Immune-Based Therapies in Acute Leukemia

Single-cell transcriptomic analysis of the immune microenvironment in pediatric acute leukemia

Relapse and treatment resistance pose significant challenges in the management of pediatric B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) and acute myeloid leukemia (AML). The efficacy of immunotherapy in leukemia remains limited due to factors such as the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) and lack of suitable immunotherapeutic targets. Thus, an in-depth characterization of the TME in pediatric leukemia is warranted to improve the efficacy of immunotherapy. Here, we used single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) to characterize the TME of pediatric B-ALL and AML, focusing specifically on bone-marrow-derived T cells. Moreover, we investigated the transcriptome changes during the initiation, remission, and relapse stages of pediatric AML. Our findings revealed that specific functional expression programs correlated with fluctuations in various T cell subsets, which may be associated with AML progression and relapse. Furthermore, our analysis of cellular communication networks led to the identification of VISTA, CD244, and TIM3 as potential immunotherapeutic targets in pediatric AML. Finally, we detected elevated proportions of γδ T cells and associated functional genes in samples from pediatric patients diagnosed with B-ALL and AML, which could inform the development of novel therapeutic approaches, potentially focusing on γδ T cells.

Advancements in Personalized CAR-T Therapy: Comprehensive Overview of Biomarkers and Therapeutic Targets in Hematological Malignancies

Chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy is a novel anticancer therapy using autologous or allogeneic T-cells. To date, six CAR-T therapies for specific B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL), non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHL), and multiple myeloma (MM) have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Significant barriers to the effectiveness of CAR-T therapy include cytokine release syndrome (CRS), neurotoxicity in the case of Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation (Allo-SCT) graft-versus-host-disease (GVHD), antigen escape, modest antitumor activity, restricted trafficking, limited persistence, the immunosuppressive microenvironment, and senescence and exhaustion of CAR-Ts. Furthermore, cancer drug resistance remains a major problem in clinical practice. CAR-T therapy, in combination with checkpoint blockades and bispecific T-cell engagers (BiTEs) or other drugs, appears to be an appealing anticancer strategy. Many of these agents have shown impressive results, combining efficacy with tolerability. Biomarkers like extracellular vesicles (EVs), cell-free DNA (cfDNA), circulating tumor (ctDNA) and miRNAs may play an important role in toxicity, relapse assessment, and efficacy prediction, and can be implicated in clinical applications of CAR-T therapy and in establishing safe and efficacious personalized medicine. However, further research is required to fully comprehend the particular side effects of immunomodulation, to ascertain the best order and combination of this medication with conventional chemotherapy and targeted therapies, and to find reliable predictive biomarkers.

Antileukemia Activity of Human Natural Killer Cell-Derived Nanomagic Bullets against Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML)

Background: Cancer is among the serious health problems of the medical world, for treatment of which severe treatments are used. However, the prognosis of cancer patients is still poor. The application of NK cell-derived exosomes (NK-Exo) is a new method for cancer immunotherapy. These nanoparticles with a size range of 30-120 nm are a small model of mother cells. In this study, the anti-tumor activity of NK-Exo and LAK-Exo (activated NK cell-derived exosome) against acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is investigated in vitro. Materials and Methods: The MACS method was performed for the separation of NK cells from the buffy coats of healthy donors, and an EXOCIBE kit was used for the isolation of NK-Exo. After treating the KG-1 cell line with different doses of NK-Exo, MTT assay, and annexin V-PE were done to evaluate cell proliferation and apoptosis, respectively, and for confirmation of involved proteins, Real-Time PCR and western blotting were performed. Results: Anti-tumor activity of NK-Exo and LAK-Exo was dose- and time-dependent. Their highest activities were observed following 48 hours of incubation with 50 µg/ml exosome (p<0.0001). However, this cytotoxic activity was also seen over a short period of time with low concentrations of NK-Exo (p<0.05) and LAK-Exo (p<0.001).The cytotoxic effect of LAK-Exo on target cells was significantly higher than NK-EXO. The induction of apoptosis by different pathways was time-point dependent. Total apoptosis was 34.56% and 51.6% after 48 hours of tumor cell coculture with 50µg/ml NK-Exo and LAK-Exo, respectively. Significant expression of CASPASE3, P38, and CYTOCHROME C genes was observed in the cells treated with 50 µg/ml NK-Exo and LAK-Exo. Conclusion: Our study confirmed the antileukemia activity of NK-Exo against AML tumor cells in vitro. Therefore, NK-Exo can be considered as a promising and effective treatment for leukemia therapy.

Prognostic implications of cGAS and STING gene expression in acute myeloid leukemia

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is one of the most threatening hematological malignances. cGAS-STING pathway plays an important role in tumor immunity and development. However, the prognostic role of cGAS-STING pathway in AML remains unknown. Firstly, The expression of cGAS and STING was analyzed by bioinformatics analysis. Subsequently, Bone marrow samples were collected from 120 AML patients and 15 healthy individuals in an independent cohort. The cGAS and STING expression was significantly elevated in AML patients compared with healthy controls. Patients with high cGAS and STING expression had a higher NRAS/KRAS mutation rate and lower complete remission (CR) rate. High cGAS and STING expression was significantly associated with lower overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS). Our findings revealed that the expression levels of cGAS and STING in AML are elevated. High expression of cGAS and STING correlated with worse OS and DFS and may be a useful biomarker for inferior prognosis in AML patients.

Contribution of the TIME in BCP-ALL: the basis for novel approaches therapeutics

The bone marrow (BM) niche is a microenvironment where both immune and non-immune cells functionally interact with hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) and more differentiated progenitors, contributing to the regulation of hematopoiesis. It is regulated by various signaling molecules such as cytokines, chemokines, and adhesion molecules in its microenvironment. However, despite the strict regulation of BM signals to maintain their steady state, accumulating evidence in B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (BCP-ALL) indicates that leukemic cells can disrupt the physiological hematopoietic niche in the BM, creating a new leukemia-supportive microenvironment. This environment favors immunological evasion mechanisms and the interaction of these cells with the development and progression of BCP-ALL. With a growing understanding of the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) in the development and progression of BCP-ALL, current strategies focused on "re-editing" TIME to promote antitumor immunity have been developed. In this review, we summarize how TIME cells are disrupted by the presence of leukemic cells, evading immunosurveillance mechanisms in the BCP-ALL model. We also explore the crosstalk between TIME and leukemic cells that leads to treatment resistance, along with the most promising immuno-therapy strategies. Understanding and further research into the role of the BM microenvironment in leukemia progression and relapse are crucial for developing more effective treatments and reducing patient mortality.

A Review of Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia (ALL) in the Pediatric Population: Evaluating Current Trends and Changes in Guidelines in the Past Decade

Acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) is a commonly diagnosed cancer in children. Despite technological advancements to improve treatment and survival rates, there has been a steady increase in the incidence of ALL and treatment failures. This paper discusses the pathogenic interaction between genetic and environmental factors leading to childhood ALL. It evaluates the current treatment guidelines and notable obstacles leading to resistance, relapse, and treatment toxicities. The review evaluates a 10-year trend in the management guidelines of pediatric ALL through a systematic literature review of records from 2012 to 2023. Findings show that improvement in the five-year survival rates, notwithstanding rates of relapse and incurable diseases, is still high. Furthermore, several risk factors, including an interplay between genetic and environmental factors, are largely contributory to the outcome of ALL treatments and its overall incidence. Moreover, huge financial costs have remained a significant challenge in outcomes. There remains a need to provide individualized treatment plans, shared decision-making, and goals of care as parts of the management guidelines for the best possible outcomes. We expect that future advancements will increase overall survival rates and disease-free years.

Changes in inflammatory responses and autophagy during apheresis platelet preservation and their correlation with platelet transfusion refractoriness in patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is a common hematopoietic malignancy, and platelet transfusion plays a crucial role in its treatment. This study aimed to investigate the changes in inflammatory response and autophagy during the preservation of apheresis platelets (AP) and their correlation with platelet transfusion refractoriness (PTR) in ALL. ALL patients were included, and APs were categorized based on the preservation period (day 0, day 1, days 2-3, and days 4-5). The activation factors procaspase-activating compound 1 (PAC-1) and P-selectin (CD62P), AP aggregation function, inflammation levels (interleukin 1 beta [IL-1β], interleukin 6 [IL-6], tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α] and NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3 [NLRP3]), and autophagy-related genes (p62) during AP preservation were assessed. Following co-culturing APs with peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), specific activation markers were studied to observe APs influence on immune cells activation. The effectiveness of platelet transfusion was assessed, and risk factors for PTR were analyzed. As the storage duration of AP increased, the activation factors, coagulation factor activity, inflammation levels, and the activation of immune cells in AP increased, while fibrinogen levels and AP aggregation function decreased. The expression levels of autophagy-related genes (the autophagy marker light chain 3B gene [LC3B] and Beclin 1 gene) decreased with prolongation preservation. The effective rate of AP transfusion in ALL patients was 68.21%. AP preservation time, IL-6, p62, and Beclin 1 were identified as independent risk factors affecting PTR in ALL patients. In conclusion, during AP preservation, inflammation, autophagy, and activation of immune cells were observed to increase. AP preservation time, IL-6, p62, and Beclin 1 were independent risk factors for PTR.

Muramyl dipeptide CD10 monoclonal antibody immunoconjugates inhibited acute leukemia in nude mice

Minimal residual disease (MRD) is one of the causes of leukemia recurrence. Previously, we developed anti-CD10 mAb conjugated to muramyl dipeptide immunoconjugate (MDP-Ab) for immune enhancement. The present study aimed to investigate anti-leukemia effect of MDP-Ab administered via different methods in leukemia ectopic graft nude mouse model. BALB/c nude mice were injected with Nalm-6 cells subcutaneously to establish leukemia xenografts in nude mice as a model. MDP-Ab or/and human lymphocytes (LYM) was injected into different sites of the nude mice. Immunohistochemistry staining of CDs in the bone marrow, liver and spleen was performed. IFN-γ was detected by ELISA. We detected the metastasis of leukemia cells to the liver, spleen and bone marrow in nude mouse leukemia model. MDP-Ab and LYM inhibited the growth of tumors, and simultaneous injection of MDP-Ab and LYM into the tumor inhibited the growth of tumors. IFN-γ levels in MDP-Ab (ca) + h-LYM (ca) group, MDP-Ab (ca) + h-LYM (ip) group, MDP-Ab (iv) + h-LYM (ip) group and PBS (ca) + h-LYM (ca) group were significantly higher than those in control group, while IFN-γ level in MDP-Ab (ca) + h-LYM (ca) group was the highest. Moreover, MDP-Ab and h-LYM promoted the expression of hCD4 and hCD8, with the highest expression in MDP-Ab (ca) + h-LYM (ca) group. In conclusion, MDP-Ab effectively promoted the production of IFN-γ, enhanced the antitumor immunity of T lymphocytes and inhibited leukemia.

Regional and national burden of leukemia and its attributable burden to risk factors in 21 countries and territories of North Africa and Middle East, 1990-2019: results from the GBD study 2019

PURPOSE

Regional and national data on leukemia's burden provide a better comprehension of leukemia's trends and are vital for policy-makers for better allocation of the resources. This study reports the burden of leukemia, and the attributed burden to its risk factors in 21 countries and territories of the North Africa and Middle East.

METHODS

Data from cancer registration, scientific literature, survey, and reports were the input to estimate the burden of leukemia. In addition, the burden of attributable risk factors with evidence of causation with leukemia was calculated using the comparative risk assessment framework. All measures are reported as counts and rates divided by sex and specific age groups.

RESULTS

In 2019, there were 39,297 (95% uncertainty interval: 32,617-45,056) incident cases of leukemia with an age-standardized rate (ASR) of 7.8 (6.5-8.8) per 100,000 in the region. There were also 25,143 (21,109-28,826) deaths and 1,011,555 (822,537-1,173,621) DALYs attributed to Leukemia with an ASR of 5.4 (4.6-6.1) per 100,000 and 183.4 (150.7-211.2) per 100,000, respectively. Years of life lost (YLLs) (179.4 [147.2-206.7]) were accountable for the major part of DALYs. All count measures increased, while all the ASRs decreased during 1990-2019. The Syrian Arab Republic, Qatar, and Afghanistan had the highest ASR incidence, mortality, and DALYs rate in 2019. Incidence, DALYs, and prevalence rates were higher in males of all age groups except under five, and the highest rates were observed in +75 age group. Four major risk factors for leukemia were smoking, high body mass index, occupational exposure to benzene, and formaldehyde.

CONCLUSION

Despite the reduction in age-standardized rates of incidence and mortality, the burden of leukemia has increased steadily, due to population growth and aging. Notable variations exist between age-standardized rates in region's countries.

Role of CDH23 as a prognostic biomarker and its relationship with immune infiltration in acute myeloid leukemia

Background

Cadherin-23 (CDH23) plays an important role in intercellular adhesion and is involved in the progression of several types of cancer. However, the biological functions and effect of CDH23 expression on the prognosis of patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) are unexplored. Herein, we aim to characterize the role and molecular functions of CDH23 in AML.

Methods

We downloaded the transcriptomic profiles and clinical data from the Cancer Genome Atlas and Beat AML trial. The expression level of CDH23 was assessed using Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA). Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was used to assess prognostic value of CDH23. Correlation and biological function analyses were performed using LinkedOmics and GeneMANIA. Relationship of CDH23 with immune infiltration level was determined using Tumor Immune Estimation Resource (TIMER).

Results

We found that the CDH23 expression was aberrantly upregulated in patients with AML and could be used as an independent risk factor of overall survival using Cox multivariate analysis. Notably, we observed a negative correlation between CDH23 expression and immune cell infiltration abundance by calculating the immune and stromal scores. In addition, functional enrichment analysis established that CDH23 plays a crucial role in tumor immunity.

Conclusions

Our findings indicate that upregulated CDH23 expression corresponds to decreased overall survival of patients with AML. CDH23 may be involved in mediating tumor immune environment, and this highlights the potential of CDH23 as a therapeutic target in AML.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12885-022-09532-1.

HCK is a Potential Prognostic Biomarker that Correlates with Immune Cell Infiltration in Acute Myeloid Leukemia

Background. The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a significant role in the progression and prognosis of acute myeloid leukemia (AML). This study is aimed at exploring TME-associated biomarkers and identify their potential mechanism in the microenvironment of AML. Method. In this study, the stromal, immune, and ESTIMATE scores of AML patients were evaluated with the ESTIMATE and CIBERSORT algorithms; then, the AML samples were divided into high- and low-score groups. We evaluated the association between clinicopathological characteristics, survival rate, and the stromal/immune/ESTIMATE scores. Furthermore, we identified TME-associated differentially expressed genes (DEGs) then carried out pathway enrichment analysis, protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, Cox regression analysis, and Kaplan-Meier survival analysis to select the most crucial genes. In addition, we further explored the potential mechanism of HCK in the AML microenvironment. Results. We identified 624 TME-associated DEGs and found that HCK was the most promising biomarker associated with AML. The results of the gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) indicated that HCK was mainly involved in immune and inflammation-related signaling pathways. In addition, CIBERSORT analysis showed that HCK was closely related to tumor immune infiltration, with HCK expression associated with various infiltrating immune cells, including B cells, T cells, tumor-associated macrophages (TAM), NK cells, plasma cells, eosinophils, and neutrophils. Furthermore, HCK expression was closely related with ELN risk stratification in patients with AML. Conclusion. HCK could regulate immune cell infiltration in the microenvironment of AML and may act as a potential biomarker for the treatment and prognosis of AML patients.

Changes of Cell Adhesion Molecules and T Cell Subset Populations in Acute Myeloid Leukemia Patients Undergoing Intravenous Administration of Cytarabine Supplemented with Idarubicin

Objective. The present study aimed at investigating the efficacy and safety of intravenous administration of cytarabine supplemented with idarubicin in treating acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients undergoing first attack and its effects on serum levels of cell adhesion molecules, cytokines in response to inflammation, and T cell subset populations in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients undergoing first attack. Methods. A total of 88 AML patients eligible for inclusion and exclusion criteria participated in the study and were randomly assigned into the control group (n = 44) in which the patients received intravenous administration of cytarabine and daunorubicin and the study group (n = 44) in which the patients received intravenous administration of cytarabine and idarubicin. Clinical response, incidence of adverse reactions, and quality of life 3 months after therapy were evaluated. Soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1), soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (sVCAM-1), IL-10, and IL-35 were measured by ELISA methods. Phenotypic characteristics of T cell subsets including CD4+, CD8+, CD4+IL-10 Tregs, and CD4+CD25+CD127−Foxp3+ Tregs were analyzed by flow cytometry. Results. The clinical response rate of the study group was better than that of the control group (65.91% vs. 45.45%) ( $P<0.05$ ). After treatment, the study group revealed significantly lower levels of sICAM-1, sVCAM-1, IL-10, and IL-35, a lower proportion of Tregs, a higher rate of CD4+/CD8+ T cells, along with increased scores of the Karnofsky Performance Scale (KPS) compared with the control group ( $P<0.05$ ). The incidence rate of adverse reactions in the study group was lower than that in the control group (34.09% vs. 61.36%) ( $P<0.05$ ). Conclusion. These findings demonstrate that intravenous administration of cytarabine supplemented with idarubicin can improve the immune function and quality of life of AML patients, and this combination drug therapy is effective and safe for AML.

Mechanisms of Immunosuppressive Tumor Evasion: Focus on Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is a malignancy with high heterogeneity in its biological features and treatments. Although the overall survival (OS) of patients with ALL has recently improved considerably, owing to the application of conventional chemo-therapeutic agents, approximately 20% of the pediatric cases and 40-50% of the adult patients relapse during and after the treatment period. The potential mechanisms that cause relapse involve clonal evolution, innate and acquired chemoresistance, and the ability of ALL cells to escape the immune-suppressive tumor response. Currently, immunotherapy in combination with conventional treatment is used to enhance the immune response against tumor cells, thereby significantly improving the OS in patients with ALL. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of immune evasion by leukemia cells could be useful for developing novel therapeutic strategies.

Artemisinins induce endoplasmic reticulum stress in acute leukaemia cells in vitro and in vivo

Loss of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis leads to ER stress, thus prolonged activation can lead to apoptosis. Herein, artesunate (ART) induced ER stress in leukaemia cells, resulting in eIF2α phosphorylation, activation of transcription factor 4, subsequent CHOP upregulation and XBP1 splicing. Furthermore, in vitro cyclin/CDKs reduction induced G1-phase arrest. An in vivo xenograft model showed a consistent pattern of ART in reducing tumour burden, supporting roles in the UPR pathway, which we speculate could lead to apoptosis by NOXA activation. Moreover, ART were capable of increasing the survival of mice. Taken together, our data indicate that ART may represent an interesting weapon to fight leukaemia.

Single-Cell RNA-Seq of T Cells in B-ALL Patients Reveals an Exhausted Subset with Remarkable Heterogeneity

Characterization of functional T cell clusters is key to developing strategies for immunotherapy and predicting clinical responses in leukemia. Here, single-cell RNA sequencing is performed with T cells sorted from the peripheral blood of healthy individuals and patients with B cell-acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL). Unbiased bioinformatics analysis enabled the authors to identify 13 T cell clusters in the patients based on their molecular properties. All 11 major T cell subsets in healthy individuals are found in the patients with B-ALL, with the counterparts in the patients universally showing more activated characteristics. Two exhausted T cell populations, characterized by up-regulation of TIGIT, PDCD1, HLADRA, LAG3, and CTLA4 are specifically discovered in B-ALL patients. Of note, these exhausted T cells possess remarkable heterogeneity, and ten sub-clusters are further identified, which are characterized by different cell cycle phases, naïve states, and GNLY (coding granulysin) expression. Coupled with single-cell T cell receptor repertoire profiling, diverse originations of the exhausted T cells in B-ALL are suggested, and clonally expanded exhausted T cells are likely to originate from CD8+ effector memory/terminal effector cells. Together, these data provide for the first-time valuable insights for understanding exhausted T cell populations in leukemia.

AXL inhibition in macrophages stimulates host-versus-leukemia immunity and eradicates naive and treatment resistant leukemia

Acute leukemias are systemic malignancies associated with a dire outcome. Due to low immunogenicity, leukemias display a remarkable ability to evade immune control and are often resistant to checkpoint blockade. Here, we discover that leukemia cells actively establish a suppressive environment to prevent immune attacks by co-opting a signaling axis that skews macrophages towards a tumor promoting tissue repair phenotype, namely the GAS6/AXL axis. Using aggressive leukemia models, we demonstrate that ablation of the AXL receptor specifically in macrophages, or its ligand GAS6 in the environment, stimulates anti-leukemic immunity and elicits effective and lasting NK- and T-cell dependent immune response against naive and treatment resistant leukemia. Remarkably, AXL deficiency in macrophages also enables PD1 checkpoint blockade in PD1-refractory leukemias. Lastly, we provide proof-of-concept that a clinical grade AXL inhibitor can be used in combination with standard of care therapy to cure established leukemia, regardless on AXL expression in malignant cells.

Pediatric PK/PD Phase I Trial of Pexidartinib in Relapsed and Refractory Leukemias and Solid Tumors Including Neurofibromatosis Type I-Related Plexiform Neurofibromas

PURPOSE

Simultaneously targeting the tumor and tumor microenvironment may hold promise in treating children with refractory solid tumors. Pexidartinib, an oral inhibitor of tyrosine kinases including colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF-1R), KIT, and FLT3, is FDA approved in adults with tenosynovial giant cell tumor. A phase I trial was conducted in pediatric and young adult patients with refractory leukemias or solid tumors including neurofibromatosis type 1-related plexiform neurofibromas.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A rolling six design with dose levels (DL) of 400 mg/m², 600 mg/m², and 800 mg/m² once daily for 28-day cycles (C) was used. Response was assessed at regular intervals. Pharmacokinetics and population pharmacokinetics were analyzed during C1.

RESULTS

Twelve patients (4 per DL, 9 evaluable) enrolled on the dose-escalation phase and 4 patients enrolled in the expansion cohort: median (lower, upper quartile) age 16 (14, 16.5) years. No dose-limiting toxicities were observed. Pharmacokinetics appeared linear over three DLs. Pharmacokinetic modeling and simulation determined a weight-based recommended phase II dose (RP2D). Two patients had stable disease and 1 patient with peritoneal mesothelioma (C49+) had a sustained partial response (67% RECIST reduction). Pharmacodynamic markers included a rise in plasma macrophage CSF (MCSF) levels and a decrease in absolute monocyte count.

CONCLUSIONS

Pexidartinib in pediatric patients was well tolerated at all DL tested, achieved target inhibition, and resulted in a weight-based RPD2 dose.

Research advances in nanomedicine, immunotherapy, and combination therapy for leukemia

In the past decade, clinical and laboratory studies have led to important new insights into the biology of leukemia and its treatment. This review describes the progress of leukemia research in the United States in recent years. Whereas the traditional method of treatment is chemotherapy, it is nonselective and could induce systemic toxicities. Thus, in parallel with research on new chemotherapies, great emphasis has been placed on developing immunotherapies. Here, we will review the current immunotherapies available in research and development that overcome current challenges, specifically looking in the field of chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapies, checkpoint inhibitors, and antibody-drug conjugates. With about 100 clinical trials for CAR-T therapies and 30 in checkpoint inhibitors for leukemia treatment, scientists are trying to make these technologies cheaper, faster, and more feasible. Further describing the delivery of these therapeutics, we look at the current progress, clinical, and preclinical status of nano-based medicines such as liposomes, polymeric micelles, and metal nanoparticles. Taking advantage of their physicochemical and biologic properties, nanoparticles have been shown to increase the efficacy of commonly administered chemotherapies with reduced adverse effects.

Treatments for children and adolescents with AML

In recent decades, survival rates for childhood acute myeloid leukemia have remarkably improved, owing to chemotherapy intensification, allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, and improved supportive care. Furthermore, treatment protocols have evolved and are currently better matched to prognostic factors and treatment responses. Recently, new molecular prognostic factors were discovered via leukemia genomic studies. Moreover, new tumor subtypes with independent gene expression profiles have been characterized. To broaden the therapeutic options for patients with poor prognoses, therapies that target specific candidate mutations are being identified. Additionally, new drugs are undergoing clinical trials, and immunotherapy is attracting significant interest as a treatment option for recurrent or refractory childhood acute myeloid leukemia.

Mislocalisation of Activated Receptor Tyrosine Kinases - Challenges for Cancer Therapy

Activating mutations in genes encoding receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) mediate proliferation, cell migration, and cell survival, and are therefore important drivers of oncogenesis. Numerous targeted cancer therapies are directed against activated RTKs, including small compound inhibitors, and immunotherapies. It has recently been discovered that not only certain RTK fusion proteins, but also many full-length RTKs harbouring activating mutations, notably RTKs of the class III family, are to a large extent mislocalised in intracellular membranes. Active kinases in these locations cause aberrant activation of signalling pathways. Moreover, low levels of activated RTKs at the cell surface present an obstacle for immunotherapy. We outline here why understanding of the mechanisms underlying mislocalisation will help in improving existing and developing novel therapeutic strategies.

Extensive Remodeling of the Immune Microenvironment in B Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

A subset of B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) patients will relapse and succumb to therapy-resistant disease. The bone marrow microenvironment may support B-ALL progression and treatment evasion. Utilizing single-cell approaches, we demonstrate B-ALL bone marrow immune microenvironment remodeling upon disease initiation and subsequent re-emergence during conventional chemotherapy. We uncover a role for non-classical monocytes in B-ALL survival, and demonstrate monocyte abundance at B-ALL diagnosis is predictive of pediatric and adult B-ALL patient survival. We show that human B-ALL blasts alter a vascularized microenvironment promoting monocytic differentiation, while depleting leukemia-associated monocytes in B-ALL animal models prolongs disease remission in vivo. Our profiling of the B-ALL immune microenvironment identifies extrinsic regulators of B-ALL survival supporting new immune-based therapeutic approaches for high-risk B-ALL treatment.

MYC functions as a switch for natural killer cell-mediated immune surveillance of lymphoid malignancies

The MYC oncogene drives T- and B- lymphoid malignancies, including Burkitt's lymphoma (BL) and Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL). Here, we demonstrate a systemic reduction in natural killer (NK) cell numbers in SRα-tTA/Tet-O-MYCON mice bearing MYC-driven T-lymphomas. Residual mNK cells in spleens of MYCON T-lymphoma-bearing mice exhibit perturbations in the terminal NK effector differentiation pathway. Lymphoma-intrinsic MYC arrests NK maturation by transcriptionally repressing STAT1/2 and secretion of Type I Interferons (IFNs). Treating T-lymphoma-bearing mice with Type I IFN improves survival by rescuing NK cell maturation. Adoptive transfer of mature NK cells is sufficient to delay both T-lymphoma growth and recurrence post MYC inactivation. In MYC-driven BL patients, low expression of both STAT1 and STAT2 correlates significantly with the absence of activated NK cells and predicts unfavorable clinical outcomes. Our studies thus provide a rationale for developing NK cell-based therapies to effectively treat MYC-driven lymphomas in the future.

Poor Prognosis Biomolecular Factors Are Highly Frequent in Childhood Acute Leukemias From Oaxaca, Mexico

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the cellular and molecular epidemiology of acute leukemias in vulnerable populations of children and adolescents in Oaxaca de Juarez, Mexico.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Descriptive, cross-sectional and retrospective study, conducted from 2014 to 2018 in which profiles of molecular and immunophenotypic aberrations were investigated in children and adolescents diagnosed with acute leukemia, by evaluating 28 molecular abnormalities by HemaVision-Q28 multiplex RT-PCR kit and standardized EuroFlow Immunophenotyping of bone marrow cells.

RESULTS

We included 218 patients, with 82.5% younger than 14 years and 17.5% adolescents. The median age was 9 years and a main peak of incidence was recorded at age of 4 to 5 years. B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia was diagnosed in 70.64% of all cases, acute myeloid leukemia was in 22.48%, T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia in 6.42%, and mixed lineage acute leukemia in 0.46% of cases. Overall, chromosomal translocations were positive in 29.82% of cases. While 65.31% of patients with acute myeloid leukemia reported aberrancies, only in 18.83% of B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia cases genetic abnormalities were obvious. Surprisingly, most prevalent translocations in B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia were t(9;22) in 20.7%, followed by t(4;11) in 17.2% and t(6;11) in 13.8%, whereas patients with acute myeloid leukemia showed t(15;17) in 40.6% and t(8;21) in 21.9%. In contrast, an homogeneous expression of t(3;21) and t(6;11) was recorded for T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia and mixed lineage acute leukemia cases, respectively. Except for t(1;19), expressed only by pre-B cells, there was no association of any of the studied translocations with differentiation stages of the B-leukemic developmental pathway.

CONCLUSION

Our findings identify near 50% of patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia at debut with high-risk translocations and poor prognosis in B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia as well as an unexpected increase of acute myeloid leukemia cases in young children, suggesting a molecular shift that support a higher incidence of poor prognosis cases in Oaxaca.