1
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Rosslenbroich B. Evolutionary changes in the capacity for organismic autonomy. J Physiol 2024; 602:2455-2468. [PMID: 37851897 DOI: 10.1113/jp284414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Studies of macroevolution have revealed various trends in evolution - which have been documented and discussed. There is, however, no consensus on this topic. Since Darwin's time one presumption has persisted: that throughout evolution organisms increase their independence from and stability towards environmental influences. Although this principle has often been stated in the literature, it played no role in mainstream theory. In a closer examination, we studied this particular feature and described that many of the major transitions in animal evolution have been characterized by changes in the capacity for physiological regulation. Organisms gained in robustness, self-regulation, homeostasis and stabilized self-referential, intrinsic functions within their respective systems. This is associated with expanded environmental flexibility, such as new opportunities for movement and behaviour. Together, these aspects can be described as changes in the capacity for autonomy. There seems to be a large-scale trajectory in evolution during which some organisms gained in autonomy and flexibility. At the same time, adaptations to the environment emerged that were a prerequisite for survival. Apparently, evolution produced differential combinations of autonomy traits and adaptations. These processes are described as modifications in relative autonomy because numerous interconnections with the environment and dependencies upon it were retained. Also, it is not a linear trend, but rather an outcome of all the diverse processes which have been involved during evolutionary changes. Since the principle of regulation is a core element of physiology, the concept of autonomy is suitable to build a bridge from physiology to evolutionary research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Rosslenbroich
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Morphology, Centre for Biomedical Education and Research, Faculty of Health, School of Medicine Witten/Herdecke University, Witten, Germany
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2
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Hervas LS, do Amaral-Silva L, Sartori MR, Guadalupe-Silva A, Gargaglioni LH, Lerchner J, Oliveira MT, Bícego KC. Mitochondrial function in skeletal muscle contributes to reproductive endothermy in tegu lizards (Salvator merianae). Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2024:e14162. [PMID: 38741523 DOI: 10.1111/apha.14162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
AIM In cyclic climate variations, including seasonal changes, many animals regulate their energy demands to overcome critical transitory moments, restricting their high-demand activities to phases of resource abundance, enabling rapid growth and reproduction. Tegu lizards (Salvator merianae) are ectotherms with a robust annual cycle, being active during summer, hibernating during winter, and presenting a remarkable endothermy during reproduction in spring. Here, we evaluated whether changes in mitochondrial respiratory physiology in skeletal muscle could serve as a mechanism for the increased thermogenesis observed during the tegu's reproductive endothermy. METHODS We performed high-resolution respirometry and calorimetry in permeabilized red and white muscle fibers, sampled during summer (activity) and spring (high activity and reproduction), in association with citrate synthase measurements. RESULTS During spring, the muscle fibers exhibited increased oxidative phosphorylation. They also enhanced uncoupled respiration and heat production via adenine nucleotide translocase (ANT), but not via uncoupling proteins (UCP). Citrate synthase activity was higher during the spring, suggesting greater mitochondrial density compared to the summer. These findings were consistent across both sexes and muscle types (red and white). CONCLUSION The current results highlight potential cellular thermogenic mechanisms in an ectothermic reptile that contribute to transient endothermy. Our study indicates that the unique feature of transitioning to endothermy through nonshivering thermogenesis during the reproductive phase may be facilitated by higher mitochondrial density, function, and uncoupling within the skeletal muscle. This knowledge contributes significant elements to the broader picture of models for the evolution of endothermy, particularly in relation to the enhancement of aerobic capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Livia Saccani Hervas
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, São Paulo State University, Jaboticabal, Brazil
| | - Lara do Amaral-Silva
- Department of Biology, Wake Forest University, Winston Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Marina Rincon Sartori
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Ane Guadalupe-Silva
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, São Paulo State University, Jaboticabal, Brazil
| | - Luciane H Gargaglioni
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, São Paulo State University, Jaboticabal, Brazil
| | - Johannes Lerchner
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany
| | | | - Kênia Cardoso Bícego
- Department of Animal Morphology and Physiology, São Paulo State University, Jaboticabal, Brazil
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3
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Li C, Liu C, Hu P, Zheng X, Li M, Liu J. Seasonal adjustments in body mass and basal thermogenesis in Chinese hwameis (Garrulax canorus): the roles of temperature and photoperiod. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:276431. [PMID: 36004672 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
For small birds to survive during seasonal acclimatization in temperate zones, regulation of body mass and thermogenesis is crucial. To determine the role of temperature and photoperiod in seasonal changes in body mass and thermogenesis in Chinese hwameis (Garrulax canorus), we compared body mass, basal metabolic rate (BMR), energy intake and cellular metabolic capacity of the tissue (muscle) and/ or organs (liver, kidney, heart and small intestine) in seasonally acclimatized and laboratory acclimated hwameis. A significant seasonal influence on body mass and BMR (which peaked in winter) was found, and these variations were mirrored by exposing the housed birds to cold temperatures or a short photoperiod. The level of dry matter intake, gross energy intake and digestible energy intake were higher during winter, and in housed animals that were exposed to cold temperatures. These results suggest that by increasing energy intake and thermogenesis, Chinese hwameis can overcome winter thermoregulatory challenges. When compared with warm-acclimated birds, cold-acclimated birds displayed higher mass-specific and whole-organ state 4 respiration in the muscle, liver and kidney, and higher mass-specific and whole-organ cytochrome c oxidase activity in the liver. These data demonstrated that the cellular thermogenesis partly underpins basal thermoregulation in Chinese hwameis. Cold temperature and short photoperiod can be used as helpful environmental cues during seasonal acclimatization. However, the role of temperature is more significant compared with that of photoperiod in Chinese hwameis, the changes in energy metabolism and thermoregulation induced by temperature appear to be intensified by photoperiod.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenxing Li
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Chenyu Liu
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Pingxia Hu
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Xiyu Zheng
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Ming Li
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Jinsong Liu
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China
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4
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Akat E, Yenmiş M, Pombal MA, Molist P, Megías M, Arman S, Veselỳ M, Anderson R, Ayaz D. Comparison of Vertebrate Skin Structure at Class Level: A Review. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2022; 305:3543-3608. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.24908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Esra Akat
- Ege University, Faculty of Science, Biology Department Bornova, İzmir Turkey
| | - Melodi Yenmiş
- Ege University, Faculty of Science, Biology Department Bornova, İzmir Turkey
| | - Manuel A. Pombal
- Universidade de Vigo, Departamento de Bioloxía Funcional e Ciencias da Saúde, Facultade de Bioloxía‐IBIV Vigo, España
| | - Pilar Molist
- Universidade de Vigo, Departamento de Bioloxía Funcional e Ciencias da Saúde, Facultade de Bioloxía‐IBIV Vigo, España
| | - Manuel Megías
- Universidade de Vigo, Departamento de Bioloxía Funcional e Ciencias da Saúde, Facultade de Bioloxía‐IBIV Vigo, España
| | - Sezgi Arman
- Sakarya University, Faculty of Science and Letters, Biology Department Sakarya Turkey
| | - Milan Veselỳ
- Palacky University, Faculty of Science, Department of Zoology Olomouc Czechia
| | - Rodolfo Anderson
- Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências Universidade Estadual Paulista São Paulo Brazil
| | - Dinçer Ayaz
- Ege University, Faculty of Science, Biology Department Bornova, İzmir Turkey
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Abstract
This article outlines a hypothetical sequence of evolutionary innovations, along the lineage that produced humans, which extended behavioural control from simple feedback loops to sophisticated control of diverse species-typical actions. I begin with basic feedback mechanisms of ancient mobile animals and follow the major niche transitions from aquatic to terrestrial life, the retreat into nocturnality in early mammals, the transition to arboreal life and the return to diurnality. Along the way, I propose a sequence of elaboration and diversification of the behavioural repertoire and associated neuroanatomical substrates. This includes midbrain control of approach versus escape actions, telencephalic control of local versus long-range foraging, detection of affordances by the dorsal pallium, diversified control of nocturnal foraging in the mammalian neocortex and expansion of primate frontal, temporal and parietal cortex to support a wide variety of primate-specific behavioural strategies. The result is a proposed functional architecture consisting of parallel control systems, each dedicated to specifying the affordances for guiding particular species-typical actions, which compete against each other through a hierarchy of selection mechanisms. This article is part of the theme issue ‘Systems neuroscience through the lens of evolutionary theory’.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Cisek
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Montreal CP 6123 Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, Québec, Canada H3C 3J7
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6
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Enriquez-Urzelai U, Boratyński Z. Energetic dissociation of individual and species ranges. Biol Lett 2022; 18:20210374. [PMID: 35168378 PMCID: PMC8847892 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2021.0374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of energy is universal to all life forms and all levels of biological organization, potentially linking processes operating at variable scales. Individual and species ranges might be energetically constrained, yet divergent metabolic limitations at both scales can disassociate these individual and species traits. We analysed comparative energetic and range data to unravel the mechanistic basis of the dissociation between individual and species range sizes observed among mammalian species. Our results demonstrate that basal, or maintenance, metabolism negatively correlates with individual ranges, but, at the same time, it positively correlates with species ranges. High aerobic capacity, i.e. maximum metabolic rate, positively correlates with individual ranges, but it is weakly related to species range size. These antagonistic energetic constraints on both ranges could lead to a disassociation between individual and species traits and to a low covariation between home and species range sizes. We show that important organismal functions, such as basal and maximum metabolic rates, have the potential to unravel mechanisms operating at different levels of biological organization and to expose links between energy-dependent processes at different scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urtzi Enriquez-Urzelai
- Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Květná 8, 60365 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zbyszek Boratyński
- BIOPOLIS, CIBIO/InBio, Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal
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7
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Moreira MO, Qu YF, Wiens JJ. Large-scale evolution of body temperatures in land vertebrates. Evol Lett 2021; 5:484-494. [PMID: 34621535 PMCID: PMC8484719 DOI: 10.1002/evl3.249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Body temperature is a crucial variable in animals that affects nearly every aspect of their lives. Here we analyze for the first time largescale patterns in the evolution of body temperatures across terrestrial vertebrates (tetrapods: including amphibians, mammals, birds and other reptiles). Despite the traditional view that endotherms (birds and mammals) have higher body temperatures than ectotherms, we find they are not significantly different. However, rates of body-temperature evolution are significantly different, with lower rates in endotherms than ectotherms, and the highest rates in amphibians. We find that body temperatures show strong phylogenetic signal and conservatism over 350 million years of evolutionary history in tetrapods, and some lineages appear to have retained similar body temperatures over time for hundreds of millions of years. Although body temperatures are often unrelated to climate in tetrapods, we find that body temperatures are significantly related to day-night activity patterns. Specifically, body temperatures are generally higher in diurnal species than nocturnal species, both across ectotherms and, surprisingly, across endotherms also. Overall, our results suggest that body temperatures are significantly linked to phylogeny and diel-activity patterns within and among tetrapod groups, rather than just climate and the endotherm-ectotherm divide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew O Moreira
- Center for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology University of Aveiro Aveiro Portugal.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Arizona Tucson Arizona USA
| | - Yan-Fu Qu
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Arizona Tucson Arizona USA.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences Nanjing Normal University Nanjing Jiangsu China
| | - John J Wiens
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Arizona Tucson Arizona USA
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8
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Bastos B, Pradhan N, Tarroso P, Brito JC, Boratyński Z. Environmental determinants of minimum body temperature in mammals. JOURNAL OF VERTEBRATE BIOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.25225/jvb.21004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bárbara Bastos
- CIBIO/InBIO, Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal; e-mail: , , , ,
| | - Nelish Pradhan
- CIBIO/InBIO, Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal; e-mail: , , , ,
| | - Pedro Tarroso
- CIBIO/InBIO, Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal; e-mail: , , , ,
| | - José C. Brito
- CIBIO/InBIO, Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal; e-mail: , , , ,
| | - Zbyszek Boratyński
- CIBIO/InBIO, Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal; e-mail: , , , ,
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9
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Frýdlová P, Mrzílková J, Šeremeta M, Křemen J, Dudák J, Žemlička J, Minnich B, Kverková K, Němec P, Zach P, Frynta D. Determinate growth is predominant and likely ancestral in squamate reptiles. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20202737. [PMID: 33352069 PMCID: PMC7779497 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.2737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Body growth is typically thought to be indeterminate in ectothermic vertebrates. Indeed, until recently, this growth pattern was considered to be ubiquitous in ectotherms. Our recent observations of a complete growth plate cartilage (GPC) resorption, a reliable indicator of arrested skeletal growth, in many species of lizards clearly reject the ubiquity of indeterminate growth in reptiles and raise the question about the ancestral state of the growth pattern. Using X-ray micro-computed tomography (µCT), here we examined GPCs of long bones in three basally branching clades of squamate reptiles, namely in Gekkota, Scincoidea and Lacertoidea. A complete loss of GPC, indicating skeletal growth arrest, was the predominant finding. Using a dataset of 164 species representing all major clades of lizards and the tuataras, we traced the evolution of determinate growth on the phylogenetic tree of Lepidosauria. The reconstruction of character states suggests that determinate growth is ancestral for the squamate reptiles (Squamata) and remains common in the majority of lizard lineages, while extended (potentially indeterminate) adult growth evolved several times within squamates. Although traditionally associated with endotherms, determinate growth is coupled with ectothermy in this lineage. These findings combined with existing literature suggest that determinate growth predominates in both extant and extinct amniotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Frýdlová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague 12844, Czech Republic.,Department of Anatomy, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague 100 00, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Mrzílková
- Specialized Laboratory of Experimental Imaging, Third Faculty of Medicine of Charles University, Institute of Technical and Applied Physics and Faculty of Bioengineering, Prague 100 00, Czech Republic.,Department of Anatomy, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague 100 00, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Šeremeta
- Specialized Laboratory of Experimental Imaging, Third Faculty of Medicine of Charles University, Institute of Technical and Applied Physics and Faculty of Bioengineering, Prague 100 00, Czech Republic.,Department of Anatomy, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague 100 00, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Křemen
- Specialized Laboratory of Experimental Imaging, Third Faculty of Medicine of Charles University, Institute of Technical and Applied Physics and Faculty of Bioengineering, Prague 100 00, Czech Republic.,Department of Anatomy, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague 100 00, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Dudák
- Institute of Experimental and Applied Physics, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague 110 00, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Žemlička
- Institute of Experimental and Applied Physics, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague 110 00, Czech Republic
| | - Bernd Minnich
- Department of Biosciences, University of Salzburg, Hellbrunnerstrasse 34, Salzburg 5020, Austria
| | - Kristina Kverková
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague 12844, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Němec
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague 12844, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Zach
- Specialized Laboratory of Experimental Imaging, Third Faculty of Medicine of Charles University, Institute of Technical and Applied Physics and Faculty of Bioengineering, Prague 100 00, Czech Republic.,Department of Anatomy, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague 100 00, Czech Republic
| | - Daniel Frynta
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague 12844, Czech Republic
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10
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Trudeau VL, Somoza GM. Multimodal hypothalamo-hypophysial communication in the vertebrates. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2020; 293:113475. [PMID: 32240708 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2020.113475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 03/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The vertebrate pituitary is arguably one of the most complex endocrine glands from the evolutionary, anatomical and functional perspectives. The pituitary plays a master role in endocrine physiology for the control of growth, metabolism, reproduction, water balance, and the stress response, among many other key processes. The synthesis and secretion of pituitary hormones are under the control of neurohormones produced by the hypothalamus. Under this conceptual framework, the communication between the hypophysiotropic brain and the pituitary gland is at the foundation of our understanding of endocrinology. The anatomy of the connections between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland has been described in different vertebrate classes, revealing diverse modes of communication together with varying degrees of complexity. In this context, the evolution and variation in the neuronal, neurohemal, endocrine and paracrine modes will be reviewed in light of recent discoveries, and a re-evaluation of earlier observations. There appears to be three main hypothalamo-pituitary communication systems: 1. Diffusion, best exemplified by the agnathans; 2. Direct innervation of the adenohypophysis, which is most developed in teleost fish, and 3. The median eminence/portal blood vessel system, most conspicuously developed in tetrapods, showing also considerable variation between classes. Upon this basic classification, there exists various combinations possible, giving rise to taxon and species-specific, multimodal control over major physiological processes. Intrapituitary paracrine regulation and communication between folliculostellate cells and endocrine cells are additional processes of major importance. Thus, a more complex evolutionary picture of hypothalamo-hypophysial communication is emerging. There is currently little direct evidence to suggest which neuroendocrine genes may control the evolution of one communication system versus another. However, studies at the developmental and intergenerational timescales implicate several genes in the angiogenesis and axonal guidance pathways that may be important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vance L Trudeau
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada.
| | - Gustavo M Somoza
- Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (CONICET-UNSAM), Chascomús, Buenos Aires B7130IWA, Argentina.
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11
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Verberk WCEP, Calosi P, Brischoux F, Spicer JI, Garland T, Bilton DT. Universal metabolic constraints shape the evolutionary ecology of diving in animals. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20200488. [PMID: 32453989 PMCID: PMC7287373 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.0488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Diving as a lifestyle has evolved on multiple occasions when air-breathing terrestrial animals invaded the aquatic realm, and diving performance shapes the ecology and behaviour of all air-breathing aquatic taxa, from small insects to great whales. Using the largest dataset yet assembled, we show that maximum dive duration increases predictably with body mass in both ectotherms and endotherms. Compared to endotherms, ectotherms can remain submerged for longer, but the mass scaling relationship for dive duration is much steeper in endotherms than in ectotherms. These differences in diving allometry can be fully explained by inherent differences between the two groups in their metabolic rate and how metabolism scales with body mass and temperature. Therefore, we suggest that similar constraints on oxygen storage and usage have shaped the evolutionary ecology of diving in all air-breathing animals, irrespective of their evolutionary history and metabolic mode. The steeper scaling relationship between body mass and dive duration in endotherms not only helps explain why the largest extant vertebrate divers are endothermic rather than ectothermic, but also fits well with the emerging consensus that large extinct tetrapod divers (e.g. plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs and mosasaurs) were endothermic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilco C E P Verberk
- Department of Animal Ecology and Ecophysiology, Radboud University, PO Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Piero Calosi
- Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
- Département de Biologie, Chimie et Géographie, Université du Québec à Rimouski, 300 Allée des Ursulines, Rimouski, Québec, Canada G5 L 3A1
| | - François Brischoux
- Centre d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, UMR 7372 CNRS-La Rochelle Université, 79360 Villiers en Bois, France
| | - John I Spicer
- Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Theodore Garland
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - David T Bilton
- Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
- Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, PO Box 524, Auckland Park, 2006 Johannesburg, South Africa
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12
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Faure-Brac MG, Cubo J. Were the synapsids primitively endotherms? A palaeohistological approach using phylogenetic eigenvector maps. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 375:20190138. [PMID: 31928185 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The acquisition of mammalian endothermy is poorly constrained both phylogenetically and temporally. Here, we inferred the resting metabolic rates (RMRs) and the thermometabolic regimes (endothermy or ectothermy) of a sample of eight extinct synapsids using palaeohistology, phylogenetic eigenvector maps (PEMs), and a sample of 17 extant tetrapods of known RMR (quantified using respirometry). We inferred high RMR values and an endothermic metabolism for the anomodonts (Lystrosaurus sp., Oudenodon bainii) and low RMR values and an ectothermic metabolism for Clepsydrops collettii, Dimetrodon sp., Edaphosaurus boanerges, Mycterosaurus sp., Ophiacodon uniformis and Sphenacodon sp. A maximum-likelihood ancestral states reconstruction of RMRs performed using the values inferred for extinct synapsids, and the values measured using respirometry in extant tetrapods, shows that the nodes Anomodontia and Mammalia were primitively endotherms. Finally, we performed a parsimony optimization of the presence of endothermy using the results obtained in the present study and those obtained in previous studies that used PEMs. For this, we assigned to each extinct taxon a thermometabolic regime (ectothermy or endothermy) depending on whether the inferred values were significantly higher, lower or not significantly different from the RMR value separating ectotherms from endotherms (1.5 ml O2 h-1 g-0.67). According to this optimization, endothermy arose independently in Archosauromorpha, Sauropterygia and Therapsida. This article is part of the theme issue 'Vertebrate palaeophysiology'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathieu G Faure-Brac
- Sorbonne Université, Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, CNRS, Centre de Recherche en Paléontologie-Paris (CR2P, UMR 7207), 4 place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Jorge Cubo
- Sorbonne Université, Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, CNRS, Centre de Recherche en Paléontologie-Paris (CR2P, UMR 7207), 4 place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France
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13
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Rezende EL, Bacigalupe LD, Nespolo RF, Bozinovic F. Shrinking dinosaurs and the evolution of endothermy in birds. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:eaaw4486. [PMID: 31911937 PMCID: PMC6938711 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aaw4486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The evolution of endothermy represents a major transition in vertebrate history, yet how and why endothermy evolved in birds and mammals remains controversial. Here, we combine a heat transfer model with theropod body size data to reconstruct the evolution of metabolic rates along the bird stem lineage. Results suggest that a reduction in size constitutes the path of least resistance for endothermy to evolve, maximizing thermal niche expansion while obviating the costs of elevated energy requirements. In this scenario, metabolism would have increased with the miniaturization observed in the Early-Middle Jurassic (~180 to 170 million years ago), resulting in a gradient of metabolic levels in the theropod phylogeny. Whereas basal theropods would exhibit lower metabolic rates, more recent nonavian lineages were likely decent thermoregulators with elevated metabolism. These analyses provide a tentative temporal sequence of the key evolutionary transitions that resulted in the emergence of small, endothermic, feathered flying dinosaurs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico L. Rezende
- Center of Applied Ecology and Sustainability (CAPES), Departamento de Ecología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 6513677, Chile
| | - Leonardo D. Bacigalupe
- Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia 5090000, Chile
| | - Roberto F. Nespolo
- Center of Applied Ecology and Sustainability (CAPES), Departamento de Ecología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 6513677, Chile
- Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia 5090000, Chile
- Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBio), Santiago, Chile
| | - Francisco Bozinovic
- Center of Applied Ecology and Sustainability (CAPES), Departamento de Ecología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago 6513677, Chile
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14
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Experimental evolution of aerobic exercise performance and hematological traits in bank voles. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2019; 234:1-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2019.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 04/07/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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15
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Nespolo RF, Gaitan-Espitia JD, Quintero-Galvis JF, Fernandez FV, Silva AX, Molina C, Storey KB, Bozinovic F. A functional transcriptomic analysis in the relict marsupial Dromiciops gliroides
reveals adaptive regulation of protective functions during hibernation. Mol Ecol 2018; 27:4489-4500. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.14876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 09/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Roberto F. Nespolo
- Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas; Facultad de Ciencias; Universidad Austral de Chile; Valdivia Chile
- Departamento de Ecología; Center of Applied Ecology and Sustainability (CAPES); Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas; Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile; Santiago Chile
- Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBio); Santiago Chile
| | - Juan Diego Gaitan-Espitia
- The Swire Institute of Marine Science and School of Biological Sciences; The University of Hong Kong; Hong Kong SAR China
- CSIRO Oceans & Atmosphere; Hobart Tasmania Australia
| | - Julian F. Quintero-Galvis
- Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas; Facultad de Ciencias; Universidad Austral de Chile; Valdivia Chile
| | - Fernanda V. Fernandez
- Instituto de Fisiología; Facultad de Medicina; Universidad Austral de Chile; Valdivia Chile
| | - Andrea X. Silva
- AUSTRALomics, Vicerrectoría de Investigación, Desarrollo y Creación Artística; Universidad Austral de Chile; Valdivia Chile
| | - Cristian Molina
- AUSTRALomics, Vicerrectoría de Investigación, Desarrollo y Creación Artística; Universidad Austral de Chile; Valdivia Chile
| | - Kenneth B. Storey
- Department of Biology and Institute of Biochemistry; Carleton University; Ottawa Ontario Canada
| | - Francisco Bozinovic
- Departamento de Ecología; Center of Applied Ecology and Sustainability (CAPES); Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas; Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile; Santiago Chile
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16
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Wijenayake S, Luu BE, Zhang J, Tessier SN, Quintero-Galvis JF, Gaitán-Espitia JD, Nespolo RF, Storey KB. Strategies of biochemical adaptation for hibernation in a South American marsupial Dromiciops gliroides: 1. Mitogen-activated protein kinases and the cell stress response. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2018; 224:12-18. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2017.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2017] [Revised: 12/06/2017] [Accepted: 12/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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17
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Naya DE, Naya H, White CR. On the Interplay among Ambient Temperature, Basal Metabolic Rate, and Body Mass. Am Nat 2018; 192:518-524. [DOI: 10.1086/698372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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18
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Boratyński JS, Szafrańska PA. Does Basal Metabolism Set the Limit for Metabolic Downregulation during Torpor? Physiol Biochem Zool 2018; 91:1057-1067. [PMID: 30141728 DOI: 10.1086/699917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The evolution of endothermic thermoregulation is rooted in the processes involving high metabolism, which allows the maintenance of high and stable body temperatures (Tb). In turn, selection for high endothermic metabolism correlates with increased size of metabolically active organs and thus with high basal metabolic rate (BMR). Endothermic animals are characterized by an MR several times that of similar-sized ectotherms. However, many small mammals are temporally heterothermic and are able to temporally decrease Tb and MR by entering daily torpor or hibernation. Both BMR and minimum MR during torpor (TMRmin) likely result from oxidative respiration in mitochondria of the same tissues. It should be expected that these two MRs are positively correlated, suggesting that the evolution of endothermy and higher BMR set the limit for the ability to reduce MR while entering torpor. Using published data for 96 mammal species, we tested the hypothesis that, among heterothermic mammals, the processes leading to the evolution of higher BMR limit the ability to downregulate metabolism during torpor. We found that body mass (mb)-adjusted BMR was positively correlated with mb- and Tb-adjusted TMRmin, in a phylogenetically corrected analysis. Phylogenetic path modeling indicated that the mechanisms underlying the evolutionary increase of BMR in endotherms most likely constrain their ability to reduce MR during torpor. Given that heterothermy is considered an ancestral state in mammals, these results suggest an increase in BMR during the evolution of endothermy in homeothermic animals, which leads to the loss of their ability to enter torpor.
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Abstract
While human hibernation would provide many advantages for medical applications and space exploration, the intrinsic risks of the procedure itself, as well as those involved if the procedure were to be misused, need to be assessed. Moreover, the distinctive brain state that is present during a hibernation-like state raises questions regarding the state of consciousness of the subject. Since, in animal studies, the cortical activity of this state differs from that of sleep, coma, or even general anesthesia, and resembles a sort of "slowed wakefulness", it is uncertain whether residual consciousness may still be present. In this review, I will present a brief summary of the literature on hibernation and of the current state of the art in inducing a state of artificial hibernation (synthetic torpor); I will then focus on the brain changes that are observed during hibernation, on how these could modify the neural substrate of consciousness, and on the possible use of hibernation as a model for quantum biology. Finally, some ethical considerations on the use of synthetic torpor technology will be presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Cerri
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Piazza di Porta S.Donato, 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy. Tel.: +39 051 2091731; Fax: +39 051 2091737; E-mail:
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20
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Polymeropoulos ET, Oelkrug R, Jastroch M. Editorial: The Evolution of Endothermy-From Patterns to Mechanisms. Front Physiol 2018; 9:891. [PMID: 30050460 PMCID: PMC6052769 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Elias T Polymeropoulos
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
| | - Rebecca Oelkrug
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Group of Molecular Endocrinology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Martin Jastroch
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Zentrum, Munich, Germany.,The Arrhenius Laboratories F3, Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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21
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Fleischle CV, Wintrich T, Sander PM. Quantitative histological models suggest endothermy in plesiosaurs. PeerJ 2018; 6:e4955. [PMID: 29892509 PMCID: PMC5994164 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Plesiosaurs are marine reptiles that arose in the Late Triassic and survived to the Late Cretaceous. They have a unique and uniform bauplan and are known for their very long neck and hydrofoil-like flippers. Plesiosaurs are among the most successful vertebrate clades in Earth’s history. Based on bone mass decrease and cosmopolitan distribution, both of which affect lifestyle, indications of parental care, and oxygen isotope analyses, evidence for endothermy in plesiosaurs has accumulated. Recent bone histological investigations also provide evidence of fast growth and elevated metabolic rates. However, quantitative estimations of metabolic rates and bone growth rates in plesiosaurs have not been attempted before. Methods Phylogenetic eigenvector maps is a method for estimating trait values from a predictor variable while taking into account phylogenetic relationships. As predictor variable, this study employs vascular density, measured in bone histological sections of fossil eosauropterygians and extant comparative taxa. We quantified vascular density as primary osteon density, thus, the proportion of vascular area (including lamellar infillings of primary osteons) to total bone area. Our response variables are bone growth rate (expressed as local bone apposition rate) and resting metabolic rate (RMR). Results Our models reveal bone growth rates and RMRs for plesiosaurs that are in the range of birds, suggesting that plesiosaurs were endotherm. Even for basal eosauropterygians we estimate values in the range of mammals or higher. Discussion Our models are influenced by the availability of comparative data, which are lacking for large marine amniotes, potentially skewing our results. However, our statistically robust inference of fast growth and fast metabolism is in accordance with other evidence for plesiosaurian endothermy. Endothermy may explain the success of plesiosaurs consisting in their survival of the end-Triassic extinction event and their global radiation and dispersal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinna V Fleischle
- Steinmann-Institut für Geologie, Mineralogie und Paläontologie, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Tanja Wintrich
- Steinmann-Institut für Geologie, Mineralogie und Paläontologie, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - P Martin Sander
- Steinmann-Institut für Geologie, Mineralogie und Paläontologie, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Bonn, Germany.,Dinosaur Institute, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles, USA
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22
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Energy intake functions and energy budgets of ectotherms and endotherms derived from their ontogenetic growth in body mass and timing of sexual maturation. J Theor Biol 2018; 444:83-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2018.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2017] [Revised: 01/28/2018] [Accepted: 02/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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23
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Garland T, Albuquerque RL. Locomotion, Energetics, Performance, and Behavior: A Mammalian Perspective on Lizards, and Vice Versa. Integr Comp Biol 2018; 57:252-266. [PMID: 28859413 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icx059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
SYNOPSIS Animals are constrained by their abilities and by interactions with environmental factors, such as low ambient temperatures. These constraints range from physical impossibilities to energetic inefficiencies, and may entail trade-offs. Some of the constraints related to locomotion and activity metabolism can be illustrated through allometric comparisons of mammals and lizards, as representative terrestrial vertebrate endotherms and ectotherms, respectively, because these lineages differ greatly in aerobic metabolic capacities, resting energetic costs, and thermoregulatory patterns. Allometric comparisons are both useful and unavoidable, but "outlier" species (unusual for their clade) can also inform evolutionary scenarios, as they help indicate extremes of possible adaptation within mammalian and saurian levels of organization. We compared mammals and lizards for standard metabolic rate (SMR), maximal oxygen consumption during forced exercise (VO2max), net (incremental) cost of transport (NCT), maximal aerobic speed (MAS), daily movement distance (DMD), daily energy expenditure (DEE) during the active season, and the ecological cost of transport (ECT = percentage of DEE attributable to locomotion). (Snakes were excluded because their limbless locomotion has no counterpart in terrestrial mammals.) We only considered lizard SMR, VO2max, NCT, MAS, and sprint speed data if measured at 35-40 °C. On average, MAS is ∼7.4-fold higher in mammals, whereas SMR and VO2max are ∼6-fold greater, but values for all three of these traits overlap (or almost overlap) between mammals and lizards, a fact that has not previously been appreciated. Previous studies show that sprint speeds are similar for smaller mammals and lizards, but at larger sizes lizards are not as fast as some mammals. Mammals move ∼6-fold further each day than lizards, and DMD is by far the most variable trait considered here, but their NCT is similar. Mammals exceed lizards by ∼11.4-fold for DEE. On average for both lineages, the ECT is surprisingly low, somewhat higher for lizards, and positively allometric. If a lizard and mammal of 100 g body mass were both to move their entire DMD at their MAS, they could do so in ∼21 and 17 min, respectively, thus de-emphasizing the possible importance of time constraints. We conclude that ecological-energetic constraints related to locomotion are relatively more likely to occur in large, carnivorous lizards. Overall, our comparisons support the idea that the (gradual) evolution of mammalian endothermy did not necessarily require major changes in locomotor energetics, performance, or associated behaviors. Instead, we speculate that the evolution of thermoregulatory responses to low temperatures (e.g., shivering) may have been a key and "difficult" step in this transition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodore Garland
- Department of Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92506, USA
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24
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Myhrvold NP. Response to formal comment on Myhrvold (2016) submitted by Griebeler and Werner (2017). PLoS One 2018; 13:e0192912. [PMID: 29489880 PMCID: PMC5831047 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0192912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2017] [Accepted: 01/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Griebeler and Werner offer a formal comment on Myhrvold, 2016 defending the conclusions of Werner and Griebeler, 2014. Although the comment criticizes several aspects of methodology in Myhrvold, 2016, all three papers concur on a key conclusion: the metabolism of extant endotherms and ectotherms cannot be reliably classified using growth-rate allometry, because the growth rates of extant endotherms and ectotherms overlap. A key point of disagreement is that the 2014 paper concluded that despite this general case, one can nevertheless classify dinosaurs as ectotherms from their growth rate allometry. The 2014 conclusion is based on two factors: the assertion (made without any supporting arguments) that the comparison with dinosaurs must be restricted only to extant sauropsids, ignoring other vertebrate groups, and that extant sauropsid endotherm and ectotherm growth rates in a data set studied in the 2014 work do not overlap. The Griebeler and Werner formal comment presents their first arguments in support of the restriction proposition. In this response I show that this restriction is unsupported by established principles of phylogenetic comparison. In addition, I show that the data set studied in their 2014 work does show overlap, and that this is visible in one of its figures. I explain how either point effectively invalidates the conclusion of their 2014 paper. I also address the other methodological criticisms of Myhrvold 2016, and find them unsupported.
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25
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Bacigalupe LD, Moore AJ, Nespolo RF, Rezende EL, Bozinovic F. Quantitative Genetic Modeling of the Parental Care Hypothesis for the Evolution of Endothermy. Front Physiol 2017; 8:1005. [PMID: 29311952 PMCID: PMC5732359 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.01005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
There are two heuristic explanations proposed for the evolution of endothermy in vertebrates: a correlated response to selection for stable body temperatures, or as a correlated response to increased activity. Parental care has been suggested as a major driving force in this context given its impact on the parents' activity levels and energy budgets, and in the offspring's growth rates due to food provisioning and controlled incubation temperature. This results in a complex scenario involving multiple traits and transgenerational fitness benefits that can be hard to disentangle, quantify and ultimately test. Here we demonstrate how standard quantitative genetic models of maternal effects can be applied to study the evolution of endothermy, focusing on the interplay between daily energy expenditure (DEE) of the mother and growth rates of the offspring. Our model shows that maternal effects can dramatically exacerbate evolutionary responses to selection in comparison to regular univariate models (breeder's equation). This effect would emerge from indirect selection mediated by maternal effects concomitantly with a positive genetic covariance between DEE and growth rates. The multivariate nature of selection, which could favor a higher DEE, higher growth rates or both, might partly explain how high turnover rates were continuously favored in a self-reinforcing process. Overall, our quantitative genetic analysis provides support for the parental care hypothesis for the evolution of endothermy. We contend that much has to be gained from quantifying maternal and developmental effects on metabolic and thermoregulatory variation during adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo D Bacigalupe
- Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Allen J Moore
- Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Roberto F Nespolo
- Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Enrico L Rezende
- Departamento de Ecología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Center of Applied Ecology and Sustainability, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Francisco Bozinovic
- Departamento de Ecología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Center of Applied Ecology and Sustainability, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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26
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Altimiras J, Lindgren I, Giraldo-Deck LM, Matthei A, Garitano-Zavala Á. Aerobic performance in tinamous is limited by their small heart. A novel hypothesis in the evolution of avian flight. Sci Rep 2017; 7:15964. [PMID: 29162941 PMCID: PMC5698454 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-16297-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Some biomechanical studies from fossil specimens suggest that sustained flapping flight of birds could have appeared in their Mesozoic ancestors. We challenge this idea because a suitable musculoskeletal anatomy is not the only requirement for sustained flapping flight. We propose the “heart to fly” hypothesis that states that sustained flapping flight in modern birds required an enlargement of the heart for the aerobic performance of the flight muscles and test it experimentally by studying tinamous, the living birds with the smallest hearts. The small ventricular size of tinamous reduces cardiac output without limiting perfusion pressures, but when challenged to fly, the heart is unable to support aerobic metabolism (quick exhaustion, larger lactates and post-exercise oxygen consumption and compromised thermoregulation). At the same time, cardiac growth shows a crocodilian-like pattern and is correlated with differential gene expression in MAPK kinases. We integrate this physiological evidence in a new evolutionary scenario in which the ground-up, short and not sustained flapping flight displayed by tinamous represents an intermediate step in the evolution of the aerobic sustained flapping flight of modern birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi Altimiras
- AVIAN Behavioral Genomics and Physiology, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.
| | - Isa Lindgren
- AVIAN Behavioral Genomics and Physiology, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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27
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Swanson DL, McKechnie AE, Vézina F. How low can you go? An adaptive energetic framework for interpreting basal metabolic rate variation in endotherms. J Comp Physiol B 2017; 187:1039-1056. [PMID: 28401293 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-017-1096-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2016] [Revised: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Adaptive explanations for both high and low body mass-independent basal metabolic rate (BMR) in endotherms are pervasive in evolutionary physiology, but arguments implying a direct adaptive benefit of high BMR are troublesome from an energetic standpoint. Here, we argue that conclusions about the adaptive benefit of BMR need to be interpreted, first and foremost, in terms of energetics, with particular attention to physiological traits on which natural selection is directly acting. We further argue from an energetic perspective that selection should always act to reduce BMR (i.e., maintenance costs) to the lowest level possible under prevailing environmental or ecological demands, so that high BMR per se is not directly adaptive. We emphasize the argument that high BMR arises as a correlated response to direct selection on other physiological traits associated with high ecological or environmental costs, such as daily energy expenditure (DEE) or capacities for activity or thermogenesis. High BMR thus represents elevated maintenance costs required to support energetically demanding lifestyles, including living in harsh environments. BMR is generally low under conditions of relaxed selection on energy demands for high metabolic capacities (e.g., thermoregulation, activity) or conditions promoting energy conservation. Under these conditions, we argue that selection can act directly to reduce BMR. We contend that, as a general rule, BMR should always be as low as environmental or ecological conditions permit, allowing energy to be allocated for other functions. Studies addressing relative reaction norms and response times to fluctuating environmental or ecological demands for BMR, DEE, and metabolic capacities and the fitness consequences of variation in BMR and other metabolic traits are needed to better delineate organismal metabolic responses to environmental or ecological selective forces.
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Affiliation(s)
- David L Swanson
- Department of Biology, University of South Dakota, 414 East Clark Street, Vermillion, SD, 57069, USA.
| | - Andrew E McKechnie
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, DST-NRF Centre of Excellence at the Percy FitzPatrick Institute, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Hatfield, 0028, South Africa
| | - François Vézina
- Département de Biologie, Chimie et Géographie, Université du Québec à Rimouski, Rimouski, QC, Canada.,Groupe de recherche sur les environnements nordiques BORÉAS, Centre d'Études Nordiques, Centre de la Science de la Biodiversité du Québec, Rimouski, QC, Canada
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28
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Luna F, Naya H, Naya DE. Understanding evolutionary variation in basal metabolic rate: An analysis in subterranean rodents. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2017; 206:87-94. [PMID: 28179141 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2017.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Revised: 12/09/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Understanding how evolutionary variation in energetic metabolism arises is central to several theories in animal biology. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) -i.e., the minimum rate of energy necessary to maintain thermal homeostasis in endotherms- is a highly informative measure to increase our understanding, because it is determined under highly standardized conditions. In this study we evaluate the relationship between taxa- and mass-independent (residual) BMR and ten environmental factors for 34 subterranean rodent species. Both conventional and phylogenetically informed analyses indicate that ambient temperature is the major determinant of residual BMR, with both variables inversely correlated. By contrast, other environmental factors that have been shown to affect residual BMR in endotherms, such as habitat productivity and rainfall, were not significant predictors of residual BMR in this group of species. Then, the results for subterranean rodents appear to support a central prediction of the obligatory heat model (OHM), which is a mechanistic model aimed to explain the evolution of residual BMR. Specifically, OHM proposes that during the colonization of colder environments, individuals with greater masses of metabolically expensive tissues (and thus with greater BMR) are favored by natural selection due to the link between greater masses of metabolically expensive tissues and physiological capacities. This way, natural selection should establishes a negative correlation between ambient temperature and both internal organ size and residual BMR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Facundo Luna
- Laboratorio de Ecología Fisiológica y del Comportamiento, Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) - Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - Hugo Naya
- Unidad de Bioinformática, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay
| | - Daniel E Naya
- Departamento de Ecología y Evolución, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay.
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29
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Marra NJ, Richards VP, Early A, Bogdanowicz SM, Pavinski Bitar PD, Stanhope MJ, Shivji MS. Comparative transcriptomics of elasmobranchs and teleosts highlight important processes in adaptive immunity and regional endothermy. BMC Genomics 2017; 18:87. [PMID: 28132643 PMCID: PMC5278576 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-016-3411-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Comparative genomic and/or transcriptomic analyses involving elasmobranchs remain limited, with genome level comparisons of the elasmobranch immune system to that of higher vertebrates, non-existent. This paper reports a comparative RNA-seq analysis of heart tissue from seven species, including four elasmobranchs and three teleosts, focusing on immunity, but concomitantly seeking to identify genetic similarities shared by the two lamnid sharks and the single billfish in our study, which could be linked to convergent evolution of regional endothermy. RESULTS Across seven species, we identified an average of 10,877 Swiss-Prot annotated genes from an average of 32,474 open reading frames within each species' heart transcriptome. About half of these genes were shared between all species while the remainder included functional differences between our groups of interest (elasmobranch vs. teleost and endotherms vs. ectotherms) as revealed by Gene Ontology (GO) and selection analyses. A repeatedly represented functional category, in both the uniquely expressed elasmobranch genes (total of 259) and the elasmobranch GO enrichment results, involved antibody-mediated immunity, either in the recruitment of immune cells (Fc receptors) or in antigen presentation, including such terms as "antigen processing and presentation of exogenous peptide antigen via MHC class II", and such genes as MHC class II, HLA-DPB1. Molecular adaptation analyses identified three genes in elasmobranchs with a history of positive selection, including legumain (LGMN), a gene with roles in both innate and adaptive immunity including producing antigens for presentation by MHC class II. Comparisons between the endothermic and ectothermic species revealed an enrichment of GO terms associated with cardiac muscle contraction in endotherms, with 19 genes expressed solely in endotherms, several of which have significant roles in lipid and fat metabolism. CONCLUSIONS This collective comparative evidence provides the first multi-taxa transcriptomic-based perspective on differences between elasmobranchs and teleosts, and suggests various unique features associated with the adaptive immune system of elasmobranchs, pointing in particular to the potential importance of MHC Class II. This in turn suggests that expanded comparative work involving additional tissues, as well as genome sequencing of multiple elasmobranch species would be productive in elucidating the regulatory and genome architectural hallmarks of elasmobranchs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J Marra
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.,Save Our Seas Shark Research Center and Guy Harvey Research Institute, Nova Southeastern University, 8000 North Ocean Drive, Dania Beach, FL, 33004, USA
| | - Vincent P Richards
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Angela Early
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Steve M Bogdanowicz
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Paulina D Pavinski Bitar
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Michael J Stanhope
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
| | - Mahmood S Shivji
- Save Our Seas Shark Research Center and Guy Harvey Research Institute, Nova Southeastern University, 8000 North Ocean Drive, Dania Beach, FL, 33004, USA.
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30
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Nespolo RF, Solano-Iguaran JJ, Bozinovic F. Phylogenetic Analysis Supports the Aerobic-Capacity Model for the Evolution of Endothermy. Am Nat 2016; 189:13-27. [PMID: 28035890 DOI: 10.1086/689598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The evolution of endothermy is a controversial topic in evolutionary biology, although several hypotheses have been proposed to explain it. To a great extent, the debate has centered on the aerobic-capacity model (AC model), an adaptive hypothesis involving maximum and resting rates of metabolism (MMR and RMR, respectively; hereafter "metabolic traits"). The AC model posits that MMR, a proxy of aerobic capacity and sustained activity, is the target of directional selection and that RMR is also influenced as a correlated response. Associated with this reasoning are the assumptions that (1) factorial aerobic scope (FAS; MMR/RMR) and net aerobic scope (NAS; MMR - RMR), two commonly used indexes of aerobic capacity, show different evolutionary optima and (2) the functional link between MMR and RMR is a basic design feature of vertebrates. To test these assumptions, we performed a comparative phylogenetic analysis in 176 vertebrate species, ranging from fish and amphibians to birds and mammals. Using disparity-through-time analysis, we also explored trait diversification and fitted different evolutionary models to study the evolution of metabolic traits. As predicted, we found (1) a positive phylogenetic correlation between RMR and MMR, (2) diversification of metabolic traits exceeding that of random-walk expectations, (3) that a model assuming selection fits the data better than alternative models, and (4) that a single evolutionary optimum best fits FAS data, whereas a model involving two optima (one for ectotherms and another for endotherms) is the best explanatory model for NAS. These results support the AC model and give novel information concerning the mode and tempo of physiological evolution of vertebrates.
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Abstract
Autonomic thermoregulation is a recently acquired function, as it appears for the first time in mammals and provides the brain with the ability to control energy expenditure. The importance of such control can easily be highlighted by the ability of a heterogeneous group of mammals to actively reduce metabolic rate and enter a condition of regulated hypometabolism known as torpor. The central neural circuits of thermoregulatory cold defense have been recently unraveled and could in theory be exploited to reduce energy expenditure in species that do not normally use torpor, inducing a state called synthetic torpor. This approach may represent the first steps toward the development of a technology to induce a safe and reversible state of hypometabolism in humans, unlocking many applications ranging from new medical procedures to deep space travel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Cerri
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, Physiology Division, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy;
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32
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Ciezarek AG, Dunning LT, Jones CS, Noble LR, Humble E, Stefanni SS, Savolainen V. Substitutions in the Glycogenin-1 Gene Are Associated with the Evolution of Endothermy in Sharks and Tunas. Genome Biol Evol 2016; 8:3011-3021. [PMID: 27614233 PMCID: PMC5630876 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evw211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite 400–450 million years of independent evolution, a strong phenotypic convergence has occurred between two groups of fish: tunas and lamnid sharks. This convergence is characterized by centralization of red muscle, a distinctive swimming style (stiffened body powered through tail movements) and elevated body temperature (endothermy). Furthermore, both groups demonstrate elevated white muscle metabolic capacities. All these traits are unusual in fish and more likely evolved to support their fast-swimming, pelagic, predatory behavior. Here, we tested the hypothesis that their convergent evolution was driven by selection on a set of metabolic genes. We sequenced white muscle transcriptomes of six tuna, one mackerel, and three shark species, and supplemented this data set with previously published RNA-seq data. Using 26 species in total (including 7,032 tuna genes plus 1,719 shark genes), we constructed phylogenetic trees and carried out maximum-likelihood analyses of gene selection. We inferred several genes relating to metabolism to be under selection. We also found that the same one gene, glycogenin-1, evolved under positive selection independently in tunas and lamnid sharks, providing evidence of convergent selective pressures at gene level possibly underlying shared physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam G Ciezarek
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Silwood Park Campus, Buckhurst Road, Ascot, UK
| | - Luke T Dunning
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Silwood Park Campus, Buckhurst Road, Ascot, UK Present address: Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Catherine S Jones
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Zoology Building, Tillydrone Avenue, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
| | - Leslie R Noble
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Zoology Building, Tillydrone Avenue, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
| | - Emily Humble
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Silwood Park Campus, Buckhurst Road, Ascot, UK Present address: Department of Animal Behaviour, University of Bielefeld, Postfach 100131, Bielefeld, Germany
| | | | - Vincent Savolainen
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Silwood Park Campus, Buckhurst Road, Ascot, UK
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33
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Garland T, Zhao M, Saltzman W. Hormones and the Evolution of Complex Traits: Insights from Artificial Selection on Behavior. Integr Comp Biol 2016; 56:207-24. [PMID: 27252193 PMCID: PMC5964798 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Although behavior may often be a fairly direct target of natural or sexual selection, it cannot evolve without changes in subordinate traits that cause or permit its expression. In principle, changes in endocrine function could be a common mechanism underlying behavioral evolution because they are well positioned to mediate integrated responses to behavioral selection. More specifically, hormones can influence both motivational (e.g., brain) and performance (e.g., muscles) components of behavior simultaneously and in a coordinated fashion. If the endocrine system is often "used" as a general mechanism to effect responses to selection, then correlated responses in other aspects of behavior, life history, and organismal performance (e.g., locomotor abilities) should commonly occur because any cell with appropriate receptors could be affected. Ways in which behavior coadapts with other aspects of the phenotype can be studied directly through artificial selection and experimental evolution. Several studies have targeted rodent behavior for selective breeding and reported changes in other aspects of behavior, life history, and lower-level effectors of these organismal traits, including endocrine function. One example involves selection for high levels of voluntary wheel running, one aspect of physical activity, in four replicate High Runner (HR) lines of mice. Circulating levels of several hormones (including insulin, testosterone, thyroxine, triiodothyronine) have been characterized, three of which-corticosterone, leptin, and adiponectin-differ between HR and control lines, depending on sex, age, and generation. Potential changes in circulating levels of other behaviorally and metabolically relevant hormones, as well as in other components of the endocrine system (e.g., receptors), have yet to be examined. Overall, results to date identify promising avenues for further studies on the endocrine basis of activity levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodore Garland
- *Department of Biology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA 92506, USA
| | - Meng Zhao
- *Department of Biology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA 92506, USA
| | - Wendy Saltzman
- *Department of Biology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA 92506, USA
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34
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Lovegrove BG. A phenology of the evolution of endothermy in birds and mammals. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2016; 92:1213-1240. [DOI: 10.1111/brv.12280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2015] [Revised: 04/11/2016] [Accepted: 04/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Barry G. Lovegrove
- School of Life Sciences; University of KwaZulu-Natal; P/Bag X01 Scottsville Pietermaritzburg 3209 South Africa
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35
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Legendre LJ, Guénard G, Botha-Brink J, Cubo J. Palaeohistological Evidence for Ancestral High Metabolic Rate in Archosaurs. Syst Biol 2016; 65:989-996. [PMID: 27073251 DOI: 10.1093/sysbio/syw033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2015] [Revised: 04/05/2016] [Accepted: 04/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabolic heat production in archosaurs has played an important role in their evolutionary radiation during the Mesozoic, and their ancestral metabolic condition has long been a matter of debate in systematics and palaeontology. The study of fossil bone histology provides crucial information on bone growth rate, which has been used to indirectly investigate the evolution of thermometabolism in archosaurs. However, no quantitative estimation of metabolic rate has ever been performed on fossils using bone histological features. Moreover, to date, no inference model has included phylogenetic information in the form of predictive variables. Here we performed statistical predictive modeling using the new method of phylogenetic eigenvector maps on a set of bone histological features for a sample of extant and extinct vertebrates, to estimate metabolic rates of fossil archosauromorphs. This modeling procedure serves as a case study for eigenvector-based predictive modeling in a phylogenetic context, as well as an investigation of the poorly known evolutionary patterns of metabolic rate in archosaurs. Our results show that Mesozoic theropod dinosaurs exhibit metabolic rates very close to those found in modern birds, that archosaurs share a higher ancestral metabolic rate than that of extant ectotherms, and that this derived high metabolic rate was acquired at a much more inclusive level of the phylogenetic tree, among non-archosaurian archosauromorphs. These results also highlight the difficulties of assigning a given heat production strategy (i.e., endothermy, ectothermy) to an estimated metabolic rate value, and confirm findings of previous studies that the definition of the endotherm/ectotherm dichotomy may be ambiguous.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas J Legendre
- Institut des Sciences de la Terre de Paris (ISTeP), Sorbonne Universités - Université Pierre et Marie Curie , 4 Place Jussieu, F-75005 Paris, France;
| | - Guillaume Guénard
- Département de sciences biologiques, Université de Montréal, CP 6128, Succursale Centre-Ville, Montréal, QC H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - Jennifer Botha-Brink
- Karoo Palaeontology, National Museum, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa; and.,Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa
| | - Jorge Cubo
- Institut des Sciences de la Terre de Paris (ISTeP), Sorbonne Universités - Université Pierre et Marie Curie , 4 Place Jussieu, F-75005 Paris, France
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36
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Sadowska ET, Stawski C, Rudolf A, Dheyongera G, Chrząścik KM, Baliga-Klimczyk K, Koteja P. Evolution of basal metabolic rate in bank voles from a multidirectional selection experiment. Proc Biol Sci 2016; 282:20150025. [PMID: 25876844 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.0025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A major theme in evolutionary and ecological physiology of terrestrial vertebrates encompasses the factors underlying the evolution of endothermy in birds and mammals and interspecific variation of basal metabolic rate (BMR). Here, we applied the experimental evolution approach and compared BMR in lines of a wild rodent, the bank vole (Myodes glareolus), selected for 11 generations for: high swim-induced aerobic metabolism (A), ability to maintain body mass on a low-quality herbivorous diet (H) and intensity of predatory behaviour towards crickets (P). Four replicate lines were maintained for each of the selection directions and an unselected control (C). In comparison to C lines, A lines achieved a 49% higher maximum rate of oxygen consumption during swimming, H lines lost 1.3 g less mass in the test with low-quality diet and P lines attacked crickets five times more frequently. BMR was significantly higher in A lines than in C or H lines (60.8, 56.6 and 54.4 ml O2 h(-1), respectively), and the values were intermediate in P lines (59.0 ml O2 h(-1)). Results of the selection experiment provide support for the hypothesis of a positive association between BMR and aerobic exercise performance, but not for the association of adaptation to herbivorous diet with either a high or low BMR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edyta T Sadowska
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, ul. Gronostajowa 7, Kraków 30-387, Poland
| | - Clare Stawski
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, ul. Gronostajowa 7, Kraków 30-387, Poland
| | - Agata Rudolf
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, ul. Gronostajowa 7, Kraków 30-387, Poland
| | - Geoffrey Dheyongera
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, ul. Gronostajowa 7, Kraków 30-387, Poland
| | - Katarzyna M Chrząścik
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, ul. Gronostajowa 7, Kraków 30-387, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Baliga-Klimczyk
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, ul. Gronostajowa 7, Kraków 30-387, Poland
| | - Paweł Koteja
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, ul. Gronostajowa 7, Kraków 30-387, Poland
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37
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An ecological method to understand agricultural standardization in peach orchard ecosystems. Sci Rep 2016; 6:21675. [PMID: 26899360 PMCID: PMC4761941 DOI: 10.1038/srep21675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 01/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
While the worldwide standardization of agricultural production has been advocated and recommended, relatively little research has focused on the ecological significance of such a shift. The ecological concerns stemming from the standardization of agricultural production may require new methodology. In this study, we concentrated on how ecological two-sidedness and ecological processes affect the standardization of agricultural production which was divided into three phrases (pre-, mid- and post-production), considering both the positive and negative effects of agricultural processes. We constructed evaluation indicator systems for the pre-, mid- and post-production phases and here we presented a Standardization of Green Production Index (SGPI) based on the Full Permutation Polygon Synthetic Indicator (FPPSI) method which we used to assess the superiority of three methods of standardized production for peaches. The values of SGPI for pre-, mid- and post-production were 0.121 (Level IV, “Excellent” standard), 0.379 (Level III, “Good” standard), and 0.769 × 10−2 (Level IV, “Excellent” standard), respectively. Here we aimed to explore the integrated application of ecological two-sidedness and ecological process in agricultural production. Our results are of use to decision-makers and ecologists focusing on eco-agriculture and those farmers who hope to implement standardized agricultural production practices.
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38
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Stawski C, Valencak TG, Ruf T, Sadowska ET, Dheyongera G, Rudolf A, Maiti U, Koteja P. Effect of Selection for High Activity-Related Metabolism on Membrane Phospholipid Fatty Acid Composition in Bank Voles. Physiol Biochem Zool 2015; 88:668-79. [PMID: 26658414 DOI: 10.1086/683039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Endothermy, high basal metabolic rates (BMRs), and high locomotor-related metabolism were important steps in the evolution of mammals. It has been proposed that the composition of membrane phospholipid fatty acids plays an important role in energy metabolism and exercise muscle physiology. In particular, the membrane pacemaker theory of metabolism suggests that an increase in cell membrane fatty acid unsaturation would result in an increase in BMR. We aimed to determine whether membrane phospholipid fatty acid composition of heart, liver, and gastrocnemius muscles differed between lines of bank voles selected for high swim-induced aerobic metabolism-which also evolved an increased BMR-and unselected control lines. Proportions of fatty acids significantly differed among the organs: liver was the least unsaturated, whereas the gastrocnemius muscles were most unsaturated. However, fatty acid proportions of the heart and liver did not differ significantly between selected and control lines. In gastrocnemius muscles, significant differences between selection directions were found: compared to control lines, membranes of selected voles were richer in saturated C18:0 and unsaturated C18:2n-6 and C18:3n-3, whereas the pattern was reversed for saturated C16:0 and unsaturated C20:4n-6. Neither unsaturation index nor other combined indexes of fatty acid proportions differed between lines. Thus, our results do not support the membrane pacemaker hypothesis. However, the differences between selected and control lines in gastrocnemius muscles reflect chain lengths rather than number of double bonds and are probably related to differences in locomotor activity per se rather than to differences in the basal or routine metabolic rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare Stawski
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Kraków, Poland; 2Department of Integrative Biology and Evolution, Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Savoyenstrasse 1, 1160 Vienna, Austria
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39
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Konczal M, Babik W, Radwan J, Sadowska ET, Koteja P. Initial Molecular-Level Response to Artificial Selection for Increased Aerobic Metabolism Occurs Primarily through Changes in Gene Expression. Mol Biol Evol 2015; 32:1461-73. [DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msv038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
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40
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Little AG, Seebacher F. The evolution of endothermy is explained by thyroid hormone-mediated responses to cold in early vertebrates. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 217:1642-8. [PMID: 24829322 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.088880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The evolution of endothermy is one of the most intriguing and consistently debated topics in vertebrate biology, but the proximate mechanisms that mediated its evolution are unknown. Here, we suggest that the function of thyroid hormone in regulating physiological processes in response to cold is key to understanding the evolution of endothermy. We argue that the capacity of early chordates to produce thyroid hormone internally was the first step in this evolutionary process. Selection could then act on the capacity of thyroid hormone to regulate metabolism, muscle force production and cardiac performance to maintain their function against the negative thermodynamic effects of decreasing temperature. Thyroid-mediated cold acclimation would have been the principal selective advantage. The actions of thyroid hormone during cold acclimation in zebrafish are very similar to its role during endothermic thermogenesis. The thyroid-mediated increases in metabolism and locomotor performance in ectotherms eventually resulted in sufficient heat production to affect body temperature. From this point onwards, increased body temperature per se could be of selective advantage and reinforce thyroid-induced increases in physiological rates. Selection for increased body temperature would promote those mechanisms that maximise heat production, such as increased Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activity, futile cycling by SERCA, and mitochondrial uncoupling, all of which are regulated by thyroid hormone. The specific end point of this broader evolutionary process would be endothermic thermoregulation. However, considering the evolution of endothermy in isolation is misleading because the selective advantages that drove the evolutionary process were independent from endothermy. In other words, without the selective advantages of thyroid-mediated cold acclimation in fish, there would be no endotherms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander G Little
- School of Biological Sciences A08, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Frank Seebacher
- School of Biological Sciences A08, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
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41
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Hayes JP. Present-day genetic correlations and testing the aerobic capacity model. Am Nat 2014; 184:802-3. [PMID: 25438180 DOI: 10.1086/678452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
A recent article by Nespolo and Roff suggests that present-day genetic correlations between resting and maximal metabolic rate do not provide support for the aerobic capacity model for the evolution of endothermy. That conclusion is potentially misleading. The aerobic capacity model makes exacting predictions about genetic architecture. While the presence of a genetic correlation does not support the model per se, the absence of a correlation definitively falsifies the model. Testing for present-day correlations remains a useful endeavor, at least until the model is convincingly falsified or until many attempts to falsify the model fail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack P Hayes
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557
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42
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Nespolo RF, Roff DA. Model falsification, quantitative genetics, and the evolution of endothermy: are we choosing the right tool? Am Nat 2014; 184:804-5. [PMID: 25438181 DOI: 10.1086/678453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Roberto F Nespolo
- Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
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43
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Rowland LA, Bal NC, Periasamy M. The role of skeletal-muscle-based thermogenic mechanisms in vertebrate endothermy. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2014; 90:1279-97. [PMID: 25424279 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2014] [Revised: 10/03/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Thermogenesis is one of the most important homeostatic mechanisms that evolved during vertebrate evolution. Despite its importance for the survival of the organism, the mechanistic details behind various thermogenic processes remain incompletely understood. Although heat production from muscle has long been recognized as a thermogenic mechanism, whether muscle can produce heat independently of contraction remains controversial. Studies in birds and mammals suggest that skeletal muscle can be an important site of non-shivering thermogenesis (NST) and can be recruited during cold adaptation, although unequivocal evidence is lacking. Much research on thermogenesis during the last two decades has been focused on brown adipose tissue (BAT). These studies clearly implicate BAT as an important site of NST in mammals, in particular in newborns and rodents. However, BAT is either absent, as in birds and pigs, or is only a minor component, as in adult large mammals including humans, bringing into question the BAT-centric view of thermogenesis. This review focuses on the evolution and emergence of various thermogenic mechanisms in vertebrates from fish to man. A careful analysis of the existing data reveals that muscle was the earliest facultative thermogenic organ to emerge in vertebrates, long before the appearance of BAT in eutherian mammals. Additionally, these studies suggest that muscle-based thermogenesis is the dominant mechanism of heat production in many species including birds, marsupials, and certain mammals where BAT-mediated thermogenesis is absent or limited. We discuss the relevance of our recent findings showing that uncoupling of sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-ATPase (SERCA) by sarcolipin (SLN), resulting in futile cycling and increased heat production, could be the basis for NST in skeletal muscle. The overall goal of this review is to highlight the role of skeletal muscle as a thermogenic organ and provide a balanced view of thermogenesis in vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie A Rowland
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, U.S.A
| | - Naresh C Bal
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, U.S.A
| | - Muthu Periasamy
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, U.S.A
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44
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Sandmeier FC, Tracy RC. The Metabolic Pace-of-Life Model: Incorporating Ectothermic Organisms into the Theory of Vertebrate Ecoimmunology. Integr Comp Biol 2014; 54:387-95. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icu021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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45
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Boratyński Z, Melo-Ferreira J, Alves PC, Berto S, Koskela E, Pentikäinen OT, Tarroso P, Ylilauri M, Mappes T. Molecular and ecological signs of mitochondrial adaptation: consequences for introgression? Heredity (Edinb) 2014; 113:277-86. [PMID: 24690754 DOI: 10.1038/hdy.2014.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2013] [Revised: 02/18/2014] [Accepted: 02/20/2014] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The evolution of the mitochondrial genome and its potential adaptive impact still generates vital debates. Even if mitochondria have a crucial functional role, as they are the main cellular energy suppliers, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) introgression is common in nature, introducing variation in populations upon which selection may act. Here we evaluated whether the evolution of mtDNA in a rodent species affected by mtDNA introgression is explained by neutral expectations alone. Variation in one mitochondrial and six nuclear markers in Myodes glareolus voles was examined, including populations that show mtDNA introgression from its close relative, Myodes rutilus. In addition, we modelled protein structures of the mtDNA marker (cytochrome b) and estimated the environmental envelopes of mitotypes. We found that massive mtDNA introgression occurred without any trace of introgression in the analysed nuclear genes. The results show that the native glareolus mtDNA evolved under past positive selection, suggesting that mtDNA in this system has selective relevance. The environmental models indicate that the rutilus mitotype inhabits colder and drier habitats than the glareolus one that can result from local adaptation or from the geographic context of introgression. Finally, homology models of the cytochrome b protein revealed a substitution in rutilus mtDNA in the vicinity of the catalytic fraction, suggesting that differences between mitotypes may result in functional changes. These results suggest that the evolution of mtDNA in Myodes may have functional, ecological and adaptive significance. This work opens perspective onto future experimental tests of the role of natural selection in mtDNA introgression in this system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Boratyński
- 1] Centre of Excellence in Evolutionary Research, Division of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland [2] CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBio Associate Laboratory, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
| | - J Melo-Ferreira
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBio Associate Laboratory, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
| | - P C Alves
- 1] CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBio Associate Laboratory, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal [2] Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal [3] Wildlife Biology Program, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA
| | - S Berto
- 1] Centre of Excellence in Evolutionary Research, Division of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland [2] 'TFome and Trancriptome Evolution', Universität Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - E Koskela
- Division of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - O T Pentikäinen
- Computational Bioscience Laboratory, Division of Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Biological and Environmental Science & Nanoscience Center, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - P Tarroso
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBio Associate Laboratory, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
| | - M Ylilauri
- Computational Bioscience Laboratory, Division of Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Biological and Environmental Science & Nanoscience Center, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - T Mappes
- Centre of Excellence in Evolutionary Research, Division of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
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Nespolo RF, Roff DA. Testing the aerobic model for the evolution of endothermy: implications of using present correlations to infer past evolution. Am Nat 2013; 183:74-83. [PMID: 24334737 DOI: 10.1086/674093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The evolution of endothermy is one of the most puzzling events in vertebrate evolution, for which several hypotheses have been proposed. The most accepted model is the aerobic model, which assumes the existence of a genetic correlation between resting metabolic rate (RMR) and maximum aerobic capacity (whose standard measure is maximum metabolic rate, MMR). This model posits that directional selection acted on maximum aerobic capacity and resting metabolic rate increased as a correlated response, in turn increasing body temperature. To test this hypothesis we implemented a simple two-trait quantitative genetic model in which RMR and MMR are initially independent of each other and subject to stabilizing selection to two separate optima. We show mutations that arise that affect both traits can lead to the evolution of a genetic correlation between the traits without any significant shifting of the two trait means. Thus, the presence of a genetic correlation between RMR and MMR in living animals provides no support in and of itself for the past elevation of metabolic rate via selection on aerobic capacity. This result calls into question the testability of the hypothesis that RMR increased as a correlated response to directional selection on MMR, in turn increasing body temperature, using quantitative genetics. Given the difficulty in studying ancient physiological processes, we suggest that approaches such as this model are a valuable alternative for analyzing possible mechanisms of endothermy evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto F Nespolo
- Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile 5090000
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Gerkema MP, Davies WIL, Foster RG, Menaker M, Hut RA. The nocturnal bottleneck and the evolution of activity patterns in mammals. Proc Biol Sci 2013; 280:20130508. [PMID: 23825205 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2013.0508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
In 1942, Walls described the concept of a 'nocturnal bottleneck' in placental mammals, where these species could survive only by avoiding daytime activity during times in which dinosaurs were the dominant taxon. Walls based this concept of a longer episode of nocturnality in early eutherian mammals by comparing the visual systems of reptiles, birds and all three extant taxa of the mammalian lineage, namely the monotremes, marsupials (now included in the metatherians) and placentals (included in the eutherians). This review describes the status of what has become known as the nocturnal bottleneck hypothesis, giving an overview of the chronobiological patterns of activity. We review the ecological plausibility that the activity patterns of (early) eutherian mammals were restricted to the night, based on arguments relating to endothermia, energy balance, foraging and predation, taking into account recent palaeontological information. We also assess genes, relating to light detection (visual and non-visual systems) and the photolyase DNA protection system that were lost in the eutherian mammalian lineage. Our conclusion presently is that arguments in favour of the nocturnal bottleneck hypothesis in eutherians prevail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menno P Gerkema
- Centre for Behaviour and Neuroscience, Department of Chronobiology, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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Little AG, Kunisue T, Kannan K, Seebacher F. Thyroid hormone actions are temperature-specific and regulate thermal acclimation in zebrafish (Danio rerio). BMC Biol 2013; 11:26. [PMID: 23531055 PMCID: PMC3633057 DOI: 10.1186/1741-7007-11-26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2013] [Accepted: 03/19/2013] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thyroid hormone (TH) is best known for its role in development in animals, and for its control of metabolic heat production (thermogenesis) during cold acclimation in mammals. It is unknown whether the regulatory role of TH in thermogenesis is derived in mammals, or whether TH also mediates thermal responses in earlier vertebrates. Ectothermic vertebrates show complex responses to temperature variation, but the mechanisms mediating these are poorly understood. The molecular mechanisms underpinning TH action are very similar across vertebrates, suggesting that TH may also regulate thermal responses in ectotherms. We therefore aimed to determine whether TH regulates thermal acclimation in the zebrafish (Danio rerio). We induced hypothyroidism, followed by supplementation with 3,5-diiodothyronine (T2) or 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3) in zebrafish exposed to different chronic temperatures. We measured whole-animal responses (swimming performance and metabolic rates), tissue-specific regulatory enzyme activities, gene expression, and free levels of T2 and T3. RESULTS We found that both T3 and the lesser-known T2, regulate thermal acclimation in an ectotherm. To our knowledge, this is the first such study to show this. Hypothyroid treatment impaired performance measures in cold-acclimated but not warm-acclimated individuals, whereas supplementation with both TH metabolites restored performance. TH could either induce or repress responses, depending on the actual temperature and thermal history of the animal. CONCLUSIONS The low sensitivity to TH at warm temperatures could mean that increasing temperatures (that is, global warming) will reduce the capacity of animals to regulate their physiologies to match demands. We suggest that the properties that underlie the role of TH in thermal acclimation (temperature sensitivity and metabolic control) may have predisposed this hormone for a regulatory role in the evolution of endothermy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander G Little
- School of Biological Sciences, A08 University of Sydney, Science Road, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - Tatsuya Kunisue
- School of Public Health, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, 12201-0509, USA
| | - Kurunthachalam Kannan
- School of Public Health, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, 12201-0509, USA
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment, IJRC PTS, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Frank Seebacher
- School of Biological Sciences, A08 University of Sydney, Science Road, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
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Naya DE, Spangenberg L, Naya H, Bozinovic F. How does evolutionary variation in Basal metabolic rates arise? A statistical assessment and a mechanistic model. Evolution 2013; 67:1463-76. [PMID: 23617921 DOI: 10.1111/evo.12042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Accepted: 12/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Metabolic rates are related to the pace of life. Hence, research into their variability at global scales is of vital importance for several contemporary theories in physiology, ecology, and evolution. Here we evaluated the effect of latitude, climate, primary productivity, habitat aridity, and species trophic habits, on mass-independent basal metabolic rates (BMRs) for 195 rodent species. The aims of this article were twofold. First, we evaluated the predictive power of different statistical models (via a model selection approach), using a dimensional reduction technique on the exogenous factor matrix to achieve a clear interpretation of the selected models. Second, we evaluated three specific predictions derived from a recently proposed hypothesis, herein called the "obligatory heat" model (OHM), for the evolution of BMR. Obtained results indicate that mean/minimum environmental temperature, rainfall/primary productivity and, finally, species trophic habits are, in this order, the major determinants of mass-independent BMR. Concerning the mechanistic causes behind this variation, obtained data agree with the predictions of the OHM: (1) mean annual environmental temperature was the best single predictor of residual variation in BMR, (2) herbivorous species have greater mass-independent metabolic rates, and tend to be present at high-latitude cold environments, than species in other trophic categories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel E Naya
- Departamento de Ecología y Evolución, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay.
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Merritt L, Matthews PGD, White CR. Performance correlates of resting metabolic rate in garden skinks Lampropholis delicata. J Comp Physiol B 2013; 183:663-73. [DOI: 10.1007/s00360-012-0736-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2011] [Revised: 11/15/2012] [Accepted: 12/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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