Effect of rACLF, a recombinant snake venom metallopeptidase on cell viability, chemokine expression and degradation of extracellular matrix proteins

Hemorrhagic metalloproteinase, Cc HSM-III, isolated from Cerastes cerastes venom: Purification and biochemical characterization

Snake venom metalloproteinases are the most abundant toxins in Viperidae venoms. In this study, a new hemorrhagin, Cc HSM-III (66 kDa), was purified from Cerastes cerastes venom by gel filtration, ion exchange, and reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatographies. The analysis of Cc HSM-III by liquid chromatography with a tandem mass spectrometry revealed 32 peptides sharing a homology with P-III metalloproteinases from Echis ocellatus snake venom. Cc HSM-III displays hemorrhagic activity with a minimal hemorrhagic dose of 5 μg, which is abolished by ethylene diamine tetracetic acid but not by phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride. The mechanism underlying Cc HSM-III hemorrhagic activity is probably due to its extensive proteolytic activity against type IV collagen. Cc HSM-III induces local tissue damage and an inflammatory response by upregulating both matrix metalloproteinase 2 and 9 in skin of mice. Thus, Cc HSM-III may play a key role in the pathogenesis of C. cerastes envenomation.

CcMP-II, a new hemorrhagic metalloproteinase from Cerastes cerastes snake venom: purification, biochemical characterization and amino acid sequence analysis

Snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) are the most abundant components in snake venoms. They are important in the induction of systemic alterations and local tissue damage after envenomation. CcMP-II, which is a metalloproteinase purified from Cerastes cerastes snake venom, was obtained by a combination of gel filtration, ion-exchange and affinity chromatographies. It was homogeneous on SDS-PAGE, with a molecular mass estimated to 35kDa and presents a pI of 5.6. CcMP-II has an N-terminal sequence of EDRHINLVSVADHRMXTKY, with high levels of homology with those of the members of class P-II of SVMPs, which comprises metalloproteinase and disintegrin-like domains together. This proteinase displayed a fibrinogenolytic and hemorrhagic activities. The proteolytic and hemorrhagic activities of CcMP-II were inhibited by EDTA and 1,10-phenanthroline. However, these activities were not affected by aprotinine and PMSF, suggesting that CcMP-II is a zinc-dependent hemorrhagic metalloproteinase with an α-fibrinogenase activity. The hemorrhagic metalloproteinase CcMP-II was also able to hydrolyze extracellular matrix components, such as type IV collagen and laminin. These results indicate that CcMP-II is implicated in the local and systemic bleeding, contributing thus in the toxicity of C. cerastes venom.

Purification and functional characterization of a new metalloproteinase (BleucMP) from Bothrops leucurus snake venom

A fibrino(geno)lytic nonhemorrhagic metalloproteinase (BleucMP) was purified from Bothrops leucurus snake venom by two chromatographic steps procedure on DEAE-Sephadex A-25 followed by CM-Sepharose Fast Flow column. BleucMP represented 1.75% (w/w) of the crude venom and was homogeneous on SDS-PAGE. BleucMP analyzed by MALDI TOF/TOF, showed a molecular mass of 23,057.54Da and when alkylated and reduced, the mass is 23,830.40Da. Their peptides analyzed in MS (MALDI TOF\TOF) showed significant score when compared with those of other proteins by NCBI-BLAST2 alignment display. As regards their proteolytic activities, BleucMP efficiently acted on fibrinogen, fibrin, and was inhibited by EDTA and 1.10-phenanthroline. This enzyme was also able to decrease significantly the plasma fibrinogen level provoking blood incoagulability, however was devoid of hemorrhagic activity when tested in the mice skin and did not induce relevant biochemical, hematological and histopathological alterations in mice. The aspects addressed in this paper provide data on the effect of BleucMP in envenomation from B. leucurus snakes in order to better understand the effects caused by snake venom metalloproteinase.

Mechanisms of vascular damage by hemorrhagic snake venom metalloproteinases: tissue distribution and in situ hydrolysis

BACKGROUND

Envenoming by viper snakes constitutes an important public health problem in Brazil and other developing countries. Local hemorrhage is an important symptom of these accidents and is correlated with the action of snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs). The degradation of vascular basement membrane has been proposed as a key event for the capillary vessel disruption. However, SVMPs that present similar catalytic activity towards extracellular matrix proteins differ in their hemorrhagic activity, suggesting that other mechanisms might be contributing to the accumulation of SVMPs at the snakebite area allowing capillary disruption.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

In this work, we compared the tissue distribution and degradation of extracellular matrix proteins induced by jararhagin (highly hemorrhagic SVMP) and BnP1 (weakly hemorrhagic SVMP) using the mouse skin as experimental model. Jararhagin induced strong hemorrhage accompanied by hydrolysis of collagen fibers in the hypodermis and a marked degradation of type IV collagen at the vascular basement membrane. In contrast, BnP1 induced only a mild hemorrhage and did not disrupt collagen fibers or type IV collagen. Injection of Alexa488-labeled jararhagin revealed fluorescent staining around capillary vessels and co-localization with basement membrane type IV collagen. The same distribution pattern was detected with jararhagin-C (disintegrin-like/cysteine-rich domains of jararhagin). In opposition, BnP1 did not accumulate in the tissues.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

These results show a particular tissue distribution of hemorrhagic toxins accumulating at the basement membrane. This probably occurs through binding to collagens, which are drastically hydrolyzed at the sites of hemorrhagic lesions. Toxin accumulation near blood vessels explains enhanced catalysis of basement membrane components, resulting in the strong hemorrhagic activity of SVMPs. This is a novel mechanism that underlies the difference between hemorrhagic and non-hemorrhagic SVMPs, improving the understanding of snakebite pathology.

Cell death induced by Bothrops asper snake venom metalloproteinase on endothelial and other cell lines

Two adherent cell lines, BAEC and HeLa, and non-adherent Jurkat, were treated with snake venom metalloproteinase BaP1 to determine whether cytotoxicity, previously reported for this toxin, could be mediated by the process of anoikis. It was observed that there was no correlation between the ability of this toxin to induce loss of adherence, and the cytotoxic effect, since concentrations that do not induce loss of adherence (3-6 microg/mL), were able to trigger 50% of cytotoxicity in BAEC. In the case of HeLa, where toxicity was very low (less than 20% at maximun concentrations and times of exposure), significant detachment and no toxicity was observed at concentrations of 1.5 microg/mL, showing also no correlation between both events. We also observed differences between BAEC toxicity measured by XTT reduction and DNA fragmentation determined by flow cytometry (as an indicator of apoptosis), since concentrations that induce 100% of cytotoxicity barely showed any DNA fragmentation (12% at 24h), suggesting that if apoptosis was involved, DNA damage is still not present, although chromatin condensation, another indicator of apoptosis, is observed in 40% of the cells. Inhibition of BAEC cytotoxicity by caspase inhibitors indicate that apoptosis is playing a role in this process, but other mechanisms of cell death could be participating also. Another way to determine whether the mechanism of cell death was related to anoikis was using a non-adherent cell line, which should show substrate independence. We determined by TUNEL that at 50 microg/ml BaP1 triggered 50% of apoptosis at 96 h, an effect that was seen earlier, suggesting also that if this toxin was inducing apoptosis in a non-adherent cell line, the mechanism could not be related to loss of attachment. Cell cycle arrest in S phase was also observed in Jurkat cells, an effect that could be leading to apoptosis. In conclusion, since there was no correlation between cell detachment and cytotoxicity (and apoptosis) in adherent cell lines and due to the ability of BaP1 to induce apoptosis in a non-adherent cell line, we suggest that this enzyme is toxic by a mechanism not related to anoikis, and that in the case of Jurkat cells, it is likely to be related to its ability to induce cell cycle arrest. Processes other than apoptosis could be also involved in the cell death mechanism mediated by BaP1 on BAEC.

Purification and biochemical characterization of a novel hemorrhagic metalloproteinase from horned viper (Cerastes cerastes) venom

Snake venoms contain metalloproteinases that contribute to the local effects observed after envenoming. In this study, a hemorrhagic metalloproteinase (CcH1) was purified from Cerastes cerastes venom by a combination of gel filtration, ion exchange, affinity and RP-HPLC chromatography. The hemorrhagin was homogeneous on SDS-PAGE, with a molecular mass of 25 kDa. Isoelectric focusing revealed a pI of 5.5. CcH1 displayed hemorrhagic and proteolytic activities, but no esterolytic activity. The hemorrhagic and proteolytic activities of CcH1 were inhibited by EDTA and 1,10-phenanthroline, but not by PMSF, suggesting that this protein is a zinc-metalloproteinase. Furthermore, the hemorrhagic and proteolytic activities of CcH1 were stable in solution at up to 40 degrees C, with a loss of activity at > or =70 degrees C. The molecular mass and the inhibition assays suggest that the metalloproteinase CcH1 belongs to class P-I of SVMPs.

Use of SILAC for exploring sheddase and matrix degradation of fibroblasts in culture by the PIII SVMP atrolysin A: Identification of two novel substrates with functional relevance

Snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) in Viperid venoms primarily function to give rise to local and systemic hemorrhage following snake envenomation. Years of research on these toxins, both in vitro and in vivo, indicate that they function by disrupting capillary basement membranes, stromal matrix and cell-cell and cell-matrix contacts to allow escape of capillary contents under pressure. However, most of these studies used either defined substrates in vitro or were limited by relevant antibodies for detection of sites of action in vivo. In this investigation we use stable isotope-labeled amino acids in culture (SILAC) to determine novel proteolytic activities for exogenously added atrolysin A, a hemorrhagic PIII SVMP isolated from Crotalus atrox venom. When comparing the solubilized products of SILAC-labeled cultured human fibroblasts treated with atrolysin A to that of untreated fibroblasts using LC/MS/MS, several proteins were identified as being released into the culture media specifically due to atrolysin A proteolytic activity. These included collagen VI, fibronectin, fibulin 2 and annexin V. Of particular interest was the observation of collagen VI and annexin V in that the release of these substrates could play a role in altering hemostasis and promote hemorrhage caused by the more typical actions of atrolysin A. In summary, this study demonstrates the utility of SILAC for exploring sheddase activity with cells in culture and suggests the presence of two novel substrates for SVMPs that may play a pathological role in altering host hemostasis during envenomation.