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Li C, Li J, Sun P, Li T, Yan X, Ye J, Wu J, Zhu L, Wang H, Pan C. Production of Promising Heat-Labile Enterotoxin (LT) B Subunit-Based Self-Assembled Bioconjugate Nanovaccines against Infectious Diseases. Vaccines (Basel) 2024; 12:347. [PMID: 38675730 PMCID: PMC11054625 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines12040347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Nanoparticles (NPs) have been widely utilized in vaccine design. Although numerous NPs have been explored, NPs with adjuvant effects on their own have rarely been reported. We produce a promising self-assembled NP by integrating the pentameric Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin B subunit (LTB) (studied as a vaccine adjuvant) with a trimer-forming peptide. This fusion protein can self-assemble into the NP during expression, and polysaccharide antigens (OPS) are then loaded in vivo using glycosylation. We initially produced two Salmonella paratyphi A conjugate nanovaccines using two LTB subfamilies (LTIB and LTIIbB). After confirming their biosafety in mice, the data showed that both nanovaccines (NP(LTIB)-OPSSPA and NP(LTIIbB)-OPSSPA) elicited strong polysaccharide-specific antibody responses, and NP(LTIB)-OPS resulted in better protection. Furthermore, polysaccharides derived from Shigella or Klebsiella pneumoniae were loaded onto NP(LTIB) and NP(LTIIbB). The animal experimental results indicated that LTIB, as a pentamer module, exhibited excellent protection against lethal infections. This effect was also consistent with that of the reported cholera toxin B subunit (CTB) modular NP in all three models. For the first time, we prepared a novel promising self-assembled NP based on LTIB. In summary, these results indicated that the LTB-based nanocarriers have the potential for broad applications, further expanding the library of self-assembled nanocarriers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Hengliang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China; (C.L.); (J.L.); (P.S.); (T.L.); (X.Y.); (J.Y.); (L.Z.)
| | - Chao Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing 100071, China; (C.L.); (J.L.); (P.S.); (T.L.); (X.Y.); (J.Y.); (L.Z.)
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2
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Limosilactobacillus reuteri Regulating Intestinal Function: A Review. FERMENTATION-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/fermentation9010019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Probiotics have extensive use in daily life, due to the function of the changing intestinal metabolism and material conversion processes, wherein they remodel the intestinal microbiota, regulate the intestinal function and affect the organism’s health. Limosilactobacillus reuteri (L. reuteri), originally discovered in breast milk and currently reported to be present within the gut of almost all vertebrates and mammals, is an intestinal probiotic with prebiotic efficacy. Most L. reuteri have good intestinal colonization and bacteriocin secretion abilities, which can increase the expression of the mucin (mucoprotein) genes 2 MUC2 and MUC13, which in turn promote the development and maturation of intestinal organoids, and augment mucin secretion. In enteritis patients, L. reuteri downregulates α Tumor necrosis factor-α, (TNF-α), Interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-8, and IL-12 expression to attenuate inflammation. It also induces the host’s production of immunoglobulin A (IGA), which manipulates the intestinal microbial community, inhibiting the growth of pathogens. L. reuteri has been widely used in daily life. with in-depth studies having been conducted on the prebiotic effects of L. reuteri. However, the complexity of its application in a clinical setting is still unclear because the pathogenesis of various diseases still requires a large amount of data and theoretical support.
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3
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Zalem D, Juhás M, Terrinoni M, King-Lyons N, Lebens M, Varrot A, Connell TD, Teneberg S. Characterization of the ganglioside recognition profile of Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin LT-IIc. Glycobiology 2022; 32:391-403. [PMID: 34972864 PMCID: PMC9022906 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwab133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The heat-labile enterotoxins of Escherichia coli and cholera toxin of Vibrio cholerae are related in structure and function. Each of these oligomeric toxins is comprised of one A polypeptide and five B polypeptides. The B-subunits bind to gangliosides, which are followed by uptake into the intoxicated cell and activation of the host's adenylate cyclase by the A-subunits. There are two antigenically distinct groups of these toxins. Group I includes cholera toxin and type I heat-labile enterotoxin of E. coli; group II contains the type II heat-labile enterotoxins of E. coli. Three variants of type II toxins, designated LT-IIa, LT-IIb and LT-IIc have been described. Earlier studies revealed the crystalline structure of LT-IIb. Herein the carbohydrate binding specificity of LT-IIc B-subunits was investigated by glycosphingolipid binding studies on thin-layer chromatograms and in microtiter wells. Binding studies using a large variety of glycosphingolipids showed that LT-IIc binds with high affinity to gangliosides with a terminal Neu5Acα3Gal or Neu5Gcα3Gal, e.g. the gangliosides GM3, GD1a and Neu5Acα3-/Neu5Gcα3--neolactotetraosylceramide and Neu5Acα3-/Neu5Gcα3-neolactohexaosylceramide. The crystal structure of LT-IIc B-subunits alone and with bound LSTd/sialyl-lacto-N-neotetraose d pentasaccharide uncovered the molecular basis of the ganglioside recognition. These studies revealed common and unique functional structures of the type II family of heat-labile enterotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dani Zalem
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Martin Juhás
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Analysis, Charles University, Faculty of Pharmacy in Hradec Králové, Akademika Heyrovského 1203, Hradec Králové 500 05, Czech Republic
| | - Manuela Terrinoni
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Natalie King-Lyons
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology and The Witebsky Center for Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, The Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, The University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
| | - Michael Lebens
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | - Terry D Connell
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology and The Witebsky Center for Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, The Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, The University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA
| | - Susann Teneberg
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Sahlgrenska Academy, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
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4
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Akache B, Stark FC, Agbayani G, Renner TM, McCluskie MJ. Adjuvants: Engineering Protective Immune Responses in Human and Veterinary Vaccines. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2412:179-231. [PMID: 34918246 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1892-9_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Adjuvants are key components of many vaccines, used to enhance the level and breadth of the immune response to a target antigen, thereby enhancing protection from the associated disease. In recent years, advances in our understanding of the innate and adaptive immune systems have allowed for the development of a number of novel adjuvants with differing mechanisms of action. Herein, we review adjuvants currently approved for human and veterinary use, describing their use and proposed mechanisms of action. In addition, we will discuss additional promising adjuvants currently undergoing preclinical and/or clinical testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bassel Akache
- Human Health Therapeutics, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Felicity C Stark
- Human Health Therapeutics, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Gerard Agbayani
- Human Health Therapeutics, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Tyler M Renner
- Human Health Therapeutics, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Michael J McCluskie
- Human Health Therapeutics, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
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5
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Knapp MPA, Johnson TA, Ritter MK, Rainer RO, Fiester SE, Grier JT, Connell TD, Arce S. Immunomodulatory regulation by heat-labile enterotoxins and potential therapeutic applications. Expert Rev Vaccines 2021; 20:975-987. [PMID: 34148503 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2021.1945449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Heat-labile enterotoxins (HLTs) and their cognate ganglioside receptors have been extensively studied because of their therapeutic potential. Gangliosides play arole in modulating effector cells of the immune system, and HLTs provide a novel means for stimulating ganglioside-mediated responses in immunocompetent cells.Areas covered: To evaluate the mechanisms of HLT adjuvanticity, a systemic literature review was performed using relevant keyword searches of the PubMed database, accessing literature published as recently as late 2020. Since HLTs bind to specific ganglioside receptors on immunocytes, they can act as regulators via stimulation or tapering of immune responses from associated signal transduction events. Binding of HLTs to gangliosides can increase proliferation of T-cells, increase cytokine release, augment mucosal/systemic antibody responses, and increase the effectiveness of antigen presenting cells. Subunit components also independently stimulate certain immune responses. Mutant forms of HLTs have potent immunomodulatory effects without the toxicity associated with holotoxins.Expert opinion: HLTs have been the subject of abundant research exploring their use as vaccine adjuvants, in the treatment of autoimmune conditions, in cancer therapy, and for weight loss, proving that these molecules are promising tools in the field of immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary-Peyton A Knapp
- University of South Carolina School of Medicine Greenville, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Greenville, SC, USA
| | - Taylor A Johnson
- University of South Carolina School of Medicine Greenville, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Greenville, SC, USA
| | - Madison K Ritter
- University of South Carolina School of Medicine Greenville, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Greenville, SC, USA
| | - Robert O Rainer
- University of South Carolina School of Medicine Greenville, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Greenville, SC, USA.,Prisma Health, Department of Pathology, Greenville, SC, USA
| | - Steven E Fiester
- University of South Carolina School of Medicine Greenville, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Greenville, SC, USA.,Prisma Health, Department of Pathology, Greenville, SC, USA
| | - Jennifer T Grier
- University of South Carolina School of Medicine Greenville, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Greenville, SC, USA
| | - Terry D Connell
- University of Buffalo, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences and the Witebsky Center of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Sergio Arce
- University of South Carolina School of Medicine Greenville, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Greenville, SC, USA.,Prisma Health, Cancer Institute, Greenville, SC, USA
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6
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Tkáčiková Ľ, Mochnáčová E, Tyagi P, Kiššová Z, Bhide M. Comprehensive mapping of the cell response to E. coli infection in porcine intestinal epithelial cells pretreated with exopolysaccharide derived from Lactobacillus reuteri. Vet Res 2020; 51:49. [PMID: 32234079 PMCID: PMC7106801 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-020-00773-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial exopolysaccharides (EPSs) are known to modulate immunity. To date, a plethora of studies have reported the effect of EPSs on intestinal cells; however few works have revealed a complete picture of the signalling events in intestinal epithelial cells induced by bacterial EPSs. Here, using transcriptomics, we comprehensively mapped the biological processes in porcine intestinal epithelial cells challenged with EPS derived from Lactobacillus reuteri alone, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) or ETEC after pretreatment with EPS. The Gene Ontology analysis of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) showed that ETEC is able to evoke biological processes specifically involved in cell junction reorganization, extracellular matrix degradation, and activation of the innate immune response through the activation of pattern recognition receptors, such as TLRs and CTRs. A total of 495 DEGs were induced in ETEC-challenged cells. On the other hand, EPS pretreatment was able to attenuate overexpression of the genes induced by ETEC infection. The most relevant finding of this study is that EPS has a suppressive effect on the inflammatory response evoked by ETEC infection. On the basis of high-throughput RNA-seq, this report is the first to describe the effects of EPSs derived from L. reuteri used as a pretreatment of global gene expression in porcine epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ľudmila Tkáčiková
- Institute of Immunology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Kosice, Kosice, Slovakia
| | - Evelína Mochnáčová
- Laboratory of Biomedical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Kosice, Kosice, Slovakia
| | - Punit Tyagi
- Laboratory of Biomedical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Kosice, Kosice, Slovakia
| | - Zuzana Kiššová
- Institute of Immunology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Kosice, Kosice, Slovakia
| | - Mangesh Bhide
- Laboratory of Biomedical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Kosice, Kosice, Slovakia. .,Institute of Neuroimmunology, SAV, Dubravska cesta 9, Bratislava, Slovakia.
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7
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Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5 Hemagglutinin Fused with the A Subunit of Type IIb Escherichia coli Heat Labile Enterotoxin Elicited Protective Immunity and Neutralization by Intranasal Immunization in Mouse and Chicken Models. Vaccines (Basel) 2019; 7:vaccines7040193. [PMID: 31766677 PMCID: PMC6963717 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines7040193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses are classified by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) as causes of devastating avian diseases. This study aimed to develop type IIb Escherichiacoli heat-labile enterotoxin (LTIIb) as novel mucosal adjuvants for mucosal vaccine development. The fusion protein of H5 and LTIIb-A subunit was expressed and purified for mouse and chicken intranasal immunizations. Intranasal immunization with the H5-LTIIb-A fusion protein in mice elicited potent neutralizing antibodies in sera and bronchoalveolar lavage fluids, induced stronger Th1 and Th17 cellular responses in spleen and cervical lymph nodes, and improved protection against H5N1 influenza virus challenge. More interestingly, intranasal immunization with the H5-LTIIb-A fusion protein in chickens elicited high titers of IgY, IgA, hemagglutinin inhibition (HAI), and neutralizing antibodies in their antisera. This study employed the novel adjuvants of LTIIb for the development of a new generation of mucosal vaccines against highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses.
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8
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Duan Q, Xia P, Nandre R, Zhang W, Zhu G. Review of Newly Identified Functions Associated With the Heat-Labile Toxin of Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:292. [PMID: 31456954 PMCID: PMC6700299 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Heat-labile toxin (LT) is a well-characterized powerful enterotoxin produced by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC). This toxin is known to contribute to diarrhea in young children in developing countries, international travelers, as well as many different species of young animals. Interestingly, it has also been revealed that LT is involved in other activities in addition to its role in enterotoxicity. Recent studies have indicated that LT toxin enhances enteric pathogen adherence and subsequent intestinal colonization. LT has also been shown to act as a powerful adjuvant capable of upregulating vaccine antigenicity; it also serves as a protein or antigenic peptide display platform for new vaccine development, and can be used as a naturally derived cell targeting and protein delivery tool. This review summarizes the epidemiology, secretion, delivery, and mechanisms of action of LT, while also highlighting new functions revealed by recent studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiangde Duan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Comparative Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety of Ministry of Education of China, Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
| | - Pengpeng Xia
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Comparative Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety of Ministry of Education of China, Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
| | - Rahul Nandre
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Weiping Zhang
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - Guoqiang Zhu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Comparative Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, China.,Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety of Ministry of Education of China, Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou, China
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9
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Janik E, Ceremuga M, Saluk-Bijak J, Bijak M. Biological Toxins as the Potential Tools for Bioterrorism. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E1181. [PMID: 30857127 PMCID: PMC6429496 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20051181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2019] [Revised: 02/24/2019] [Accepted: 03/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Biological toxins are a heterogeneous group produced by living organisms. One dictionary defines them as "Chemicals produced by living organisms that have toxic properties for another organism". Toxins are very attractive to terrorists for use in acts of bioterrorism. The first reason is that many biological toxins can be obtained very easily. Simple bacterial culturing systems and extraction equipment dedicated to plant toxins are cheap and easily available, and can even be constructed at home. Many toxins affect the nervous systems of mammals by interfering with the transmission of nerve impulses, which gives them their high potential in bioterrorist attacks. Others are responsible for blockage of main cellular metabolism, causing cellular death. Moreover, most toxins act very quickly and are lethal in low doses (LD50 < 25 mg/kg), which are very often lower than chemical warfare agents. For these reasons we decided to prepare this review paper which main aim is to present the high potential of biological toxins as factors of bioterrorism describing the general characteristics, mechanisms of action and treatment of most potent biological toxins. In this paper we focused on six most danger toxins: botulinum toxin, staphylococcal enterotoxins, Clostridium perfringens toxins, ricin, abrin and T-2 toxin. We hope that this paper will help in understanding the problem of availability and potential of biological toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edyta Janik
- Department of General Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Michal Ceremuga
- CBRN Reconnaissance and Decontamination Department, Military Institute of Chemistry and Radiometry, Antoniego Chrusciela "Montera" 105, 00-910 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Joanna Saluk-Bijak
- Department of General Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Michal Bijak
- Department of General Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland.
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10
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Masso-Welch P, Girald Berlingeri S, King-Lyons ND, Mandell L, Hu J, Greene CJ, Federowicz M, Cao P, Connell TD, Heakal Y. LT-IIc, A Bacterial Type II Heat-Labile Enterotoxin, Induces Specific Lethality in Triple Negative Breast Cancer Cells by Modulation of Autophagy and Induction of Apoptosis and Necroptosis. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 20:ijms20010085. [PMID: 30587795 PMCID: PMC6337683 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20010085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 12/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) remains a serious health problem with poor prognosis and limited therapeutic options. To discover novel approaches to treat TNBC, we screened cholera toxin (CT) and the members of the bacterial type II heat-labile enterotoxin family (LT-IIa, LT-IIb, and LT-IIc) for cytotoxicity in TNBC cells. Only LT-IIc significantly reduced viability of the TNBC cell lines BT549 and MDA-MB-231 (IC50 = 82.32 nM). LT-IIc had no significant cytotoxic effect on MCF10A (IC50 = 2600 nM), a non-tumorigenic breast epithelial cell line, and minimal effects on MCF7 and T47D, ER+ cells, or SKBR-3 cells, HER2+ cells. LT-IIc stimulated autophagy through inhibition of the mTOR pathway, while simultaneously inhibiting autophagic progression, as seen by accumulation of LC3B-II and p62. Morphologically, LT-IIc induced the formation of enlarged LAMP2+ autolysosomes, which was blocked by co-treatment with bafilomycin A1. LT-IIc induced apoptosis as demonstrated by the increase in caspase 3/7 activity and Annexin V staining. Co-treatment with necrostatin-1, however, demonstrated that the lethal response of LT-IIc is elicited, in part, by concomitant induction of necroptosis. Knockdown of ATG-5 failed to rescue LT-IIc-induced cytotoxicity, suggesting LT-IIc can exert its cytotoxic effects downstream or independently of autophagophore initiation. Collectively, these experiments demonstrate that LT-IIc acts bifunctionally, inducing autophagy, while simultaneously blocking autolysosomal progression in TNBC cells, inducing a specific cytotoxicity in this breast cancer subtype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Masso-Welch
- Department of Biotechnical and Clinical Laboratory Sciences, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, 3435 Main Street, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA.
| | - Sofia Girald Berlingeri
- Department of Biotechnical and Clinical Laboratory Sciences, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, 3435 Main Street, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA.
- Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, School of Pharmacy, D'Youville College, 320 Porter Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14201, USA.
| | - Natalie D King-Lyons
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and the Witebsky Center for Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, The University at Buffalo, 955 Main Street, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA.
| | - Lorrie Mandell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and the Witebsky Center for Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, The University at Buffalo, 955 Main Street, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA.
| | - John Hu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and the Witebsky Center for Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, The University at Buffalo, 955 Main Street, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA.
| | - Christopher J Greene
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and the Witebsky Center for Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, The University at Buffalo, 955 Main Street, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA.
| | - Matthew Federowicz
- Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, School of Pharmacy, D'Youville College, 320 Porter Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14201, USA.
| | - Peter Cao
- Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, School of Pharmacy, D'Youville College, 320 Porter Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14201, USA.
| | - Terry D Connell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and the Witebsky Center for Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, The University at Buffalo, 955 Main Street, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA.
| | - Yasser Heakal
- Department of Pharmaceutical, Social and Administrative Sciences, School of Pharmacy, D'Youville College, 320 Porter Avenue, Buffalo, NY 14201, USA.
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11
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Sabetian S, Nezafat N, Dorosti H, Zarei M, Ghasemi Y. Exploring dengue proteome to design an effective epitope-based vaccine against dengue virus. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2018; 37:2546-2563. [PMID: 30035699 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2018.1491890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Dengue, a mosquito-borne disease, is caused by four known dengue serotypes. This infection causes a range of symptoms from a mild fever to a sever homorganic fever and death. It is a serious public health problem in subtropical and tropical countries. There is no specific vaccine currently available for clinical use and study on this issue is ongoing. In this study, bioinformatics approaches were used to predict antigenic, immunogenic, non-allergenic, and conserved B and T-cell epitopes as promising targets to design an effective peptide-based vaccine against dengue virus. Molecular docking analysis indicated the deep binding of the identified epitopes in the binding groove of the most popular human MHC I allele (human leukocyte antigens [HLA] A*0201). The final vaccine construct was created by conjugating the B and T-cell identified epitopes using proper linkers and adding an appropriate adjuvant at the N-terminal. The characteristics of the new subunit vaccine demonstrated that the epitope-based vaccine was antigenic, non-toxic, stable, and soluble. Other physicochemical properties of the new designed construct including isoelectric point value, aliphatic index, and grand average of hydropathicity were biologically considerable. Molecular docking of the engineered vaccine with Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) model revealed the hydrophobic interaction between the adjuvant and the ligand binding regions in the hydrophobic channel of TLR2. The study results indicated the high potential capability of the new multi-epitope vaccine to induce cellular and humoral immune responses against the dengue virus. Further experimental tests are required to investigate the immune protection capacity of the new vaccine construct in animal models. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soudabeh Sabetian
- a Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences , Shiraz , Iran
| | - Navid Nezafat
- a Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences , Shiraz , Iran.,b Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy , Shiraz University of Medical Sciences , Shiraz , Iran
| | - Hesam Dorosti
- a Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences , Shiraz , Iran.,b Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy , Shiraz University of Medical Sciences , Shiraz , Iran
| | - Mahboubeh Zarei
- a Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences , Shiraz , Iran.,b Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy , Shiraz University of Medical Sciences , Shiraz , Iran
| | - Younes Ghasemi
- a Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences , Shiraz , Iran.,b Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy , Shiraz University of Medical Sciences , Shiraz , Iran.,c Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies , Shiraz University of Medical Sciences , Shiraz , Iran.,d Biotechnology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences , Shiraz , Iran
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12
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Abstract
Gangliosides comprise a varied family of glycosphingolipid structures bearing one or more sialic acid residues. They are found in all mammalian tissues but are most abundant in the brain, where they represent the quantitatively major class of sialoglycans. As prominent molecular determinants on cell surfaces, they function as molecular-recognition partners for diverse glycan-binding proteins ranging from bacterial toxins to endogenous cell-cell adhesion molecules. Gangliosides also regulate the activity of plasma membrane proteins, including protein tyrosine kinases, by lateral association in the same membranes in which they reside. Their roles in molecular recognition and membrane protein regulation implicate gangliosides in human physiology and pathology, including infectious diseases, diabetes, cancer, and neurodegeneration. The varied structures and biosynthetic pathways of gangliosides are presented here, along with representative examples of their biological functions in health and disease.
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El-Kassas S, Odemuyiwa S, Hajishengallis G, Connell TD, Nashar TO. Expression and Regulation of Cholecystokinin Receptor in the Chicken's Immune Organs and Cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 7. [PMID: 28149670 DOI: 10.4172/2155-9899.1000471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a neuropeptide that affects growth rate in chickens by regulating appetite. CCK peptides exert their function by binding to two identified receptors, CCKAR and CCKBR in the GI tract and the brain, respectively, as well as in other organs. In mammals, CCK/CCKAR interactions affect a number of immunological parameters, including regulation of lymphocytes and functioning of monocytes. Thus, food intake and growth can potentially be altered by infection and the resulting inflammatory immune response. It is uncertain, however, whether chicken express CCKAR in immune organs and cells, and, if so, whether CCKAR expression is regulated by pathogen derived inflammatory stimuli. Herein, we identify expression of CCKAR protein in chicken peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) including monocytes, and expression of the CCKAR gene in PBMC, thymus, bursa, and spleen, in selected commercial and pure chicken breeds. Further, stimulation with various types of E. coli heat-labile enterotoxins or lipopolysaccharide significantly regulated expression of CCKAR on monocytes in the different breeds. Ligation of CCKAR with antibodies in PBMC induced mobilization of Ca2+, indicating that CCKAR is signal competent. Injection with polyinosinic: polycytidylic acid (poly I:C), a synthetic analogue of double stranded viral RNA that binds Toll-Like Receptor-3 (TLR3), also regulated gene expressions of CCKAR and proinflammatory cytokines, in the different breeds. Interestingly, variations in the expression levels of proinflammatory cytokines in the different breeds were highly correlated with CCKAR expression levels. Taken together, these findings indicate that the physiological function of CCKAR in the chicken is tightly regulated in immune organs and cells by external inflammatory stimuli, which in turn regulate growth. This is the first report CCKAR expression in immune organs and cells, in any species, and the initial observation that CCKAR is regulated by inflammatory stimuli associated with bacterial and viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seham El-Kassas
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088, USA; College of Veterinary Medicine, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh, Egypt
| | - Solomon Odemuyiwa
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088, USA
| | - George Hajishengallis
- Department of Microbiology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Terry D Connell
- The Department of Microbiology & Immunology and The Witebsky Center for Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, The Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Research, University at Buffalo, NY 14214, USA
| | - Toufic O Nashar
- Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088, USA
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Biochemical and structural characterization of the novel sialic acid-binding site of Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin LT-IIb. Biochem J 2016; 473:3923-3936. [DOI: 10.1042/bcj20160575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The structurally related AB5-type heat-labile enterotoxins of Escherichia coli and Vibrio cholerae are classified into two major types. The type I group includes cholera toxin (CT) and E. coli LT-I, whereas the type II subfamily comprises LT-IIa, LT-IIb and LT-IIc. The carbohydrate-binding specificities of LT-IIa, LT-IIb and LT-IIc are distinctive from those of cholera toxin and E. coli LT-I. Whereas CT and LT-I bind primarily to the GM1 ganglioside, LT-IIa binds to gangliosides GD1a, GD1b and GM1, LT-IIb binds to the GD1a and GT1b gangliosides, and LT-IIc binds to GM1, GM2, GM3 and GD1a. These previous studies of the binding properties of type II B-subunits have been focused on ganglio core chain gangliosides. To further define the carbohydrate binding specificity of LT-IIb B-subunits, we have investigated its binding to a collection of gangliosides and non-acid glycosphingolipids with different core chains. A high-affinity binding of LT-IIb B-subunits to gangliosides with a neolacto core chain, such as Neu5Gcα3- and Neu5Acα3-neolactohexaosylceramide, and Neu5Gcα3- and Neu5Acα3-neolactooctaosylceramide was detected. An LT-IIb-binding ganglioside was isolated from human small intestine and characterized as Neu5Acα3-neolactohexaosylceramide. The crystal structure of the B-subunit of LT-IIb with the pentasaccharide moiety of Neu5Acα3-neolactotetraosylceramide (Neu5Ac-nLT: Neu5Acα3Galβ4GlcNAcβ3Galβ4Glc) was determined providing the first information for a sialic-binding site in this subfamily, with clear differences from that of CT and LT-I.
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Ma Y. Recent advances in nontoxicEscherichia coliheat-labile toxin and its derivative adjuvants. Expert Rev Vaccines 2016; 15:1361-1371. [DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2016.1182868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Hu JC, Greene CJ, King-Lyons ND, Connell TD. The Divergent CD8+ T Cell Adjuvant Properties of LT-IIb and LT-IIc, Two Type II Heat-Labile Enterotoxins, Are Conferred by Their Ganglioside-Binding B Subunits. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0142942. [PMID: 26565800 PMCID: PMC4643920 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0142942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2015] [Accepted: 10/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Poor immune responses elicited by vaccine antigens can be enhanced by the use of appropriate adjuvants. Type II heat-labile enterotoxins (HLT) produced by Escherichia coli are extremely potent adjuvants that augment both humoral and cellular immunity to co-administered antigens. Recent findings demonstrate that LT-IIb and LT-IIc, two type II HLT adjuvants, exhibit potent, yet distinguishable CD8+ T cell adjuvant properties. While LT-IIc elicits a robust and rapid response at one week after administration, LT-IIb engenders a more gradual and slower expansion of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells that correlates with improved immunity. The variations in immune effects elicited by the HLT adjuvants have been generally attributed to their highly divergent B subunits that mediate binding to various gangliosides on cell surfaces. Yet, HLT adjuvants with point mutations in the B subunit that significantly alter ganglioside binding retain similar adjuvant functions. Therefore, the contribution of the B subunits to adjuvanticity remains unclear. To investigate the influence of the B subunits on the enhancement of immune responses by LT-IIb and LT-IIc, chimeric HLT were engineered in which the B subunits of the two adjuvants were exchanged. Comparing the immune potentiating characteristics of both native and chimeric HLT adjuvants, it was found that not all the adjuvant characteristics of the HLT adjuvants were modulated by the respective B subunits. Specifically, the differences in the CD8+ T cell kinetics and protective responses elicited by LT-IIb and LT-IIc did indeed followed their respective B subunits. However, induction of IL-1 from macrophages and the capacity to intoxicate cells in a mouse Y1 adrenal cell bioassay did not correlate with the B subunits. Therefore, it is likely that additional factors other than the B subunits contribute to the effects elicited by the HLT adjuvants.
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Affiliation(s)
- John C. Hu
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, The Witebsky Center for Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, The University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
| | - Christopher J. Greene
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, The Witebsky Center for Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, The University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
| | - Natalie D. King-Lyons
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, The Witebsky Center for Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, The University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
| | - Terry D. Connell
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, The Witebsky Center for Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, The University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Comparative Adjuvant Effects of Type II Heat-Labile Enterotoxins in Combination with Two Different Candidate Ricin Toxin Vaccine Antigens. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2015; 22:1285-93. [PMID: 26491037 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00402-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2015] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Type II heat-labile enterotoxins (HLTs) constitute a promising set of adjuvants that have been shown to enhance humoral and cellular immune responses when coadministered with an array of different proteins, including several pathogen-associated antigens. However, the adjuvant activities of the four best-studied HLTs, LT-IIa, LT-IIb, LT-IIb(T13I), and LT-IIc, have never been compared side by side. We therefore conducted immunization studies in which LT-IIa, LT-IIb, LT-IIb(T13I), and LT-IIc were coadministered by the intradermal route to mice with two clinically relevant protein subunit vaccine antigens derived from the enzymatic A subunit (RTA) of ricin toxin, RiVax and RVEc. The HLTs were tested with low and high doses of antigen and were assessed for their abilities to stimulate antigen-specific serum IgG titers, ricin toxin-neutralizing activity (TNA), and protective immunity. We found that all four HLTs tested were effective adjuvants when coadministered with RiVax or RVEc. LT-IIa was of particular interest because as little as 0.03 μg when coadministered with RiVax or RVEc proved effective at augmenting ricin toxin-specific serum antibody titers with nominal evidence of local inflammation. Collectively, these results justify the need for further studies into the mechanism(s) underlying LT-IIa adjuvant activity, with the long-term goal of evaluating LT-IIa's activity in humans.
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Abstract
Cholera toxin (CT) and the related heat-labile enterotoxins (LT) of Escherichia coli have been implicated as adjuvants in human therapies, but reactivity upon intranasal delivery dampened efforts to develop other clinical applications. However, each CT family member variant has unique biological properties that may warrant development as therapeutic platforms. In the current study, a nontoxic variant of the heat-labile enterotoxin IIa (LTIIa) was engineered to deliver heterologous, functional proteins into the cytosol of neurons. As proof of principle, the LTIIa variant delivered two cargos into neurons. LTIIa delivered β-lactamase efficiently into cells containing complex gangliosides, such as GD1b, as host receptors. LTIIa delivery of β-lactamase was sensitive to brefeldin A, an inhibitor that collapses the Golgi compartment into the endoplasmic reticulum, but not sensitive to treatment with botulinum neurotoxin D (BoNT/D), an inhibitor of synaptic vesicle cycling. LTIIa delivered a single-chain, anti-BoNT/A camelid antibody that inhibited SNAP25 cleavage during post-BoNT/A exposure of neurons. Delivery of functional, heterologous protein cargos into neurons demonstrates the potential of LTII variants as platforms to deliver therapies to inactivate toxins and microbial infections and to reverse the pathology of human neurodegenerative diseases. This study engineered a protein platform to deliver functional, heterologous proteins into neurons. The protein platform developed was a variant of the heat-labile enterotoxin IIa (LTIIa) which lacked the catalytic domain, yielding a nontoxic protein. As proof of principle, LTIIa variants delivered two functional proteins into neurons, β-lactamase and a camelid antibody. These studies show the utility of LTIIa variants to deliver therapies into neurons, which could be extended to inactivate toxins and microbial infections and potentially to reverse the progression of neurological diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease.
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Rosales-Mendoza S, Govea-Alonso DO. The potential of plants for the production and delivery of human papillomavirus vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines 2015; 14:1031-41. [PMID: 25882610 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2015.1037744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The available vaccines against human papillomavirus have some limitations such as low coverage due to their high cost, reduced immune coverage and the lack of therapeutic effects. Recombinant vaccines produced in plants (genetically engineered using stable or transient expression systems) offer the possibility to obtain low cost, efficacious and easy to administer vaccines. The status on the development of plant-based vaccines against human papillomavirus is analyzed and placed in perspective in this review. Some candidates have been characterized at a preclinical level with interesting outcomes. However, there is a need to perform the immunological characterization of several vaccine prototypes, especially through the oral administration route, as well as develop new candidates based on new chimeric designs intended to provide broader immunoprotection and therapeutic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Rosales-Mendoza
- Laboratorio de Biofarmacéuticos Recombinantes, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Av. Dr. Manuel Nava 6, SLP, 78210, México, USA
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Intradermal administration of the Type II heat-labile enterotoxins LT-IIb and LT-IIc of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli enhances humoral and CD8+ T cell immunity to a co-administered antigen. PLoS One 2014; 9:e113978. [PMID: 25536061 PMCID: PMC4275187 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2014] [Accepted: 11/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccinations are extremely effective at combating infectious diseases. Many conserved antigen (Ag) targets, however, are poorly immunogenic. Protein subunit vaccines frequently elicit only humoral immune responses and fail to confer protection against serious intracellular pathogens. These barriers to vaccine development are often overcome by the use of appropriate adjuvants. Heat-labile enterotoxins (HLT) produced by enterotoxigenic strains of Escherichia coli are potent adjuvants when administered by mucosal or systemic routes. The efficacy of the type II HLT, however, has not been well-defined when administered by the intradermal (ID) route. Using a murine ID immunization model, the adjuvant properties of LT-IIb and LT-IIc, two type II HLTs, were compared with those of LT-I, a prototypical type I HLT. While all three HLT adjuvants enhanced Ag-specific humoral responses to similar levels, LT-IIb and LT-IIc, in contrast to LT-I, induced a more vigorous Ag-specific CD8+ T cell response and proffered faster clearance of Listeria monocytogenes in a challenge model. Additionally, LT-IIb and LT-IIc induced distinct differences in the profiles of the Ag-specific CD8+ T cell responses. While LT-IIc stimulated a robust and rapid primary CD8+ T cell response, LT-IIb exhibited slower CD8+ T cell expansion and contraction kinetics with the formation of higher percentages of effector memory cells. In comparison to LT-I and LT-IIc, LT-IIb evoked better long-term protection after immunization. Furthermore, LT-IIb and LT-IIc enhanced the total number of dendritic cells (DC) in the draining lymph node (DLN) and expression of costimulatory molecules CD80, CD86, and CD40 on DCs. In contrast to LT-I, LT-IIb and LT-IIc induced less edema, cellular infiltrates, and general inflammation at the site of ID injection. Thus, LT-IIb and LT-IIc are attractive comprehensive ID adjuvants with unique characteristic that enhance humoral and cellular immunity to a co-administered protein Ag.
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Jerse AE, Bash MC, Russell MW. Vaccines against gonorrhea: current status and future challenges. Vaccine 2013; 32:1579-87. [PMID: 24016806 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.08.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2013] [Revised: 06/10/2013] [Accepted: 08/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Gonorrhea occurs at high incidence throughout the world and significantly impacts reproductive health and the spread of human immunodeficiency virus. Current control measures are inadequate and seriously threatened by the rapid emergence of antibiotic resistance. Progress on gonorrhea vaccines has been slow; however, recent advances justify significant effort in this area. Conserved vaccine antigens have been identified that elicit bactericidal antibodies and, or play key roles in pathogenesis that could be targeted by a vaccine-induced response. A murine genital tract infection model is available for systematic testing of antigens, immunization routes and adjuvants, and transgenic mice exist to relieve some host restrictions. Furthermore, mechanisms by which Neisseria gonorrhoeae avoids inducing a protective adaptive response are being elucidated using human cells and the mouse model. Induction of a Th1 response in mice clears infection and induces a memory response, which suggests Th1-inducing adjuvants may be key in vaccine-induced protection. Continued research in this area should include human testing and clinical studies to confirm or negate findings from experimental systems and to define protective host factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann E Jerse
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, F. Edward Hebért School of Medicine, Uniformed Services University, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814-4799, USA.
| | - Margaret C Bash
- Division of Bacterial, Parasitic and Allergenic Products, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, 1400 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
| | - Michael W Russell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Witebsky Center for Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, University at Buffalo, 3435 Main Street, Buffalo, NY 14214-3000, USA.
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