form of YPs that do not contain saponifiable lipids, did not result in enhanced PRO activity. We evaluated the co-encapsulation of PRO with a mixture of the terpenes: geraniol, eugenol, and thymol. Samples co-encapsulating PRO and terpenes in YPs or GLPs were active on both sensitive and azole-resistant C. albicans. These approaches could lead to the development of more effective drug combinations co-encapsulated in YPs for agricultural or GLPs for pharmaceutical applications.

Thermal stability, antioxidant activity and bioavailability of pea protein-naringin Pickering emulsion for enhanced delivery applications

After successfully addressing to mitigate bitterness of naringin through construction Pickering emulsion using pea protein (PP) and naringin (NG) in our previous study, we now probed thermal stability, antioxidant efficacy, and bioavailability. FTIR analysis and UV-vis spectroscopy indicated predominant interactions between PP and NG were hydrogen and hydrophobic bonds. TGA and DSC analyses demonstrated that PP-NG complexes exhibited superior heat-resistance compared to pure PP and NG. Thermal stability assessments indicated a significant retention of NG in the PP-NG Pickering emulsion than the control NG across varied temperatures (4 °C, 25 °C, 37 °C, and 65 °C). Moreover, the antioxidant activity of PP-NG emulsion was dependent on the concentration of NG, as evidenced by DPPH and ABTS free radicals scavenging abilities, ferric reducing power, and lipid peroxidation resistance. Additionally, PP-NG Pickering emulsion exhibited substantially high bioavailability (92.01 ± 3.91%). These results suggest a promising avenue for the application of NG with improved characteristics.

Larvicidal activity of the photosensitive insecticides, methylene blue and rose bengal, in Aedes aegypti and Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes

BACKGROUND

Insecticides are critical for controlling mosquito populations and mitigating the spread of vector-borne disease, but their overuse has selected for resistant populations. A promising alternative to classical chemical insecticides is photosensitive molecules - here called photosensitive insecticides or PSIs - that when ingested and activated by light, generate broadly toxic reactive oxygen species. This mechanism of indiscriminate oxidative damage decreases the likelihood that target site modification-based resistance evolves. Here, we tested whether the PSIs, methylene blue (MB) and rose bengal (RB), are viable insecticides across the mosquito lineage.

RESULTS

MB and RB are phototoxic to both Aedes aegypti and Anopheles gambiae at micromolar concentrations, with greatest toxicity when larvae are incubated in the dark with the PSIs for 2 h prior to photoactivation. MB is ten times more toxic than RB, and microscopy-based imaging suggests that this is because ingested MB escapes the larval gut and disperses throughout the hemocoel whereas RB remains confined to the gut. Adding food to the PSI-containing water has a bidirectional, concentration-dependent effect on PSI toxicity; toxicity increases at high concentrations but decreases at low concentrations. Finally, adding sand to the water increases the phototoxicity of RB to Ae. aegypti.

CONCLUSION

MB and RB are larvicidal via a light activated mechanism, and therefore, should be further investigated as an option for mosquito control. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Yeast glucan particles: An express train for oral targeted drug delivery systems

As an emerging drug delivery vehicle, yeast glucan particles (YGPs) derived from yeast cells could be specifically taken up by macrophages. Therefore, these vehicles could rely on the recruitment of macrophages at the site of inflammation and tumors to enable targeted imaging and drug delivery. This review summarizes recent advances in the application of YGPs in oral targeted delivery systems, covering the basic structure of yeast cells, methods for pre-preparation, drug encapsulation and characterization. The mechanism and validation of the target recognition interaction of YGPs with macrophages are highlighted, and some inspiring cases are presented to show that yeast cells have promising applications. The future chances and difficulties that YGPs will confront are also emphasized throughout this essay. YGPs are not only the "armor" but also the "compass" of drugs in the process of targeted drug transport. This system is expected to provide a new idea about the oral targeted delivery of anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor drugs, and furthermore offer an effective delivery strategy for targeted therapy of other macrophage-related diseases.

Organic and Biogenic Nanocarriers as Bio-Friendly Systems for Bioactive Compounds' Delivery: State-of-the Art and Challenges

"Green" strategies to build up novel organic nanocarriers with bioperformance are modern trends in nanotechnology. In this way, the valorization of bio-wastes and the use of living systems to develop multifunctional organic and biogenic nanocarriers (OBNs) have revolutionized the nanotechnological and biomedical fields. This paper is a comprehensive review related to OBNs for bioactives' delivery, providing an overview of the reports on the past two decades. In the first part, several classes of bioactive compounds and their therapeutic role are briefly presented. A broad section is dedicated to the main categories of organic and biogenic nanocarriers. The major challenges regarding the eco-design and the fate of OBNs are suggested to overcome some toxicity-related drawbacks. Future directions and opportunities, and finding "green" solutions for solving the problems related to nanocarriers, are outlined in the final of this paper. We believe that through this review, we will capture the attention of the readers and will open new perspectives for new solutions/ideas for the discovery of more efficient and "green" ways in developing novel bioperformant nanocarriers for transporting bioactive agents.

Effects of simulated gastrointestinal digestion/epithelial transport on phenolics and bioactivities of particles of brewer's spent yeasts loaded with Brazilian red propolis

Red propolis from northeast Brazil contains mainly isoflavonoids as bioactive compounds, and its consumption may counteract unregulated and exacerbated formation of reactive oxygen species and inflammatory cytokines/chemokines. Moreover, the production of particles using sustainable carriers have been studied to increase the use of propolis as a functional food ingredient. Hence, the objective of this work was to investigate the effects of simulated gastrointestinal digestion followed by a cell-based epithelial transport on phenolic profile, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of particles of brewer's spent yeasts (BSY) loaded with ethanolic extract of Brazilian red propolis (EEP). As a result, the EEP phenolic diversity decreased throughout the simulated gastrointestinal system, and was modulated by the particle production, as detected by high-performance liquid chromatography - electrospray ionization - quadrupole-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS). Concomitantly, the antioxidant activity, as assessed by the ability to scavenge peroxyl and superoxide radicals, hydrogen peroxide, and hypochlorous acid, generally decreased at a higher extent for the particles of EEP with BSY (EEP-BSY) throughout the experiments. Nonetheless, after epithelial transport through the Caco-2 cell monolayer, the basolateral fraction of both EEP-BSY and EEP decreased the activation of pro-inflammatory transcription factor NF-κB by 83% and 65%, respectively, as well as the release of TNF-α (up to 51% and 38%, respectively), and CXCL2/MIP-2 (up to 33% and 25%, respectively). Therefore, BSY may be an interesting carrier for EEP bioencapsulation, since it preserves its anti-inflammatory activity. Further studies should be encouraged to investigate the feasibility of adding it in formulations of functional foods, considering its effect on sensory attributes.

Biocompatible smart micro/nanorobots for active gastrointestinal tract drug delivery

INTRODUCTION

Oral delivery is the most commonly used route of drug administration owing to good patient compliance. However, the gastrointestinal (GI) tract contains multiple physiological barriers that limit the absorption efficiency of conventional passive delivery systems resulting in a low drug concentration reaching the diseased sites. Micro/nanorobots can convert energy to self-propulsive force, providing a novel platform to actively overcome GI tract barriers for noninvasive drug delivery and treatment.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we first describe the microenvironments and barriers in the different compartments of the GI tract. Afterward, the applications of micro/nanorobots to overcome GI tract barriers for active drug delivery are highlighted and discussed. Finally, we summarize and discuss the challenges and future prospects of micro/nanorobots for further clinical applications.

EXPERT OPINION

Micro/nanorobots with the ability to autonomously propel themselves and to load, transport, and release payloads on demand are ideal carriers for active oral drug delivery. Although there are many challenges to be addressed, micro/nanorobots have great potential to introduce a new era of drug delivery for precision therapy.

Fungal β-Glucan-Based Nanotherapeutics: From Fabrication to Application

Fungal β-glucans are naturally occurring active macromolecules used in food and medicine due to their wide range of biological activities and positive health benefits. Significant research efforts have been devoted over the past decade to producing fungal β-glucan-based nanomaterials and promoting their uses in numerous fields, including biomedicine. Herein, this review offers an up-to-date report on the synthetic strategies of common fungal β-glucan-based nanomaterials and preparation methods such as nanoprecipitation and emulsification. In addition, we highlight current examples of fungal β-glucan-based theranostic nanosystems and their prospective use for drug delivery and treatment in anti-cancer, vaccination, as well as anti-inflammatory treatments. It is anticipated that future advances in polysaccharide chemistry and nanotechnology will aid in the clinical translation of fungal β-glucan-based nanomaterials for the delivery of drugs and the treatment of illnesses.

Geotrichum candidum arthrospore cell wall particles as a novel carrier for curcumin encapsulation

We report for the first time that curcumin is successfully encapsulated into a new natural pre-formed carrier, which was derived from arthrospore cell wall particles (APs) of probiotic Geotrichum candidum LG-8 and mainly composed of beta-1,4-glucan. Vacuum infusion process was used for efficient encapsulation of curcumin. The results showed that the encapsulation efficiency and yield of APs were 36.5 ± 0.9 % and 730.6 ± 26.5 μg/g (wet basis), respectively. Compared with the other probiotic carriers such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, it could more effectively maintain the antioxidant property and storage capacity of curcumin under high temperature conditions. Simulated digestion was conducted to study in vitro release of curcumin encapsulated in APs, and showed a maximum bioaccessibility of 65.6 ± 3.8 %. In view of low-cost culture method, simple encapsulation process and high encapsulation capacity, G. candidum arthrospores as new natural encapsulation carriers have potential superiority in the practical application in food industry.

Yeast Particles for Encapsulation of Terpenes and Essential Oils

Terpenes and essential oils are materials of great commercial use due to their broad spectra of antibacterial, antifungal, membrane permeation enhancement and antioxidant biological properties, as well as for their use as flavors and fragrances. Yeast particles (YPs) are 3-5 µm hollow and porous microspheres, a byproduct of some food-grade yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) extract manufacturing processes, that have been used for the encapsulation of terpenes and essential oils with high payload loading capacity (up to 500% weight) and efficiency, providing stability and sustained-release properties. This review focuses on encapsulation approaches for the preparation of YP-terpene and essential oil materials that have a wide range of potential agricultural, food and pharmaceutical applications.

Sonochemistry: An emerging approach to fabricate biopolymer cross-linked emulsions for the delivery of bioactive compounds

Sonochemistry shows remarkable potential in the synthesis or modification of new micro/nanomaterials, particularly the cross-linked emulsions for drug delivery. However, the trend of utilizing sonochemical emulsions for delivery of food-derived bioactive compounds has been just started. The extension of sonochemistry as a tool for engineering bioactive delivery systems will make the approach more universal and greatly increase its applications in the food industry. This review summarizes different types of biopolymeric cross-linked emulsions (CLEs) synthesized via sonochemical approach, including CLEs, surface-modified CLEs, cross-linked high internal phase emulsions, and some novel systems templated on CLEs. Special emphasis is directed toward the cross-linking mechanisms of biopolymers at the oil-water interfaces under acoustic cavitation and the physicochemical principles underlying sonochemical fabrication. We also highlight the advantages and challenges associated with the delivery performance of each system for bioactive compounds. The potential in delivering bioactives using sonochemical emulsions has not been fully reached. There are still a number of issues that need to be overcome, including low cross-linking degree of biopolymers, degradation of bioactives in sonochemical process, and unclear biological fate of encapsulated bioactive compounds. This review may guide future trends in exploring efficient sonochemical strategies and multifunctional delivery systems for food applications.

Ultrasound-assisted encapsulation of curcumin and fisetin into Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells: a multistage batch process protocol

Some of the challenges of yeast encapsulation protocols are low phytochemical internalization rates and limited intracellular compartment of yeasts. This study uses an ultrasound-assisted batch encapsulation (UABE) protocol to optimize the encapsulation of curcumin and fisetin by recovering non-encapsulated biomaterial and further incorporating it into non-loaded yeasts in three encapsulation stages (1ES, 2ES, and 3ES). The effect of selected acoustic energies (166.7 and 333.3 W L^-1 ) on the encapsulation efficiency (EE), yield (EY), and antioxidant activity retention were evaluated, and then, compared with a control process (without ultrasound treatment). Compared to the control, enhanced EEs were achieved for both curcumin (10.9% control to 58.5% UABE) and fisetin (18.6% control to 76.6% UABE) after 3ES and the use of 333.3 W L^-1 . Similarly, the yeast maximum loading capacity was improved from 6.6 to 13.4 mg g^-1 for curcumin; and from 11.1 to 26.4 mg g^-1 for fisetin after UABE protocol. The antioxidant activity of produced biocapsules was positively correlated with the bioactive loaded content of yeasts when ultrasound treatment was applied. Overall, results from this study provide valuable information regarding UABE processes, and moreover, bring new and creative perspectives for the ultrasound technology in the food industry.

Immunomodulatory effect and safety of TNF-α RNAi mediated by oral yeast microcapsules in rheumatoid arthritis therapy

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease that requires long-term treatment and monitoring. Inhibition of inflammatory gene expression by gene therapy is a significant breakthrough in RA treatment, but the lack of a safe and effective gene delivery system hinders its application. Since oral administration can significantly reduce wound infection caused by parenteral administration, it also has the advantages of high patient compliance and convenience. Therefore, oral administration may be the best option for the treatment of this chronic disease. In this study, we developed a novel oral drug system by delivering tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) short hairpin RNA (shRNA) mediated by non-pathogenic yeast to evaluate its regulation of systemic immune inflammation and safety in RA. Non-pathogenic yeast can resist the destruction of the gastrointestinal acid-base environment and can be recognized by the intestinal macrophages and act on systemic inflammatory lesions. Oral administration of yeast-mediated TNF-α shRNA significantly reduced the expression of TNF-α predominant pro-inflammatory factors in intestinal macrophages and joint synovium, and up-regulated the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and M2 macrophages, systematically regulating the inflammatory response. This yeast-mediated oral gene delivery system can not only significantly inhibit knee joint synovial inflammation, but also has no toxic effects on peripheral blood and major organs. Therefore, yeast-mediated oral delivery of TNF-α shRNA may be used as a novel gene therapy strategy to treat RA through immunomodulating the mononuclear phagocyte system from the intestine to the joint synovium, and ultimately regulating systemic and local immune inflammation, providing new ideas for the clinical treatment of RA.

Novel nano-encapsulated probiotic agents: Encapsulate materials, delivery, and encapsulation systems

Gut microbes are closely associated with most human health. When ingested orally, probiotics can effectively regulate the composition and quantity of human intestinal microorganisms, which is beneficial to human health. However, probiotics will be affected by the harsh environment of the digestive tract during the in vivo transportation process, and ensuring the viability of probiotics is a great challenge. Probiotic encapsulating technology provides an effective solution to this problem. The introduction of extreme temperatures, large probiotic microcapsule sizes and the difficulty in controlling probiotic microcapsule particle sizes mean that traditional microcapsule encapsulation methods have some limitations. From traditional microcapsule technology to the bulk encapsulation of probiotics with nanofibers and nanoparticles to the recent ability to wear nano "armor" for a single probiotic through biofilm, biological membrane and nanocoating. Emerging probiotic nanoagents provides a new conceptual and development direction for the field of probiotic encapsulation. In this review, we presented the characteristics of encapsulated probiotic carrier materials and digestive tract transport systems, we focused on the encapsulation systems of probiotic nanoagents, we analyzed the shortcomings and advantages of the current agent encapsulation systems, and we stated the developmental direction and challenges for these agents for the future.