Quantitative profiling of the in vivo enzymatic activity of ricin reveals disparate depurination of different pulmonary cell types

A Monoclonal Antibody with a High Affinity for Ricin Isoforms D and E Provides Strong Protection against Ricin Poisoning

Ricin is a highly potent toxin that has been used in various attempts at bioterrorism worldwide. Although a vaccine for preventing ricin poisoning (RiVax™) is in clinical development, there are currently no commercially available prophylaxis or treatments for ricin intoxication. Numerous studies have highlighted the potential of passive immunotherapy using anti-ricin monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and have shown promising results in preclinical models. In this article, we describe the neutralizing and protective efficacy of a new generation of high-affinity anti-ricin mAbs, which bind and neutralize very efficiently both ricin isoforms D and E in vitro through cytotoxicity cell assays. In vivo, protection assay revealed that one of these mAbs (RicE5) conferred over 90% survival in a murine model challenged intranasally with a 5 LD50 of ricin and treated by intravenous administration of the mAbs 6 h post-intoxication. Notably, a 35% survival rate was observed even when treatment was administered 24 h post-exposure. Moreover, all surviving mice exhibited long-term immunity to high ricin doses. These findings offer promising results for the clinical development of a therapeutic candidate against ricin intoxication and may also pave the way for novel vaccination strategies against ricin or other toxins.

Inflammatory Profiles Induced by Intranasal Immunization with Ricin Toxin-immune Complexes

The underlying contribution of immune complexes in modulating adaptive immunity in mucosal tissues remains poorly understood. In this report, we examined, in mice, the proinflammatory response elicited by intranasal delivery of the biothreat agent ricin toxin (RT) in association with two toxin-neutralizing mAbs, SylH3 and PB10. We previously demonstrated that ricin-immune complexes (RICs) induce the rapid onset of high-titer toxin-neutralizing Abs that persist for months. We now demonstrate that such responses are dependent on CD4+ T cell help, because treatment of mice with an anti-CD4 mAb abrogated the onset of RT-specific Abs following intranasal RICs exposure. To define the inflammatory environment associated with RIC exposure, we collected bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and sera from mice 6, 12, and 18 h after they had received RT or RICs by the intranasal route. A 32-plex cytometric bead array revealed an inflammatory profile elicited by RT that was dominated by IL-6 (>1500-fold increase in BALF) and secondarily by KC (CXCL1), G-CSF, GM-CSF, and MCP-1. RICs induced inflammatory profiles in both BALF and serum response that were similar to RT, albeit at markedly reduced levels. These results demonstrate that RICs retain the capacity to induce local and systemic inflammatory cytokines/chemokines that, in turn, may influence Ag sampling and presentation in the lung mucosa and draining lymph nodes. A better understanding of the fate of immune complexes following intranasal delivery has implications for the development of mucosal vaccines for biothreats and emerging infectious diseases.

Short- and long-term outcomes of pulmonary exposure to a sublethal dose of ricin in mice

Ricin, an extremely potent toxin produced from the seeds of castor plant, Ricinus communis, is ribosome-inactivating protein that blocks cell-protein synthesis. It is considered a biological threat due to worldwide availability of castor beans, massive quantities as a by-product of castor oil production, high stability and ease of production. The consequence of exposure to lethal dose of ricin was extensively described in various animal models. However, it is assumed that in case of aerosolized ricin bioterror attack, the majority of individuals would be exposed to sublethal doses rather than to lethal ones. Therefore, the purpose of current study was to assess short- and long-term effects on physiological parameters and function following sublethal pulmonary exposure. We show that in the short-term, sublethal exposure of mice to ricin resulted in acute lung injury, including interstitial pneumonia, cytokine storm, neutrophil influx, edema and cellular death. This damage was manifested in reduced lung performance and physiological function. Interestingly, although in the long-term, mice recovered from acute lung damage and restored pulmonary and physiological functionality, the reparative process was associated with lasting fibrotic lesions. Therefore, restriction of short-term acute phase of the disease and management of long-term pulmonary fibrosis by medical countermeasures is expected to facilitate the quality of life of exposed survivors.

Long-Term Pulmonary Damage in Surviving Antitoxin-Treated Mice following a Lethal Ricin Intoxication

Ricin, a highly potent plant-derived toxin, is considered a potential bioterrorism weapon due to its pronounced toxicity, high availability, and ease of preparation. Acute damage following pulmonary ricinosis is characterized by local cytokine storm, massive neutrophil infiltration, and edema formation, resulting in respiratory insufficiency and death. A designated equine polyclonal antibody-based (antitoxin) treatment was developed in our laboratory and proved efficacious in alleviating lung injury and increasing survival rates. Although short-term pathogenesis was thoroughly characterized in antitoxin-treated mice, the long-term damage in surviving mice was never determined. In this study, long-term consequences of ricin intoxication were evaluated 30 days post-exposure in mice that survived antitoxin treatment. Significant pulmonary sequelae were demonstrated in surviving antitoxin-treated mice, as reflected by prominent histopathological changes, moderate fibrosis, increased lung hyperpermeability, and decreased lung compliance. The presented data highlight, for the first time to our knowledge, the possibility of long-term damage development in mice that survived lethal-dose pulmonary exposure to ricin due to antitoxin treatment.

Comparative Aspects of Ricin Toxicity by Inhalation

The pathogenesis of ricin toxicity following inhalation has been investigated in many animal models, including the non-human primate (predominantly the rhesus macaque), pig, rabbit and rodent. The toxicity and associated pathology described in animal models are broadly similar, but variation appears to exist. This paper reviews the published literature and some of our own unpublished data and describes some of the possible reasons for this variation. Methodological variation is evident, including method of exposure, breathing parameters during exposure, aerosol characteristics, sampling protocols, ricin cultivar, purity and challenge dose and study duration. The model species and strain used represent other significant sources of variation, including differences in macro- and microscopic anatomy, cell biology and function, and immunology. Chronic pathology of ricin toxicity by inhalation, associated with sublethal challenge or lethal challenge and treatment with medical countermeasures, has received less attention in the literature. Fibrosis may follow acute lung injury in survivors. There are advantages and disadvantages to the different models of pulmonary fibrosis. To understand their potential clinical significance, these factors need to be considered when choosing a model for chronic ricin toxicity by inhalation, including species and strain susceptibility to fibrosis, time it takes for fibrosis to develop, the nature of the fibrosis (e.g., self-limiting, progressive, persistent or resolving) and ensuring that the analysis truly represents fibrosis. Understanding the variables and comparative aspects of acute and chronic ricin toxicity by inhalation is important to enable meaningful comparison of results from different studies, and for the investigation of medical countermeasures.

Characterization of Lung Injury following Abrin Pulmonary Intoxication in Mice: Comparison to Ricin Poisoning

Abrin is a highly toxic protein obtained from the seeds of the rosary pea plant Abrus precatorius, and it is closely related to ricin in terms of its structure and chemical properties. Both toxins inhibit ribosomal function, halt protein synthesis and lead to cellular death. The major clinical manifestations following pulmonary exposure to these toxins consist of severe lung inflammation and consequent respiratory insufficiency. Despite the high similarity between abrin and ricin in terms of disease progression, the ability to protect mice against these toxins by postexposure antibody-mediated treatment differs significantly, with a markedly higher level of protection achieved against abrin intoxication. In this study, we conducted an in-depth comparison between the kinetics of in vivo abrin and ricin intoxication in a murine model. The data demonstrated differential binding of abrin and ricin to the parenchymal cells of the lungs. Accordingly, toxin-mediated injury to the nonhematopoietic compartment was shown to be markedly lower in the case of abrin intoxication. Thus, profiling of alveolar epithelial cells demonstrated that although toxin-induced damage was restricted to alveolar epithelial type II cells following abrin intoxication, as previously reported for ricin, it was less pronounced. Furthermore, unlike following ricin intoxication, no direct damage was detected in the lung endothelial cell population following abrin exposure. Reduced impairment of intercellular junction molecules following abrin intoxication was detected as well. In contrast, similar damage to the endothelial surface glycocalyx layer was observed for the two toxins. We assume that the reduced damage to the lung stroma, which maintains a higher level of tissue integrity following pulmonary exposure to abrin compared to ricin, contributes to the high efficiency of the anti-abrin antibody treatment at late time points after exposure.

Differential ER stress as a driver of cell fate following ricin toxin exposure

Inhalation of trace amounts of ricin toxin, a plant-derived ribosome-inactivating protein, results in ablation of alveolar macrophages, widespread epithelial damage, and the onset of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). While ricin's receptors are ubiquitous, certain cell types are more sensitive to ricin-induced cell death than others for reasons that remain unclear. For example, we demonstrate in side-by-side studies that macrophage-like differentiated THP-1 (dTHP-1) cells are hyper-sensitive to ricin, while lung epithelium-derived A549 cells are relatively insensitive, even though both cell types experience similar degrees of translational inhibition and p38 MAPK activation in response to ricin. Using a variety of small molecule inhibitors, we provide evidence that ER stress contributes to ricin-mediated cytotoxicity of dTHP-1 cells, but not A549 cells. On the other hand, the insensitivity of A549 cells to ricin was overcome by the addition of (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL; CD253), a known stimulator of extrinsic programmed cell death. These results have implications for understanding the complex pathophysiology of ricin-induced ARDS in that they demonstrate that intrinsic (e.g., ER stress) and extrinsic (e.g., TRAIL) factors may ultimately determine the fate of specific cell types following ricin intoxication.

Mice with induced pulmonary morbidities display severe lung inflammation and mortality following exposure to SARS-CoV-2

Mice are normally unaffected by SARS coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection since the virus does not bind effectively to the murine version of the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor molecule. Here, we report that induced mild pulmonary morbidities rendered SARS-CoV-2–refractive CD-1 mice susceptible to this virus. Specifically, SARS-CoV-2 infection after application of low doses of the acute lung injury stimulants bleomycin or ricin caused severe disease in CD-1 mice, manifested by sustained body weight loss and mortality rates greater than 50%. Further studies revealed markedly higher levels of viral RNA in the lungs, heart, and serum of low-dose ricin–pretreated mice compared with non-pretreated mice. Furthermore, lung extracts prepared 2–3 days after viral infection contained subgenomic mRNA and virus particles capable of replication only when derived from the pretreated mice. The deleterious effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection were effectively alleviated by passive transfer of polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies generated against the SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain (RBD). Thus, viral cell entry in the sensitized mice seems to depend on viral RBD binding, albeit by a mechanism other than the canonical ACE2-mediated uptake route. This unique mode of viral entry, observed over a mildly injured tissue background, may contribute to the exacerbation of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pathologies in patients with preexisting morbidities.

Analysis of the microRNA and mRNA expression profile of ricin toxin-treated RAW264.7 cells reveals that miR-155-3p suppresses cell inflammation by targeting GAB2

Ricin toxin (RT) is one of the most lethal toxins derived from the seed of castor beans. In addition to its main toxic mechanism of inhibiting the synthesis of cellular proteins, RT can induce the production of inflammatory cytokines. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play a key role in regulating both innate and adaptive immunity. To elucidate the regulation of miRNAs in RT-induced inflammation injury, the RNA high-throughput sequencing (RNA-Seq) technology was used to analyze the expression profile of miRNAs and mRNAs in RT-treated RAW264.7 cells. Results showed that a total of 323 mRNAs and 19 miRNAs differentially expressed after RT treated. Meanwhile, 713 miRNA-mRNA interaction pairs were identified by bioinformatics analysis. KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) pathway analysis showed that those interaction pairs were mainly involved in JAK-STAT, T cell receptor, and MAPK signaling pathways. Moreover, we further predicted and determined the targeting relationship between miR-155-3p and GAB2 through TargetScan and dual-luciferase reporter assay. Mechanically, overexpression of miR-155-3p can reduce the secretion of TNF-α in RAW264.7 cells, revealing a possible mechanism of miR-155-3p regulating RT-induced inflammatory injury. This study provides a new perspective for clarifying the mechanism of RT-induced inflammatory injury and reveals the potential role of miRNAs in innate immune regulation.

The low density receptor-related protein 1 plays a significant role in ricin-mediated intoxication of lung cells

Ricin, a highly lethal plant-derived toxin, is a potential biological threat agent due to its high availability, ease of production and the lack of approved medical countermeasures for post-exposure treatment. To date, no specific ricin receptors were identified. Here we show for the first time, that the low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-1 (LRP1) is a major target molecule for binding of ricin. Pretreating HEK293 acetylcholinesterase-producer cells with either anti-LRP1 antibodies or with Receptor-Associated Protein (a natural LRP1 antagonist), or using siRNA to knock-down LRP1 expression resulted in a marked reduction in their sensitivity towards ricin. Binding assays further demonstrated that ricin bound exclusively to the cluster II binding domain of LRP1, via the ricin B subunit. Ricin binding to the cluster II binding domain of LRP1 was significantly reduced by an anti-ricin monoclonal antibody, which confers high-level protection to ricin pulmonary-exposed mice. Finally, we tested the contribution of LRP1 receptor to ricin intoxication of lung cells derived from mice. Treating these cells with anti-LRP1 antibody prior to ricin exposure, prevented their intoxication. Taken together, our findings clearly demonstrate that the LRP1 receptor plays an important role in ricin-induced pulmonary intoxications.

Post-Exposure Anti-Ricin Treatment Protects Swine Against Lethal Systemic and Pulmonary Exposures

Ricin, a plant-derived toxin originating from the seeds of Ricinus communis (castor bean plant), is one of the most lethal toxins known. To date, there is no approved post-exposure therapy for ricin exposures. This work demonstrates for the first time the therapeutic efficacy of equine-derived anti-ricin F(ab’)₂ antibodies against lethal pulmonary and systemic ricin exposures in swine. While administration of the antitoxin at 18 h post-exposure protected more than 80% of both intratracheally and intramuscularly ricin-intoxicated swine, treatment at 24 h post-exposure protected 58% of the intramuscular-exposed swine, as opposed to 26% of the intratracheally exposed animals. Quantitation of the anti-ricin neutralizing units in the anti-toxin preparations confirmed that the disparate protection conferred to swine subjected to the two routes of exposure stems from variance between the two models. Furthermore, dose response experiments showed that approximately 3 times lesser amounts of antibody are needed for high-level protection of the intramuscularly compared to the intratracheally intoxicated swine. This study, which demonstrates the high-level post-exposure efficacy of anti-ricin antitoxin at clinically relevant time-points in a large animal model, can serve as the basis for the formulation of post-exposure countermeasures against ricin poisoning in humans.

Mapping Immunodominant Antibody Epitopes of Abrin

Abrin, a toxin isolated from the seeds of Abrus precatorius (jequirity pea) is considered a biological threat agent by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention. To date, there is no effective postexposure treatment for abrin poisoning, and efforts are being made to develop an efficient vaccine and measures for postexposure therapy. Epitope mapping is widely applied as an efficient tool for discovering the antigenic moieties of toxins, thus providing invaluable information needed for the development of vaccines and therapies. Aiming to identify the immunodominant epitopes of abrin, several neutralizing antiabrin polyclonal antibodies were screened using a set of 15-mer peptides spanning the amino acid sequence of either the A or B subunits of abrin. Analysis of the antibody-binding pattern revealed 11 linear epitopes for the A subunit and 14 epitopes for the B subunit that are located on the surface of the toxin and thus accessible for antibody interactions. Moreover, the spatial location of several of these epitopes suggests they may block the galactose-binding pockets or the catalytic domain, thus neutralizing the toxin. These findings provide useful information and suggest a possible strategy for the development and design of an improved abrin-based vaccine and therapeutic antibodies.

Equal Neutralization Potency of Antibodies Raised against Abrin Subunits

Abrin and ricin are potent AB toxins, which are considered biological threats. To date, there are no approved treatments against abrin or ricin intoxications. Previously, we showed that the administration of polyclonal anti-abrin antibodies to mice that were intranasally exposed to abrin, even very late post-exposure, conferred an exceedingly high-level of protection, while following ricin intoxication, similar treatment with anti-ricin antibodies resulted in negligible survival rates. To probe this unexpected difference in protection ability, we first examined whether the efficient anti-abrin-induced protection was due to neutralization of the A-subunit responsible for the catalytic effect, or of the B-subunit, which enables binding/internalization, by evaluating the protection conferred by antibodies directed against one of the two subunits. To this end, we generated and immunized rabbits with chimeric toxins containing a single abrin subunit, A_abrinB_ricin in which abrin A-subunit was linked to ricin B-subunit, and A_ricinB_abrin in which ricin A-subunit is linked to abrin B-subunit. Here, we show that antibodies raised against either A_abrinB_ricin or A_ricinB_abrin conferred exceptionally high protection levels to mice following intranasal exposure to a a lethal dose of abrin, suggesting that the high level of protection conferred by anti-abrin antibodies is not related to the neutralization of a particular subunit.

An intranasally administered monoclonal antibody cocktail abrogates ricin toxin-induced pulmonary tissue damage and inflammation

Ricin toxin, a plant-derived, mannosylated glycoprotein, elicits an incapacitating and potentially lethal inflammatory response in the airways following inhalation. Uptake of ricin by alveolar macrophages (AM) and other pulmonary cell types occurs via two parallel pathways: one mediated by ricin's B subunit (RTB), a galactose-specific lectin, and one mediated by the mannose receptor (MR;CD206). Ricin's A subunit (RTA) is a ribosome-inactivating protein that triggers apoptosis in mammalian cells. It was recently reported that a single monoclonal antibody (MAb), PB10, directed against an immunodominant epitope on RTA and administered intravenously, was able to rescue Rhesus macaques from lethal aerosol dose of ricin. In this study, we now demonstrate in mice that the effectiveness PB10 is significantly improved when combined with a second MAb, SylH3, against RTB. Mice treated with PB10 alone survived lethal-dose intranasal ricin challenge, but experienced significant weight loss, moderate pulmonary inflammation (e.g., elevated IL-1 and IL-6 levels, PMN influx), and apoptosis of lung macrophages. In contrast, mice treated with the PB10/SylH3 cocktail were essentially impervious to pulmonary ricin toxin exposure, as evidenced by no weight loss, no change in local IL-1 and IL-6 levels, retention of lung macrophages, and a significant dampening of PMN recruitment into the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluids. The PB10/SylH3 cocktail only marginally reduced ricin binding to target cells in the BAL, suggesting that the antibody mixture neutralizes ricin by interfering with one or more steps in the RTB- and MR-dependent uptake pathways.

Fluorescently probing site-specific and self-catalyzed DNA depurination

Depurination occurs via hydrolysis of the purine-deoxyribose glycosyl bond and causes nucleic acid damage. In particular, the DNA sequences that can undergo a self-catalyzed depurination (SCD) will cause a great uncertainty in duplicating, separating, purifying, and storing the DNA samples. Therefore, there is a great demand to develop a rapid detection method for SCD events. Herein, the use of a convenient fluorescence method to follow the site-specific SCD was demonstrated. We found that the resultant apurine site (AP site) from depurination can be selectively recognized by a fluorescent probe of palmatine (PAL) with a turn-on fluorescence response. The dependence of SCD on the bases of the depurination site, pH, metal ions, and time shows that our method can be used to rapidly evaluate the depurination process. Furthermore, the depurination process can be photo-switched using a photoacid as an external initiator. Our work will find wide applications in preliminarily identifying the DNA depurination.

TNF Family Cytokines Induce Distinct Cell Death Modalities in the A549 Human Lung Epithelial Cell Line when Administered in Combination with Ricin Toxin

Ricin is a member of the ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP) family of toxins and is classified as a biothreat agent by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Inhalation, the most potent route of toxicity, triggers an acute respiratory distress-like syndrome that coincides with near complete destruction of the lung epithelium. We previously demonstrated that the TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL; CD253) sensitizes human lung epithelial cells to ricin-induced death. Here, we report that ricin/TRAIL-mediated cell death occurs via apoptosis and involves caspases -3, -7, -8, and -9, but not caspase-6. In addition, we show that two other TNF family members, TNF-α and Fas ligand (FasL), also sensitize human lung epithelial cells to ricin-induced death. While ricin/TNF-α- and ricin/FasL-mediated killing of A549 cells was inhibited by the pan-caspase inhibitor, zVAD-fmk, evidence suggests that these pathways were not caspase-dependent apoptosis. We also ruled out necroptosis and pyroptosis. Rather, the combination of ricin plus TNF-α or FasL induced cathepsin-dependent cell death, as evidenced by the use of several pharmacologic inhibitors. We postulate that the effects of zVAD-fmk were due to the molecule’s known off-target effects on cathepsin activity. This work demonstrates that ricin-induced lung epithelial cell killing occurs by distinct cell death pathways dependent on the presence of different sensitizing cytokines, TRAIL, TNF-α, or FasL.

LC-HRMS Screening and Identification of Novel Peptide Markers of Ricin Based on Multiple Protease Digestion Strategies

Both ricin and R. communisagglutinin (RCA120), belonging to the type II ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs-Ⅱ), are derived from the seeds of the castor bean plant. They share very similar amino acid sequences, but ricin is much more toxic than RCA120. It is urgently necessary to distinguish ricin and RCA120 in response to public safety. Currently, mass spectrometric assays are well established for unambiguous identification of ricin by accurate analysis of differentiated amino acid residues after trypsin digestion. However, diagnostic peptides are relatively limited for unambiguous identification of trace ricin, especially in complex matrices. Here, we demonstrate a digestion strategy of multiple proteinases to produce novel peptide markers for unambiguous identification of ricin. Liquid chromatography-high resolution MS (LC-HRMS) was used to verify the resulting peptides, among which only the peptides with uniqueness and good MS response were selected as peptide markers. Seven novel peptide markers were obtained from tandem digestion of trypsin and endoproteinase Glu-C in PBS buffer. From the chymotrypsin digestion under reduction and non-reduction conditions, eight and seven novel peptides were selected respectively. Using pepsin under pH 1~2 and proteinase K digestion, six and five peptides were selected as novel peptide markers. In conclusion, the obtained novel peptides from the established digestion methods can be recommended for the unambiguous identification of ricin during the investigation of illegal use of the toxin.

Intracellular Transport and Cytotoxicity of the Protein Toxin Ricin

Ricin can be isolated from the seeds of the castor bean plant (Ricinus communis). It belongs to the ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP) family of toxins classified as a bio-threat agent due to its high toxicity, stability and availability. Ricin is a typical A-B toxin consisting of a single enzymatic A subunit (RTA) and a binding B subunit (RTB) joined by a single disulfide bond. RTA possesses an RNA N-glycosidase activity; it cleaves ribosomal RNA leading to the inhibition of protein synthesis. However, the mechanism of ricin-mediated cell death is quite complex, as a growing number of studies demonstrate that the inhibition of protein synthesis is not always correlated with long term ricin toxicity. To exert its cytotoxic effect, ricin A-chain has to be transported to the cytosol of the host cell. This translocation is preceded by endocytic uptake of the toxin and retrograde traffic through the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In this article, we describe intracellular trafficking of ricin with particular emphasis on host cell factors that facilitate this transport and contribute to ricin cytotoxicity in mammalian and yeast cells. The current understanding of the mechanisms of ricin-mediated cell death is discussed as well. We also comment on recent reports presenting medical applications for ricin and progress associated with the development of vaccines against this toxin.

Intramuscular Ricin Poisoning of Mice Leads to Widespread Damage in the Heart, Spleen, and Bone Marrow

Ricin, a lethal toxin derived from castor oil beans, is a potential bio-threat due to its high availability and simplicity of preparation. Ricin is prepared according to simple recipes available on the internet, and was recently considered in terrorist, suicide, or homicide attempts involving the parenteral route of exposure. In-depth study of the morbidity developing from parenteral ricin poisoning is mandatory for tailoring appropriate therapeutic measures to mitigate ricin toxicity in such instances. The present study applies various biochemical, hematological, histopathological, molecular, and functional approaches to broadly investigate the systemic effects of parenteral intoxication by a lethal dose of ricin in a murine model. Along with prompt coagulopathy, multi-organ hemorrhages, and thrombocytopenia, ricin induced profound morpho-pathological and functional damage in the spleen, bone marrow, and cardiovascular system. In the heart, diffuse hemorrhages, myocyte necrosis, collagen deposition, and induction in fibrinogen were observed. Severe functional impairment was manifested by marked thickening of the left ventricular wall, decreased ventricular volume, and a significant reduction in stroke volume and cardiac output. Unexpectedly, the differential severity of the ricin-induced damage did not correlate with the respective ricin-dependent catalytic activity measured in the various organs. These findings emphasize the complexity of ricin toxicity and stress the importance of developing novel therapeutic strategies that will combine not only anti-ricin specific therapy, but also will target ricin-induced indirect disturbances.

Whole-Cell Multiparameter Assay for Ricin and Abrin Activity-Based Digital Holographic Microscopy

Ricin and abrin are ribosome-inactivating proteins leading to inhibition of protein synthesis and cell death. These toxins are considered some of the most potent and lethal toxins against which there is no available antidote. Digital holographic microscopy (DHM) is a time-lapse, label-free, and noninvasive imaging technique that can provide phase information on morphological features of cells. In this study, we employed DHM to evaluate the morphological changes of cell lines during ricin and abrin intoxication. We showed that the effect of these toxins is characterized by a decrease in cell confluence and changes in morphological parameters such as cell area, perimeter, irregularity, and roughness. In addition, changes in optical parameters such as phase-shift, optical thickness, and effective-calculated volume were observed. These effects were completely inhibited by specific neutralizing antibodies. An enhanced intoxication effect was observed for preadherent compared to adherent cells, as was detected in early morphology changes and confirmed by annexin V/propidium iodide (PI) apoptosis assay. Detection of the dynamic changes in cell morphology at initial stages of cell intoxication by DHM emphasizes the highly sensitive and rapid nature of this method, allowing the early detection of active toxins.

Biological Toxins as the Potential Tools for Bioterrorism

Biological toxins are a heterogeneous group produced by living organisms. One dictionary defines them as "Chemicals produced by living organisms that have toxic properties for another organism". Toxins are very attractive to terrorists for use in acts of bioterrorism. The first reason is that many biological toxins can be obtained very easily. Simple bacterial culturing systems and extraction equipment dedicated to plant toxins are cheap and easily available, and can even be constructed at home. Many toxins affect the nervous systems of mammals by interfering with the transmission of nerve impulses, which gives them their high potential in bioterrorist attacks. Others are responsible for blockage of main cellular metabolism, causing cellular death. Moreover, most toxins act very quickly and are lethal in low doses (LD50 < 25 mg/kg), which are very often lower than chemical warfare agents. For these reasons we decided to prepare this review paper which main aim is to present the high potential of biological toxins as factors of bioterrorism describing the general characteristics, mechanisms of action and treatment of most potent biological toxins. In this paper we focused on six most danger toxins: botulinum toxin, staphylococcal enterotoxins, Clostridium perfringens toxins, ricin, abrin and T-2 toxin. We hope that this paper will help in understanding the problem of availability and potential of biological toxins.

Rescue of rhesus macaques from the lethality of aerosolized ricin toxin

Ricin toxin (RT) ranks at the top of the list of bioweapons of concern to civilian and military personnel alike, due to its high potential for morbidity and mortality after inhalation. In nonhuman primates, aerosolized ricin triggers severe acute respiratory distress characterized by perivascular and alveolar edema, neutrophilic infiltration, and severe necrotizing bronchiolitis and alveolitis. There are currently no approved countermeasures for ricin intoxication. Here, we report the therapeutic potential of a humanized mAb against an immunodominant epitope on ricin's enzymatic A chain (RTA). Rhesus macaques that received i.v. huPB10 4 hours after a lethal dose of ricin aerosol exposure survived toxin challenge, whereas control animals succumbed to ricin intoxication within 30 hours. Antibody intervention at 12 hours resulted in the survival of 1 of 5 monkeys. Changes in proinflammatory cytokine, chemokine, and growth factor profiles in bronchial alveolar lavage fluids before and after toxin challenge successfully clustered animals by treatment group and survival, indicating a relationship between local tissue damage and experimental outcome. This study represents the first demonstration, to our knowledge, in nonhuman primates that the lethal effects of inhalational ricin exposure can be negated by a drug candidate, and it opens up a path forward for product development.

Early disruption of the alveolar-capillary barrier in a ricin-induced ARDS mouse model: neutrophil-dependent and -independent impairment of junction proteins

Irrespective of its diverse etiologies, acute lung injury (ALI)/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) leads to increased permeability of the alveolar-capillary barrier, which in turn promotes edema formation and respiratory failure. We investigated the mechanism of ALI/ARDS lung hyperpermeability triggered by pulmonary exposure of mice to the highly toxic plant-derived toxin ricin. One prominent hallmark of ricin-mediated pulmonary intoxication is the rapid and massive influx of neutrophils to the lungs, where they contribute to the developing inflammation yet may also cause tissue damage, thereby promoting ricin-mediated morbidity. Here we show that pulmonary exposure of mice to ricin results in the rapid diminution of the junction proteins VE-cadherin, claudin 5, and connexin 43, belonging, respectively, to the adherens, tight, and gap junction protein families. Depletion of neutrophils in ricin-intoxicated mice attenuated the damage caused to these junction proteins, alleviated pulmonary edema, and significantly postponed the time to death of the intoxicated mice. Inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity recapitulated the response to neutrophil depletion observed in ricin-intoxicated mice and was associated with decreased insult to the junction proteins and alveolar-capillary barrier. However, neutrophil-mediated MMP activity was not the sole mechanism responsible for pulmonary hyperpermeability, as exemplified by the ricin-mediated disruption of claudin 18, via a neutrophil-independent mechanism involving tyrosine phosphorylation. This in-depth study of the early stage mechanisms governing pulmonary tissue integrity during ALI/ARDS is expected to facilitate the tailoring of novel therapeutic approaches for the treatment of these diseases.

TRAIL (CD253) Sensitizes Human Airway Epithelial Cells to Toxin-Induced Cell Death

Ricin toxin is a biothreat agent that is particularly damaging to lung tissue following inhalation. A hallmark of ricin exposure is widespread inflammation and concomitant destruction of the airway epithelium. In this study, we investigated the possible interaction between ricin and known proinflammatory cytokines associated with lung tissue. Using an established human airway epithelial cell line, we demonstrate that epithelial cell killing by ricin is significantly enhanced in the presence of the proinflammatory cytokine known as TRAIL (CD253). Moreover, epithelial cells that are simultaneously exposed to ricin and TRAIL produced large amounts of secondary proinflammatory signals, including IL-6, which in the context of the lung would be expected to exacerbate toxin-induced tissue damage. Our results suggest that therapies designed to neutralize proinflammatory cytokines such as TRAIL and IL-6 may limit the bystander damage associated with ricin exposure.

Inhalation of ricin toxin is associated with the onset of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), characterized by hemorrhage, inflammatory exudates, and tissue edema, as well as the nearly complete destruction of the lung epithelium. Here we report that the Calu-3 human airway epithelial cell line is relatively impervious to the effects of ricin, with little evidence of cell death even upon exposure to microgram amounts of toxin. However, the addition of exogenous soluble tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL; CD253) dramatically sensitized Calu-3 cells to ricin-induced apoptosis. Calu-3 cell killing in response to ricin and TRAIL exposure was partially inhibited by caspase-8 and caspase-3/7 inhibitors, consistent with involvement of extrinsic apoptotic pathways in cell death. We employed nCounter Technology to define the transcriptional response of Calu-3 cells to ricin, TRAIL, and the combination of ricin plus TRAIL. An array of genes associated with inflammation and cell death were significantly upregulated upon treatment with ricin toxin and were further amplified upon addition of TRAIL. Of particular note was interleukin-6 (IL-6), whose expression in Calu-3 cells increased 300-fold upon ricin treatment and more than 750-fold upon ricin and TRAIL treatment. IL-6 secretion by Calu-3 cells was confirmed by cytometric bead array analysis. On the basis of these finding, we speculate that the severe airway epithelial cell damage observed in animal models following ricin exposure is a result of a positive-feedback loop driven by proinflammatory cytokines such as TRAIL and IL-6.

IMPORTANCE Ricin toxin is a biothreat agent that is particularly damaging to lung tissue following inhalation. A hallmark of ricin exposure is widespread inflammation and concomitant destruction of the airway epithelium. In this study, we investigated the possible interaction between ricin and known proinflammatory cytokines associated with lung tissue. Using an established human airway epithelial cell line, we demonstrate that epithelial cell killing by ricin is significantly enhanced in the presence of the proinflammatory cytokine known as TRAIL (CD253). Moreover, epithelial cells that are simultaneously exposed to ricin and TRAIL produced large amounts of secondary proinflammatory signals, including IL-6, which in the context of the lung would be expected to exacerbate toxin-induced tissue damage. Our results suggest that therapies designed to neutralize proinflammatory cytokines such as TRAIL and IL-6 may limit the bystander damage associated with ricin exposure.

Novel Phage Display-Derived Anti-Abrin Antibodies Confer Post-Exposure Protection against Abrin Intoxication

Abrin toxin is a type 2 ribosome inactivating glycoprotein isolated from the seeds of Abrus precatorius (jequirity pea). Owing to its high toxicity, relative ease of purification and accessibility, it is considered a biological threat agent. To date, there is no effective post-exposure treatment for abrin poisoning and passive immunization remains the most effective therapy. However, the effectiveness of anti-abrin monoclonal antibodies for post-exposure therapy following abrin intoxication has not been demonstrated. The aim of this study was to isolate high affinity anti-abrin antibodies that possess potent toxin-neutralization capabilities. An immune scFv phage-display library was constructed from an abrin-immunized rabbit and a panel of antibodies (six directed against the A subunit of abrin and four against the B subunit) was isolated and expressed as scFv-Fc antibodies. By pair-wise analysis, we found that these antibodies target five distinct epitopes on the surface of abrin and that antibodies against all these sites can bind the toxin simultaneously. Several of these antibodies (namely, RB9, RB10, RB28 and RB30) conferred high protection against pulmonary intoxication of mice, when administered six hours post exposure to a lethal dose of abrin. The data presented in this study demonstrate for the first time the efficacy of monoclonal antibodies in treatment of mice after pulmonary intoxication with abrin and promote the use of these antibodies, one or several, for post-exposure treatment of abrin intoxication.

Total Body Irradiation Mitigates Inflammation and Extends the Therapeutic Time Window for Anti-Ricin Antibody Treatment against Pulmonary Ricinosis in Mice

Ricin, a highly toxic plant-derived toxin, is considered a potential weapon in biowarfare and bioterrorism due to its pronounced toxicity, high availability, and ease of preparation. Pulmonary exposure to ricin results in the generation of an acute edematous inflammation followed by respiratory insufficiency and death. Massive neutrophil recruitment to the lungs may contribute significantly to ricin-mediated morbidity. In this study, total body irradiation (TBI) served as a non-pharmacological tool to decrease the potential neutrophil-induced lung injury. TBI significantly postponed the time to death of intranasally ricin-intoxicated mice, given that leukopenia remained stable following intoxication. This increase in time to death coincided with a significant reduction in pro-inflammatory marker levels, and led to marked extension of the therapeutic time window for anti-ricin antibody treatment.

A novel swine model of ricin-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome

Pulmonary exposure to the plant toxin ricin leads to respiratory insufficiency and death. To date, in-depth study of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) following pulmonary exposure to toxins is hampered by the lack of an appropriate animal model. To this end, we established the pig as a large animal model for the comprehensive study of the multifarious clinical manifestations of pulmonary ricinosis. Here, we report for the first time, the monitoring of barometric whole body plethysmography for pulmonary function tests in non-anesthetized ricin-treated pigs. Up to 30 h post-exposure, as a result of progressing hypoxemia and to prevent carbon dioxide retention, animals exhibited a compensatory response of elevation in minute volume, attributed mainly to a large elevation in respiratory rate with minimal response in tidal volume. This response was followed by decompensation, manifested by a decrease in minute volume and severe hypoxemia, refractory to oxygen treatment. Radiological evaluation revealed evidence of early diffuse bilateral pulmonary infiltrates while hemodynamic parameters remained unchanged, excluding cardiac failure as an explanation for respiratory insufficiency. Ricin-intoxicated pigs suffered from increased lung permeability accompanied by cytokine storming. Histological studies revealed lung tissue insults that accumulated over time and led to diffuse alveolar damage. Charting the decline in PaO2/FiO2 ratio in a mechanically ventilated pig confirmed that ricin-induced respiratory damage complies with the accepted diagnostic criteria for ARDS. The establishment of this animal model of pulmonary ricinosis should help in the pursuit of efficient medical countermeasures specifically tailored to deal with the respiratory deficiencies stemming from ricin-induced ARDS.