Biodegradation of the X-ray contrast agent iopromide and the fluoroquinolone antibiotic ofloxacin by the white rot fungus Trametes versicolor in hospital wastewaters and identification of degradation products

Occurrence of iodinated contrast media (ICM) in water environments and their control strategies with a particular focus on iodinated by-products formation: A comprehensive review

Iodinated contrast media (ICM), one of the pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs), are frequently detected in various water bodies due to the strong biochemical stability and recalcitrance to conventional water treatment. Additionally, ICM pose a risk of forming iodinated by-products that can be detrimental to the aquatic ecosystem. Consequently, effectively removing ICM from aqueous environments is a significant concern for environmental researchers. This article provides a comprehensive review of the structural characteristics of ICM, their primary source (e.g., domestic and hospital wastewater), detected concentrations in water environments, and ecological health hazards associated with them. The current wastewater treatment technologies for ICM control are also reviewed in detail with the aim of providing a reference for future research. Prior researches have demonstrated that traditional treatment processes (such as physical adsorption, biochemical method and chemical oxidation method) have inadequate efficiencies in the removal of ICM. Currently, the application of advanced oxidation processes to remove ICM has become extensive, but there are some issues like poor deiodination efficiency and the risk of forming toxic intermediates or iodinated by-products. Conversely, reduction technologies have a high deiodination rate, enabling the targeted removal of ICM. But the subsequent treatment issues related to iodine (such as I- and OI-) are often underestimated, potentially generating iodinated by-products during the subsequent treatment processes. Hence, we proposed using combined reduction-oxidation technologies to remove ICM and achieved synchronous control of iodinated by-products. In the future, it is recommended to study the degradation efficiency of ICM and the control efficiency of iodinated by-products by combining different reduction and oxidation processes.

Characterization of laccases from Trametes hirsuta in the context of bioremediation of wastewater treatment plant effluent

The bioremediation of pharmaceutical compounds contained in wastewater, in an ecological and sustainable way, is possible via the oxidative action of fungal laccases. The discovery of new fungal laccases with unique physico-chemical characteristics pushes researchers to identify suitable laccases for specific applications. The aim of this study is to purify and characterize laccase isoenzymes produced from the Trametes hirsuta IBB450 strain for the bioremediation of pharmaceutical compounds. Two main laccases mixtures were observed and purified in the extracts and were called Yn and Yg. Peptide fingerprinting analysis suggested that Yn was constituted mainly of laccase Q02497 and Yg of laccase A0A6M5CX58, respectively. Robustness tests, based on tolerance and stability, showed that both laccases were affected in a relatively similar way by salts (KCl, NaCl), organic solvents (ACN, MeOH), denaturing compounds (urea, trypsin, copper) and were virtually unaffected and stable in wastewater. Determination of kinetic constants (Michaelis (KM), catalytic constant (kcat) and kinetic efficiency (K=kcat/KM)) for the transformation of synthetic hormone 17α-ethynylestradiol and the anti-inflammatory agent diclofenac indicates a lower KM and kcat for laccase Yn but relative similar K constant compared to Yg. Synergistic effects were observed for the transformation of diclofenac, unlike 17α-ethynylestradiol. Transformation studies of 17α-ethynylestradiol at different temperatures (4 and 21 °C) indicate a transformation rate reduction of approximately 75-80% at 4 °C against 25% for diclofenac in less than an hour. Finally, the classification of laccases Yg and Yn into one of eight groups (group A-H) suggests that laccase Yg belongs to group A (constitutive laccase) and laccase Yn belongs to group B (inducible laccase).

Recent advances in microbial engineering approaches for wastewater treatment: a review

In the present era of global climate change, the scarcity of potable water is increasing both due to natural and anthropogenic causes. Water is the elixir of life, and its usage has risen significantly due to escalating economic activities, widespread urbanization, and industrialization. The increasing water scarcity and rising contamination have compelled, scientists and researchers, to adopt feasible and sustainable wastewater treatment methods in meeting the growing demand for freshwater. Presently, various waste treatment technologies are adopted across the globe, such as physical, chemical, and biological treatment processes. There is a need to replace these technologies with sustainable and green technology that encourages the use of microorganisms since they have proven to be more effective in water treatment processes. The present review article is focused on demonstrating how effectively various microbes can be used in wastewater treatment to achieve environmental sustainability and economic feasibility. The microbial consortium used for water treatment offers many advantages over pure culture. There is an urgent need to develop hybrid treatment technology for the effective remediation of various organic and inorganic pollutants from wastewater.

Suspect and Nontarget Screening Reveal the Underestimated Risks of Antibiotic Transformation Products in Wastewater Treatment Plant Effluents

Antibiotics are anthropogenic contaminants with a global presence and of deep concern in aquatic environments, while less is known about the occurrence and risks of their transformation products (TPs). Herein, we developed a comprehensive suspect and nontarget screening workflow based on high-resolution mass spectrometry to identify unknown antibiotic TPs in wastewater treatment plant effluents. We identified 211 compounds (35 parent antibiotics and 176 TPs) at confidence levels of ≥3 and 107 TPs originated from macrolides. TPs were quantified by 17 TPs standards and semiquantified by the predicted response factors and accounted for 55.6-95.1% (76.7% on average) of the total concentrations of parents and TPs. 22.2%, 63.1%, and 18.8% of the identified TPs were estimated to be more persistent, mobile, and toxic than their parent antibiotics, respectively. Further ecological risk assessment based on concentrations and toxicity to aquatic organisms revealed that the cumulative risks of TPs were generally higher than those of parents. Despite the newly formed N-oxide TPs, the tertiary treatment process (mainly ozonation) could decrease the averaged 20.3% of concentrations and 36.2% of the risks of antibiotic-related compounds. This study highlights the necessity to include antibiotic TPs in environmental scrutiny and risk assessment of antibiotics in different aquatic environments.

Inhibitory impact of the anticancer drug doxorubicin on anaerobic microbial community

The inhibitory effect of the anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) on biogas production was evaluated in short-term and long-term exposure assays. The short-term assays reached the DOX IC50 value on 648 ± 50 µg·L-1. In addition, it was found that inhibition caused by the exposure of 10×103 µg·L-1 was reversible after removing DOX from the feeding synthetic medium. Furthermore, DOX can be rapidly sorbed by the biomass (despite the low Kow), which might contribute to the inhibitory effect. The results of long-term exposure assays, when the DOX volumetric loading rate was increased from 100 µgDOX·L-1·day-1 to 200 µgDOX·L-1·day-1, showed that biogas production and COD removal decreased rapidly. However, the methanogenic Archaeas could recover from this exposure, corroborating the results on short-term exposure assays. In conclusion, DOX can play a key role in inhibiting biological wastewater treatment processes if its concentration in hospital wastewater treatment plants increases abruptly.

Tracking drugged waters from various sources to drinking water-its persistence, environmental risk assessment, and removal techniques

Pharmaceuticals have become a major concern due to their nature of persistence and accumulation in the environment. Very few studies have been performed relating to its toxicity and ill effects on the aquatic/terrestrial flora and fauna. The typical wastewater and water treatment processes are not efficient enough to get these persistent pollutants treated, and there are hardly any guidelines followed. Most of them do not get fully metabolized and end up in rivers through human excreta and household discharge. Various methods have been adopted with the advancement in technology, sustainable methods are more in demand as they are usually cost-effective, and hardly any toxic by-products are produced. This paper aims to illustrate the concerns related to pharmaceutical contaminants in water, commonly found drugs in the various rivers and their existing guidelines, ill effects of highly detected pharmaceuticals on aquatic flora and fauna, and its removal and remediation techniques putting more emphasis on sustainable processes.

The potential of fungi in the bioremediation of pharmaceutically active compounds: a comprehensive review

The ability of fungal species to produce a wide range of enzymes and metabolites, which act synergistically, makes them valuable tools in bioremediation, especially in the removal of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) from contaminated environments. PhACs are compounds that have been specifically designed to treat or alter animal physiological conditions and they include antibiotics, analgesics, hormones, and steroids. Their detrimental effects on all life forms have become a source of public outcry due their persistent nature and their uncontrolled discharge into various wastewater effluents, hospital effluents, and surface waters. Studies have however shown that fungi have the necessary metabolic machinery to degrade PhACs in complex environments, such as soil and water, in addition they can be utilized in bioreactor systems to remove PhACs. In this regard, this review highlights fungal species with immense potential in the biodegradation of PhACs, their enzymatic arsenal as well as the probable mechanism of biodegradation. The challenges encumbering the real-time application of this promising bioremediative approach are also highlighted, as well as the areas of improvement and future perspective. In all, this paper points researchers to the fact that fungal bioremediation is a promising strategy for addressing the growing issue of pharmaceutical contamination in the environment and can help to mitigate the negative impacts on ecosystems and human health.

Critical review of phytoremediation for the removal of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes in wastewater

Antibiotics in wastewater are a growing environmental concern. Increased prescription and consumption rates have resulted in higher antibiotic wastewater concentration. Conventional wastewater treatment methods are often ineffective at antibiotic removal. Given the environmental risk of antibiotics and associated antibiotic resistant genes (ARGs), finding methods of improving antibiotic removal from wastewater is of great importance. Phytoremediation of antibiotics in wastewater, facilitated through constructed wetlands, has been explored in a growing number of studies. To assess the removal efficiency and treatment mechanisms of plants and microorganisms within constructed wetlands for specific antibiotics of major antibiotic classes, the present review paper considered and evaluated data from the most recent published research on the topics of bench scale hydroponic, lab and pilot scale constructed wetland, and full scale constructed wetland antibiotic remediation. Additionally, microbial and enzymatic antibiotic degradation, antibiotic-ARG correlation, and plant effect on ARGs were considered. It is concluded from the present review that plants readily uptake sulfonamide, macrolide, tetracycline, and fluoroquinolone antibiotics and that constructed wetlands are an effective applied phytoremediation strategy for the removal of antibiotics from wastewater through the mechanisms of microbial biodegradation, root sorption, plant uptake, translocation, and metabolization. More research is needed to better understand the effect of plants on microbial community and ARGs. This paper serves as a synthesis of information that will help guide future research and applied use of constructed wetlands in the field antibiotic phytoremediation and wastewater treatment.

Reduction of metronidazole in municipal wastewater and protection of activated sludge system using a novel immobilized Aspergillus tabacinus LZ-M

Metronidazole (MNZ) accumulation inhibits municipal wastewater treatment bio-systems, and an effective solution to augment anaerobic activated sludge (AAS) is required. This research discovered that Aspergillus tabacinus LZ-M could degrade 77.39% of MNZ at 5 mg/L. MNZ was metabolized into urea, and the enzymes involved in its degradation were aminotransferase, methyltransferase, monooxygenase, and CN cleavage hydrolase. The strain was immobilized in polyurethane foam and used in AAS for the treatment of MNZ-containing municipal wastewater. The results showed that, using immobilized LZ-M, MNZ was completely removed, and the degradation efficiency of wastewater's chemical oxygen demand (COD) was increased from 11.7% to 83.31%. The extracellular polymer and ROS levels indicated that MNZ's toxicity on AAS was reduced. Furthermore, bioaugmentation stabilized its microbial community, and decreased MNZ resistance genes. These observations confirm that the immobilized fungi are effective in protecting AAS against antibiotic contamination in the treatment process of municipal wastewater.

Unraveling the Toxicity Associated with Ciprofloxacin Biodegradation in Biological Wastewater Treatment

Incomplete mineralization of antibiotics in biological sludge systems poses a risk to the environment. In this study, the toxicity associated with ciprofloxacin (CIP) biodegradation in activated sludge (AS), anaerobic methanogenic sludge (AnMS), and sulfur-mediated sludge (SmS) systems was examined via long-term bioreactor tests and a series of bioassays. The AS and AnMS systems were susceptible to CIP and its biotransformation products (TPs) and exhibited performance deterioration, while the SmS system exhibited high tolerance against the toxicity of CIP and its TPs along with excellent pollutant removal. Up to 14 TPs were formed via piperazinyl substituent cleavage, defluorination, decarboxylation, acetylation, and hydroxylation reactions in AS, AnMS, and SmS systems. Biodegradation of CIP in the AS, AnMS, and SmS systems, however, could not completely eliminate its toxicity as evident from the inhibition of Vibrio fischeri luminescence along with Escherichia coli K12 and Bacillus subtilis growth. The anaerobic systems (AnMS and SmS) were more effective than the aerobic AS system at CIP biodegradation, significantly reducing the antibacterial activity of CIP and its TPs in the aqueous phase. In addition, the quantitative structure-activity relationship analysis indicated that the TPs produced via decarboxylation and hydroxylation (TP2 and TP4) as well as by cleavage of piperazine (TP12, TP13, and TP14) exhibited higher toxicity than CIP. The findings of this study provide insights into the toxicity and possible risks associated with CIP biodegradation in biological wastewater treatment.

Biotransformation of the Fluoroquinolone, Levofloxacin, by the White-Rot Fungus Coriolopsis gallica

The wastewater from hospitals, pharmaceutical industries and more generally human and animal dejections leads to environmental releases of antibiotics that cause severe problems for all living organisms. The aim of this study was to investigate the capacity of three fungal strains to biotransform the fluoroquinolone levofloxacin. The degradation processes were analyzed in solid and liquid media. Among the three fungal strains tested, Coriolopsis gallica strain CLBE55 (BRFM 3473) showed the highest removal efficiency, with a 15% decrease in antibiogram zone of inhibition for Escherichia coli cultured in solid medium and 25% degradation of the antibiotic in liquid medium based on high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Proteomic analysis suggested that laccases and dye-decolorizing peroxidases such as extracellular enzymes could be involved in levofloxacin degradation, with a putative major role for laccases. Degradation products were proposed based on mass spectrometry analysis, and annotation suggested that the main product of biotransformation of levofloxacin by Coriolopsis gallica is an N-oxidized derivative.

Microbial degradation of antibiotic: future possibility of mitigating antibiotic pollution

Antibiotics are the major pharmaceutical wastes that are being exposed to the environment from the pharmaceutical industries and for the anthropogenic activities. The use of antibiotics for disease prevention and treatment in humans has been surpassed by the amount used in agriculture, particularly on livestock. It is stipulated that the overuse of antibiotics is the single largest reason behind the rise of bacterial anti-microbial resistance (AMR). The development of alternative therapy, like gene therapy, immunotherapy, use of natural products, and various nanoparticles, to control bacterial pathogens might be an alternative of antibiotics for mankind but the remediation of already exposed antibiotics from the lithosphere and hydrosphere needs to be envisioned with priority. The ever-increasing release of antibiotics in the environment makes it one of the major emerging contaminants (ECs). Decomposition of such antibiotic contaminants is a great challenge to get a cleaner environment. There are reports describing the degradation of antibiotics by photolysis, hydrolysis, using cathode and metal salts, or by degradation via microbes. Antimicrobials like sulfonamides are recalcitrant to natural biodegradation, exhibiting high thermal stability. There are recent reports on microbial degradation of a few common antibiotics and their derivatives but their applications in waste management are scanty. It could however be a major concern to the scientists whether to use the antibiotic degradation traits of a microbe for the removal of antibiotic wastes. The complexity of the genetic clusters of a microbe that are responsible for degradation is crucial, as a small genetic cluster might have higher chance of horizontal transfer into sensitive species of the normal microbial flora that in turn triggers the rise of antimicrobial resistance.

Role of ascomycete and basidiomycete fungi in meeting established and emerging sustainability opportunities: a review

Fungal biomass is the future's feedstock. Non-septate Ascomycetes and septate Basidiomycetes, famously known as mushrooms, are sources of fungal biomass. Fungal biomass, which on averagely comprises about 34% protein and 45% carbohydrate, can be cultivated in bioreactors to produce affordable, safe, nontoxic, and consistent biomass quality. Fungal-based technologies are seen as attractive, safer alternatives, either substituting or complementing the existing standard technology. Water and wastewater treatment, food and feed, green technology, innovative designs in buildings, enzyme technology, potential health benefits, and wealth production are the key sectors that successfully reported high-efficiency performances of fungal applications. This paper reviews the latest technical know-how, methods, and performance of fungal adaptation in those sectors. Excellent performance was reported indicating high potential for fungi utilization, particularly in the sectors, yet to be utilized and improved on the existing fungal-based applications. The expansion of fungal biomass in the industrial-scale application for the sustainability of earth and human well-being is in line with the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals.

Pharmaceutical Pollution in Aquatic Environments: A Concise Review of Environmental Impacts and Bioremediation Systems

The presence of emerging contaminants in the environment, such as pharmaceuticals, is a growing global concern. The excessive use of medication globally, together with the recalcitrance of pharmaceuticals in traditional wastewater treatment systems, has caused these compounds to present a severe environmental problem. In recent years, the increase in their availability, access and use of drugs has caused concentrations in water bodies to rise substantially. Considered as emerging contaminants, pharmaceuticals represent a challenge in the field of environmental remediation; therefore, alternative add-on systems for traditional wastewater treatment plants are continuously being developed to mitigate their impact and reduce their effects on the environment and human health. In this review, we describe the current status and impact of pharmaceutical compounds as emerging contaminants, focusing on their presence in water bodies, and analyzing the development of bioremediation systems, especially mycoremediation, for the removal of these pharmaceutical compounds with a special focus on fungal technologies.

Current status of microbes involved in the degradation of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) pollutants in the aquatic ecosystem

Contamination of aquatic systems with pharmaceuticals, personal care products, steroid hormones, and agrochemicals has been an immense problem for the earth's ecosystem and health impacts. The environmental issues of well-known persistence pollutants, their metabolites, and other micro-pollutants in diverse aquatic systems around the world were collated and exposed in this review assessment. Waste Water Treatment Plant (WWTP) influents and effluents, as well as industrial, hospital, and residential effluents, include detectable concentrations of known and undiscovered persistence pollutants and metabolites. These components have been found in surface water, groundwater, drinking water, and natural water reservoirs receiving treated and untreated effluents. Several studies have found that these persistence pollutants, and also similar recalcitrant pollutants, are hazardous to a variety of non-targeted creatures in the environment. In human and animals, they can also have severe and persistent harmful consequences. Because these pollutants are harmful to aquatic organisms, microbial degradation of these persistence pollutants had the least efficiency. Fortunately, only a few wild and Genetically Modified (GMOs) microbial species have the ability to degrade these PPCPs contaminants. Hence, researchers have been studying the degradation competence of microbial communities in persistence pollutants of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) and respective metabolites for decades, as well as possible degradation processes in various aquatic systems. As a result, this review provides comprehensive information about environmental issues and the degradation of PPCPs and their metabolites, as well as other micro-pollutants, in aquatic systems.

Co-degradation of ofloxacin and its impact on solid phase denitrification with polycaprolactone as carbon source

Solid-phase denitrification has been applied for advanced nitrogen removal from wastewater and can co-degrade emerging pollutants. Fluoroquinolones (FQs), broad-spectral antibiotic, are frequently detected in the effluent of conventional wastewater treatment plants. However, it remains unclear whether solid-phase denitrifying bacteria can remove FQs. Thus, this study investigated the removal capacity of ofloxacin (OFX) as a representative of FQs and the microbial community structures of denitrifying sludge acclimated to polycaprolactone and OFX. The Results indicate that OFX had a negative effect on denitrification performance. OFX was degraded, and a possible pathway was revealed based on ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The dominant genera in the acclimated denitrifying sludge were Microbacterium, Simplicispira, Alicycliphilus, Reyranella, Sediminibacterium, Acidovorax and Thermomonas. Moreover, ABC transporters and cytochrome P450, related to multi-drug resistance and drug metabolism, were highly expressed in the acclimated sludge. This study provides novel insights into antibiotics control.

Biocatalytic remediation of pharmaceutically active micropollutants for environmental sustainability

The discharge of an alarming number of recalcitrant pollutants from various industrial activities presents a serious threat to environmental sustainability and ecological integrity. Bioremediation has gained immense interest around the world due to its environmentally friendly and cost-effective nature. In contrast to physical and chemical methods, the use of microbial enzymes, particularly immobilized biocatalysts, has been demonstrated as a versatile approach for the sustainable mitigation of environmental pollution. Considerable attention is now devoted to developing novel enzyme engineering approaches and state-of-the-art bioreactor design for ameliorating the overall bio-catalysis and biodegradation performance of enzymes. This review discusses the contemporary and state of the art technical and scientific progress regarding applying oxidoreductase enzyme-based biocatalytic systems to remediate a vast number of pharmaceutically active compounds from water and wastewater bodies. A comprehensive insight into enzyme immobilization, the role of mediators, bioreactors designing, and transformation products of pharmaceuticals and their associated toxicity is provided. Additional studies are necessary to elucidate enzymatic degradation mechanisms, monitor the toxicity levels of the resulting degraded metabolites and optimize the entire bio-treatment strategy for technical and economical affordability.

Roles and applications of enzymes for resistant pollutants removal in wastewater treatment

Resistant pollutants like oil, grease, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and plastics in wastewater are difficult to be degraded by traditional activated sludge methods. These pollutants are prevalent, posing a great threat to aquatic environments and organisms since they are toxic, resistant to natural biodegradation, and create other serious problems. As a high-efficiency biocatalyst, enzymes are proposed for the treatment of these resistant pollutants. This review focused on the roles and applications of enzymes in wastewater treatment. It discusses the influence of enzyme types and their sources, enzymatic processes in resistant pollutants remediation, identification and ecotoxicity assay of enzymatic transformation products, and typically employed enzymatic wastewater treatment systems. Perspectives on the major challenges and feasible future research directions of enzyme-based wastewater treatment are also proposed.

Genomic insights into the antibiotic resistance pattern of the tetracycline-degrading bacterium, Arthrobacter nicotianae OTC-16

Although many bacteria have the potential to remove antibiotic residues from environmental niches, the benefits of using antibiotic-degrading bacteria to manage antibiotic pollution should be assessed against the risk of the potential expansion of antimicrobial resistance. This study investigated the antibiotic resistance pattern of the bacterium Arthrobacter nicotianae OTC-16, which shows substantial biodegradation of oxytetracycline (OTC)/tetracycline. The results showed that this strain could be resistant to at least seven categories of 15 antibiotics, based on antimicrobial susceptibility testing. The genome of A. nicotianae OTC-16 contains one chromosome (3,643,989 bp) and two plasmids (plasmid1, 123,894 bp and plasmid2, 29,841 bp). Of the 3,561 genes isolated, eight were related to antibiotic resistance. During OTC degradation by the strain OTC-16, the expression of ant2ia, sul1, tet33, and cml_e8 in the plasmid, and one gene (tetV) in the chromosome were tracked using real-time quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Only the plasmid-derived resistance genes were up-regulated in the presence of OTC. The presence of OTC increased the tolerance of strain OTC-16 to streptomycin sulphate. The findings of this study can help deepen our understanding of the behavioural characteristics of resistance genes and adaptive evolution of drug-resistant bacteria.

Pharmaceutical compound removal efficiency by a small constructed wetland located in south Brazil

The fate of pharmaceuticals during the treatment of effluents is of major concern since they are not completely degraded and because of their persistence and mobility in environment. Indeed, even at low concentrations, they represent a risk to aquatic life and human health. In this work, fourteen pharmaceuticals were monitored in a constructed wetland wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) assessed in both influent and effluent samples. The basic water quality parameters were evaluated, and the removal efficiency of pharmaceutical, potential for bioaccumulation, and the impact of WWTP were assessed using Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler (POCIS) and biofilms. The pharmaceutical compounds were quantified by High Performance Liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. The sampling campaign was carried out during winter (July/2018) and summer (January/2019). The WWTP performed well regarding the removal of TSS, COD, and BOD₅ and succeeded to eliminate a significant part of the organic and inorganic pollution present in domestic wastewater but has low efficiency regarding the removal of pharmaceutical compounds. Biofilms were shown to interact with pharmaceuticals and were reported to play a role in their capture from water. The antibiotics were reported to display a high risk for aquatic organisms.

Trametes versicolor in lignocellulose-based bioeconomy: State of the art, challenges and opportunities

Although Trametes versicolor is one of the most investigated white-rot fungi, the industrial application of this fungus and its metabolites is still far from reaching its full potential. This review aims to highlight the opportunities and challenges for the industrial use of T. versicolor according to the principles of circular bioeconomy. The use of this fungus can contribute significantly to the success of efforts to valorize lignocellulosic waste biomass and industrial lignocellulosic byproducts. Various techniques of T. versicolor cultivation for enzyme production, food and feed production, wastewater treatment, and biofuel production are listed and critically evaluated, highlighting bottlenecks and future perspectives. Applications of T. versicolor crude laccase extracts in wastewater treatment, removal of lignin from lignocellulose, and in various biotransformations are analyzed separately.

Comprehensive review on iodinated X-ray contrast media: Complete fate, occurrence, and formation of disinfection byproducts

Iodinated contrast media (ICM) are drugs which are used in medical examinations for organ imaging purposes. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have shown incapability to remove ICM, and as a consequence, ICM and their transformation products (TPs) have been detected in environmental waters. ICM show limited biotransformation and low sorption potential. ICM can act as iodine source and can react with commonly used disinfectants such as chlorine in presence of organic matter to yield iodinated disinfection byproducts (IDBPs) which are more cytotoxic and genotoxic than conventionally known disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Even highly efficient advanced treatment systems have failed to completely mineralize ICM, and TPs that are more toxic than parent ICM are produced. This raises issues regarding the efficacy of existing treatment technologies and serious concern over disinfection of ICM containing waters. Realizing this, the current review aims to capture the attention of scientific community on areas of less focus. The review features in depth knowledge regarding complete environmental fate of ICM along with their existing treatment options.

Retrospective mass spectrometric analysis of wastewater-fed mesocosms to assess the degradation of drugs and their human metabolites

Temporary rivers become dependent on wastewater effluent for base flows, which severely impacts river ecosystems through exposure to elevated levels of nutrients, dissolved organic matter, and organic micropollutants. However, biodegradation processes occurring in these rivers can be enhanced by wastewater bacteria/biofilms. Here, we evaluated the attenuation of pharmaceuticals and their human metabolites performing retrospective analysis of 120 compounds (drugs, their metabolites and transformation products) in mesocosm channels loaded with wastewater effluents twice a week for a period of 31 days. Eighteen human metabolites and seven biotransformation products were identified with high level of confidence. Compounds were classified into five categories. Type-A: recalcitrant drugs and metabolites (diclofenac, carbamazepine and venlafaxine); Type-B: degradable drugs forming transformation products (TPs) (atenolol, sitagliptin, and valsartan); Type-C: drugs for which no known human metabolites or TPs were detected (atorvastatin, azithromycin, citalopram, clarithromycin, diltiazem, eprosartan, fluconazole, ketoprofen, lamotrigine, lormetazepam, metformin, telmisartan, and trimethoprim); Type-D: recalcitrant drug metabolites (4-hydroxy omeprazole sulfide, erythro/threo-hydrobupropion, and zolpidem carboxylic acid); Type-E: unstable metabolites whose parent drug was not detectable (norcocaine, benzolylecgonine, and erythromycin A enol ether). Noteworthy was the valsartan acid formation from valsartan with transient formation of TP-336.

Water-soluble manganese porphyrins as good catalysts for cipro- and levofloxacin degradation: Solvent effect, degradation products and DFT insights

Synthetic manganese porphyrins (MnPs), in the presence of oxidants, were employed for the degradation of fluoroquinolone antibiotics. Ciprofloxacin (CIP) and levofloxacin (LEV) degradation by iodosylbenzene, iodobenzene diacetate, H₂O₂ and meta-chloroperbenzoic acid using water-soluble MnP catalysts yielded thirteen and nine products, respectively, seven of which have been proposed for the first time. The MnP catalysts have demonstrated the ability to degrade these antibiotics to a high degree (up to 100% degradation). The structures of the degradation products were proposed based on mass spectrometry analysis, and density functional theory calculations could confirm how the substituent moieties attached to the basic chemical structure of the fluoroquinolones influence the degradation reactions. CIP has been shown to be a more reactive substrate towards the porphyrinic catalysts tested because of its three-membered ring. However, the catalysts could almost completely degrade LEV, highlighting the ability of these porphyrins to act as catalysts to degrade environmental pollutants.

Enhanced production of methane in anaerobic water treatment as mediated by the immobilized fungi

Anaerobic digestion of organic waste and wastewater represents an attractive sustainable bio-technology to produce methane as an alternative to fossil energy. In response to improvement of methane production via enhancing methanogenesis, current strategies of the addition of external biological/non-biological materials have to confront either the loss of materials, high cost and/or possible destruction of the microbial community. Here, we report the first case of using immobilized fungi Aspergillus sydowii 8L-9-F02 to optimize the microbial community, achieving remarkable improvement of the methane production in both batch test (1.5 times) and continuous flow operation (1.13-1.31 times). The crucial role of fungi is associated with the stimulation of enrichment of Methanosaeta and Methanobacterium for methanogenesis from 28.2 to 67.4% as well as the improved activity of enzyme F420. Moreover, fungi also increase the content of extracellular polymeric substances, facilitating the formation of bio-aggregates. This work provides a new pathway to enhance methanogenesis during anaerobic digestion of wastewater by using fungi as bio-enhancer.

Optimization of growth conditions for enhancing the production of microbial laccase and its application in treating antibiotic contamination in wastewater

In this work, seven indigenous macrofungal isolates were selected to screen for their laccase production capability. Among them, isolates viz., Pleurotus eryngii, Pleurotus florida, Pleurotus sajor caju and Gandoderma lucidum were found to exhibit high laccase activity in the preliminary studies and were thus selected for the optimization studies with an aim to enhance laccase production. The pH optimization studies were carried out between pH range of 4-6. The laccase activity and biomass were found to be optimum at pH 4, 4.5, 4.5 and 5 for P. eryngii, P. florida, P. sajor caju and G. lucidum, respectively. Optimization studies with chemical inducers namely, tannic acid, 2,6 dimethoxyphenol and copper sulphate at three different concentration levels were conducted and tannic acid at 2 mM concentration was found to increase the laccase activity to about 45% followed by 2,6 dimethoxyphenol (2 mM) with an increase of about 43% and copper sulphate (0.1 mM) showing 21% increase in the yield. Biodegradation studies utilizing laccase isolated from P. eryngii, P. florida and P. sajor caju was carried out for a commonly detected fluoroquinolone antibiotic, levofloxacin, in water and pharmaceutical wastewater. The results indicated that the degradation efficiency of levofloxacin using laccase isolated from P. eryngii (88.9%) was comparable to commercial laccase (89%). When the cost economics of using crude laccase was evaluated against commercial laccase it was evident that the total cost of the treatment could be reduced by 71.7% if commercial grade laccase was replaced by crude enzyme extracted from indigenous macrofungi such Pleurotus eryngii, Pleurotus florida, and Pleurotus sajor caju indicating a promising and cost-effective alternative for wastewater treatment.

Recent advancement in remediation of synthetic organic antibiotics from environmental matrices: Challenges and perspective

Continuous discharge and persistence of antibiotics in aquatic ecosystem is identified as emerging environment health hazard. Partial degradation and inappropriate disposal induce appearance of diverse antibiotic resistant genes (ARGs) and bacteria, hence their execution is imperative. Conventional methods including waste water treatment plants (WWTPs) are found ineffective for the removal of recalcitrant antibiotics. Therefore, constructive removal of antibiotics from environmental matrices and other alternatives have been discussed. This review summarizes present scenario and removal of micro-pollutants, antibiotics from environment. Various strategies including physicochemical, bioremediation, use of bioreactor, and biocatalysts are recognized as potent antibiotic removal strategies. Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) and biochar have emerged as promising biodegradation processes due to low cost, energy efficient and environmental benignity. With higher removal rate (20-50%) combined/ hybrid processes seems to be more efficient for permanent and sustainable elimination of reluctant antibiotics.

Transformation of X-ray contrast media by conventional and advanced oxidation processes during water treatment: Efficiency, oxidation intermediates, and formation of iodinated byproducts

X-ray contrast media (ICM), as the most widely used intravascular pharmaceuticals, have been frequently detected in various environmental compartments. ICM have attracted increasingly scientific interest owing to their role as an iodine contributor, resulting in the high risk of forming toxic iodinated byproducts (I-BPs) during water treatment. In this review, we present the state-of-the-art findings relating to the removal efficiency as well as oxidation intermediates of ICM by conventional and advanced oxidation processes. Moreover, formation of specific small-molecular I-BPs (e.g., iodoacetic acid and iodoform) during these processes is also summarized. Conventional oxidants and disinfectants including chlorine (HOCl) and chloramine (NH₂Cl) have low reactivities towards ICM with HOCl being more reactive. Iodinated/deiodinated intermediates are generated from reactions of HOCl/NH₂Cl with ICM, and they can be further transformed into small-molecular I-BPs. Types of disinfectants and ICM as well as solution conditions (e.g., presence of bromide (Br^-) and natural organic matters (NOM)) display significant impact on formation of I-BPs during chlor(am)ination of ICM. Uncatalyzed advanced oxidation process (AOPs) involving ozone (O₃) and ferrate (Fe(VI)) exhibit slow to mild reactivities towards ICM, usually leading to their incomplete removal under typical water treatment conditions. In contrast, UV photolysis and catalyzed AOPs including hydroxyl radical (HO^•) and/or sulfate radical (SO₄^.-) based AOPs (e.g., UV/hydrogen peroxide, UV/persulfate, UV/peroxymonosulfate (PMS), and CuO/PMS) and reactive chlorine species (RCS) involved AOPs (e.g., UV/HOCl and UV/NH₂Cl) can effectively eliminate ICM under various conditions. Components of water matrix (e.g., chloride (Cl^-), Br^-, bicarbonate (HCO₃^-), and NOM) have great impact on oxidation efficiency of ICM by catalyzed AOPs. Generally, similar intermediates are formed from ICM oxidation by UV photolysis and AOPs, mainly resulting from a series reactions of the side chain and/or C-I groups (e.g. cleavage, dealkylation, oxidation, and rearrange). Further oxidation or disinfection of these intermediates leads to formation of small-molecular I-BPs. Pre-oxidation of ICM-containing waters by AOPs tends to increase formation of I-BPs during post-disinfection process, while this trend also depends on the oxidation processes applied and solution conditions. This review summarizes the latest research findings relating to ICM transformation and (by)products formation during disinfection and AOPs in water treatment, which has great implications for the practical applications of these technologies.

Self-standardization of quality of bacterial cellulose produced by Medusomyces gisevii in nutrient media derived from Miscanthus biomass

Bacterial cellulose (BC) was synthesized from biomass of Miscanthus grown in West Siberia. Miscanthus biomass was pretreated at atmospheric pressure with 4 wt.% solutions of HNO₃ and NaOH in one and two stages. The effect of four methods of the pretreatment of the feedstock on BC yield and properties was examined. The resultant pulps were subjected to enzymatic hydrolysis with commercial CelloLux-A and BrewZyme BGX enzymes. Biosynthesis of BC was run under static and non-sterile conditions using Medusomyces gisevii Sa-12. The two-stage pretreatment of Miscanthus biomass gave a 20 % increase in BC production compared to the single-stage pretreatment. The resultant BC exhibited a high crystallinity index (88-93 %) and an extraordinarily high content of allomorph Iα (99-100 %), irrespective of the pretreatment method; therefore, it has been revealed for the first time that the Medusomyces gisevii Sa-12 symbiotic culture is capable of self-standardization against the quality of produced BC.

Estrone degrading enzymes of Spirulina CPCC-695 and synthesis of bioplastic precursor as a by-product

Estrone, a steroidal estrogen that is persistently contaminating the surface water has been classified as an endocrine disruptor and as Group-1 carcinogen by the World Health Organization. Long-term exposure to estrone-contaminated water disrupt physiology, behaviour and sexual development of living organisms that lead to many disorders. So, it has to be eliminated from our surrounding. Its biological degradation is a cost effective and eco-friendly approach. The present study targets to predict the degradation pathway and understand the role of cyanobacterial enzymes: oxidoreductases (laccase, peroxidase) and esterase in estrone degradation. Poly-β-hydroxy butyrate (PHB) was also quantified as a by-product of estrone biodegradation. The estrone degradation pathway was predicted using EAWAG-BBD/PPS database. Spirulina CPCC-695 was grown in different concentration of estrone (20 mg/l, 50 mg/l, 100 mg/l and 200 mg/l). The culture without estrone was considered as control. The culture supernatant was used for testing laccase and esterase activity whereas the biomass was used to test peroxidase activity and quantify by-product (PHB). The enzymes showed concentration-dependent activities. Maximum enzyme activities were seen at 20 mg/l estrone. Spirulina CPCC-695 utilizes estrone as a carbon source and degrades it to produce pyruvate which forms acetyl CoA that undergo condensation, reduction and polymerization to form PHB. Maximum PHB (169 μg) was also produced at 20 mg/l as a by-product during degradation.

Biodegradation of fluoroquinolone antibiotics and the climbazole fungicide by Trichoderma species

Filamentous fungi Trichoderma have been able to efficiently degrade fluoroquinolone antibiotics namely ciprofloxacin (CIP) and ofloxacin (OFL) as well as the fungicide climbazole (CLB) that are persistent in conventional activated sludge processes. All targeted compounds were biotransformed by whole cells of Trichoderma spp., exactly T. harzanium and T. asperellum, and biosorption played a limited role in their elimination. However, contrasting results were obtained with the two strains. T. asperellum was more efficient against CIP, with a 81% degradation rate in 13 days of incubation, while T. harzianum was more efficient against CLB, with a 91% degradation rate. While in the case of OFL, both strains showed same efficiency with degradation rate around 40%. Adding a cytochrome P450 enzyme inhibitor hardly resulted in the modification of degradation kinetics supporting the implication of extracellular enzymes in chemical biotransformation. Transformation products were identified by liquid chromatography-high resolution-mass spectrometry and transformation pathways were proposed. Biotransformation of selected compounds included hydroxylation, oxidation/reduction and N- and O-dealkylation reactions, similarly to those reported with white rot fungi. CIP underwent transformations at the piperazinyl ring through oxidation and conjugation reactions, while OFL mainly underwent hydroxylation processes and CLB carbonyl reduction into alcohol. Consequently, Trichoderma spp. likely possess a machinery of unspecific enzymes, which makes their application in removal of pharmaceutical and personal care products attractive.

Elucidating biotransformation pathways of ofloxacin in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L)

Antibiotics can be uptaken by plants from soil desorption or directly from irrigation water, but their metabolization pathways in plants are largely unknown. In this paper, an analytical workflow based on high-resolution mass spectrometry was applied for the systematic identification of biotransformation products of ofloxacin in lettuce. The targeted metabolites were selected by comparing the mass chromatograms of exposed with control samples using an advanced spectra-processing method (Fragment Ion Search). The innovative methodology presented allowed us to identify a total of 11 metabolites, including 5 ofloxacin metabolites that are being reported for the first time in plants. Accordingly, major transformation pathways were proposed revealing insight into how ofloxacin and related chemicals are metabolized in lettuce. Furthermore, the influence of biotransformation on potential residual antimicrobial activity of identified compounds was discussed. Human exposure to antibiotics at doses below the minimum inhibitory concentrations is crucial in human risk assessment, including food ingestion; however, in the case of ofloxacin presented results reveal that plant metabolites should also be considered so as not to underestimate their risk.

The Use of Algae and Fungi for Removal of Pharmaceuticals by Bioremediation and Biosorption Processes: A Review

The occurrence and fate of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment is recognized as one of the emerging issues in environmental chemistry. Conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are not designed to remove pharmaceuticals (and their metabolites) from domestic wastewaters. The treatability of pharmaceutical compounds in WWTPs varies considerably depending on the type of compound since their biodegradability can differ significantly. As a consequence, they may reach the aquatic environment, directly or by leaching of the sludge produced by these facilities. Currently, the technologies under research for the removal of pharmaceuticals, namely membrane technologies and advanced oxidation processes, have high operation costs related to energy and chemical consumption. When chemical reactions are involved, other aspects to consider include the formation of harmful reaction by-products and the management of the toxic sludge produced. Research is needed in order to develop economic and sustainable treatment processes, such as bioremediation and biosorption. The use of low-cost materials, such as biological matrices (e.g., algae and fungi), has advantages such as low capital investment, easy operation, low operation costs, and the non-formation of degradation by-products. An extensive review of existing research on this subject is presented.

Influence of metal ions on sulfonamide antibiotics biochemical behavior in fiber coexisting system

Metal ions and fiber are common compounds in the livestock and poultry manure, which will affect the fate of organic compounds in aqueous environment. However, limited research has addressed the effect of coexisting metal ions and fiber on the biodegradation of sulfonamide antibiotics. Accordingly, a compositing study was performed to assess the effect of metal ions (Fe³⁺ and Cu²⁺) on the biodegradation of sulfadimethoxine sodium salt (SDM) in the presence of fiber. The enhanced adsorption of SDM onto fiber in the presence of metal ions can be attributed to the π⁺-π electron donor acceptor (EDA) interaction. The microbial (Phanerochaete chrysosprium) could easily attach onto fiber forming attached microbial, and the degradation rates of SDM of immobilized bacteria in the presence of Fe³⁺ were 100%, which were significantly higher than those of free bacteria (45%). This study indicates that Fe³⁺ and fiber could enhance the biodegradation of SDM. Fiber acts as adsorbent, carrier, and substrate which enhanced the removal of SDM.

Long-term continuous treatment of non-sterile real hospital wastewater by Trametes versicolor

BACKGROUND

Hospital wastewater is commonly polluted with high loads of pharmaceutically active compounds, which pass through wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and end up in water bodies, posing ecological and health risks. White-rot fungal treatments can cope with the elimination of a wide variety of micropollutants while remaining ecologically and economically attractive. Unfortunately, bacterial contamination has impeded so far a successful implementation of fungal treatment for real applications.

RESULTS

This work embodied a 91-day long-term robust continuous fungal operation treating real non-sterile hospital wastewater in an air pulsed fluidized bed bioreactor retaining the biomass. The hydraulic retention time was 3 days and the ageing of the biomass was avoided through partial periodic biomass renovation resulting in a cellular retention time of 21 days. Evolution of microbial community and Trametes abundance were evaluated.

CONCLUSIONS

The operation was able to maintain an average pharmaceutical load removal of over 70% while keeping the white-rot fungus active and predominant through the operation.

Improved reductive transformation of iopromide by magnetite containing reduced graphene oxide nanosacks as electron shuttles

The novel application of magnetite containing reduced graphene oxide nanosacks (MrGO-N) as electron shuttles to improve the reductive degradation of pharmaceutical pollutant, iopromide (IOP), was evaluated. The MrGO-N were synthesized by ultrasonicated nebulization process, and their physicochemical characterization was performed by potentiometric titrations, zeta potential, high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM), X-ray diffraction, as well as by Raman and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopies. Results demonstrated the thermal reduction of precursor graphene oxide sheets, the removal of different oxygenated groups, and the successful assembly of magnetite nanoparticles (MNP) in the graphene sacks. Also, reduction experiments revealed 72 % of IOP removal efficiency and up to 2.5-fold faster degradation of this pollutant performed with MrGO-N as redox catalysts in batch assays and with sulfide as electron donor. Chemical transformation pathway of IOP provides evidence of complete dehalogenation and further transformation of aromatic ring substituents. Greater redox-mediating ability of MrGO-N was observed, which was reflected in the catalytic activity of these nanomaterials during the reductive degradation of IOP. Transformation byproducts with simpler chemical structure were identified, which could lead to complete degradation by conventional methodologies in a complementary treatment process. Redox-mediating activity of MrGO-N could potentially be applied in wastewater treatment systems in order to facilitate the biodegradation of priority contaminants.

Heterogeneous fenton-like degradation of ofloxacin over sludge derived carbon as catalysts: Mechanism and performance

In this study, heterogeneous Fenton-like degradation of ofloxacin (OFX) was investigated by sludge derived carbon (SC). The effects of SC catalyst, temperature and pH on the efficiency of ofloxacin degradation were investigated. SC treated with sulfuric acid (SC-H₂SO₄) performed high catalytic activity, indicating that sulfate group produced low pH of the surface and was beneficial for heterogeneous Fenton-like degradation. The removal of ofloxacin and TOC was 91.5% and 62.3%, respectively, after 180 min adsorption and 540 min oxidation, at pH 6 and a dosage of 138 mg L^-1 H₂O₂. It was found that OFX conversion increased with the decrease of pH and OFX was degraded under the wide range of pH (3-6) by SC-H₂SO₄. These promising results clearly demonstrate the potential of the heterogeneous Fenton-like process for the effective degradation of ofloxacin by SC-H₂SO₄. Based on intermediated products identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, a possible OFX oxidation pathway in Fenton-like reaction was proposed.

Assessment of Soil to Mitigate Antibiotics in the Environment Due to Release of Wastewater Treatment Plant Effluent

With low levels of human antibiotics in the environment due to release of wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent, concern is rising about impacts on human health and antibiotic resistance development. Furthermore, WWTP effluent may be released into waterways used as drinking water sources. The aim of this study was to analyze three antibiotics important to human health (sulfamethoxazole, ofloxacin, and trimethoprim) in soil and groundwater at a long-term wastewater reuse system that spray irrigates effluent. Soil samples were collected (i) at a site that had not received irrigation for 7 mo (approximate background concentrations), and then at the same site after (ii) one irrigation event and (iii) 10 wk of irrigation. Water samples were collected three times per year to capture seasonal variability. Sulfamethoxazole was typically at the highest concentrations in effluent (22 ± 3.7 μg L) with ofloxacin and trimethoprim at 2.2 ± 0.6 and 1.0 ± 0.02 μg L, respectively. In the soil, ofloxacin had the highest background concentrations (650 ± 204 ng kg), whereas concentrations of sulfamethoxazole were highest after continuous effluent irrigation (730 ± 360 ng kg). Trimethoprim was only quantified in soil after 10 wk of effluent irrigation (190 ± 71 ng kg). Groundwater concentrations were typically <25 ng L with high concentrations of 660 ± 20 and 67 ± 7.0 ng L for sulfamethoxazole and ofloxacin, respectively. Given that antibiotics interacted with the soil profile and groundwater concentrations were frequently about 1000-fold lower than effluent, soil may be an adequate tertiary treatment for WWTP effluent leading to improved water quality and protection of human health.

Anaerobic Transformation of the Iodinated X-ray Contrast Medium Iopromide, Its Aerobic Transformation Products, and Transfer to Further Iodinated X-ray Contrast Media

The iodinated X-ray contrast medium (ICM) iopromide and its aerobic transformation products (TPs) are frequently detected in the effluents of wastewater treatment plants and in different compartments of the aquatic environment. In this study, the anaerobic transformation of iopromide and its aerobic TPs was investigated in water-sediment systems. Iopromide, its final aerobic TP didespropanediol iopromide (DDPI), and its primary aniline desmethoxyacetyl iopromide (DAMI) were used as model substances. Five biologically formed anaerobic TPs of iopromide and DAMI and six of DDPI, and the respective transformation pathways, were identified. The TPs were formed by successive deiodination and hydrolysis of amide moieties. Quantification of the iodinated TPs was achieved by further development of a complementary liquid chromatography (LC)-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (Q-ToF-MS) and LC-inductively coupled plasma - mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) strategy without needing authentic standards, despite several TPs coeluting with others. A database with predicted anaerobic TPs of ICMs was derived by applying the transformation rules found for the anaerobic transformation pathways of iopromide and diatrizoate to further ICMs (iomeprol and iopamidol) and their aerobic TPs already reported in the literature. The environmental relevance of the identified transformation pathways was confirmed by identifying an experimental TP and two predicted TPs using suspect screening of water taken from anaerobic bank filtration zones.

Novel application of magnetic nano-carbon composite as redox mediator in the reductive biodegradation of iopromide in anaerobic continuous systems

The redox-mediating capacity of magnetic reduced graphene oxide nanosacks (MNS) to promote the reductive biodegradation of the halogenated pollutant, iopromide (IOP), was tested. Experiments were performed using glucose as electron donor in an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor under methanogenic conditions. Higher removal efficiency of IOP in the UASB reactor supplied with MNS as redox mediator was observed as compared with the control reactor lacking MNS. Results showed 82% of IOP removal efficiency under steady state conditions in the UASB reactor enriched with MNS, while the reactor control showed IOP removal efficiency of 51%. The precise microbial transformation pathway of IOP was elucidated by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectroscopy (HPLC-MS) analysis. Biotransformation by-products with lower molecular weight than IOP molecule were identified in the reactor supplied with MNS, which were not detected in the reactor control, indicating the contribution of these magnetic nano-carbon composites in the redox conversion of this halogenated pollutant. Reductive reactions of IOP favored by MNS led to complete dehalogenation of the benzene ring and partial rupture of side chains of this pollutant, which is the first step towards its complete biodegradation. Possible reductive mechanisms that took place in the biodegradation of IOP were stated. Finally, the novel and successful application of magnetic graphene composites in a continuous bioreactor to enhance the microbial transformation of IOP was demonstrated.

Elimination of Isoxazolyl-Penicillins antibiotics in waters by the ligninolytic native Colombian strain Leptosphaerulina sp. considerations on biodegradation process and antimicrobial activity removal

In this work, Leptosphaerulina sp. (a Colombian native fungus) significantly removed three Isoxazolyl-Penicillin antibiotics (IP): oxacillin (OXA, 16000 μg L^-1), cloxacillin (CLX, 17500 μg L^-1) and dicloxacillin (DCX, 19000 μg L^-1) from water. The biological treatment was performed at pH 5.6, 28 °C, and 160 rpm for 15 days. The biotransformation process and lack of toxicity of the final solutions (antibacterial activity (AA) and cytotoxicity) were tested. The role of enzymes in IP removal was analysed through in vitro studies with enzymatic extracts (crude and pre-purified) from Leptosphaerulina sp., commercial enzymes and enzymatic inhibitors. Furthermore, the applicability of mycoremediation process to a complex matrix (simulated hospital wastewater) was evaluated. IP were considerably abated by the fungus, OXA was the fastest degraded (day 6), followed by CLX (day 7) and DCX (day 8). Antibiotics biodegradation was associated to laccase and versatile peroxidase action. Assays using commercial enzymes (i.e. laccase from Trametes versicolor and horseradish peroxidase) and inhibitors (EDTA, NaCl, sodium acetate, manganese (II) ions) confirmed the significant role of enzymatic transformation. Whereas, biomass sorption was not an important process in the antibiotics elimination. Evaluation of AA against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538 revealed that Leptosphaerulina sp. also eliminated the AA. In addition, the cytotoxicity assay (MTT) on the HepG2 cell line demonstrated that the IP final solutions were non-toxic. Finally, Leptosphaerulina sp. eliminated OXA and its AA from synthetic hospital wastewater at 6 days. All these results evidenced the potential of Leptosphaerulina sp. mycoremediation as a novel environmentally friendly process for the removal of IP from aqueous systems.

Can white-rot fungi be a real wastewater treatment alternative for organic micropollutants removal? A review

Micropollutants are a diverse group of compounds that are detected at trace concentrations and may have a negative effect on the environment and/or human health. Most of them are unregulated contaminants, although they have raised a concern in the scientific and global community and future regulation might be written in the near future. Several approaches have been tested to remove micropollutants from wastewater streams. In this manuscript, a focus is placed in reactor biological treatments that use white-rot fungi. A critical review of white-rot fungal-based technologies for micropollutant removal from wastewater has been conducted, several capabilities and limitations of such approaches have been identified and a range of solutions to overcome most of the limitations have been reviewed and/or proposed. Overall, this review argues that white-rot fungal reactors could be an efficient technology to remove micropollutants from specific wastewater streams.

Removal of pharmaceutical compounds in water and wastewater using fungal oxidoreductase enzymes

Due to recalcitrance of some pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs), conventional wastewater treatment is not able to remove them effectively. Therefore, their occurrence in surface water and potential environmental impact has raised serious global concern. Biological transformation of these contaminants using white-rot fungi (WRF) and their oxidoreductase enzymes has been proposed as a low cost and environmentally friendly solution for water treatment. The removal performance of PhACs by a fungal culture is dependent on several factors, such as fungal species, the secreted enzymes, molecular structure of target compounds, culture medium composition, etc. In recent 20 years, numerous researchers tried to elucidate the removal mechanisms and the effects of important operational parameters such as temperature and pH on the enzymatic treatment of PhACs. This review summarizes and analyzes the studies performed on PhACs removal from spiked pure water and real wastewaters using oxidoreductase enzymes and the data related to degradation efficiencies of the most studied compounds. The review also offers an insight into enzymes immobilization, fungal reactors, mediators, degradation mechanisms and transformation products (TPs) of PhACs. In brief, higher hydrophobicity and having electron-donating groups, such as amine and hydroxyl in molecular structure leads to more effective degradation of PhACs by fungal cultures. For recalcitrant compounds, using redox mediators, such as syringaldehyde increases the degradation efficiency, however they may cause toxicity in the effluent and deactivate the enzyme. Immobilization of enzymes on supports can enhance the performance of enzyme in terms of reusability and stability. However, the immobilization strategy should be carefully selected to reduce the cost and enable regeneration. Still, further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanisms involved in enzymatic degradation and the toxicity levels of TPs and also to optimize the whole treatment strategy to have economical and technical competitiveness.

Metal-mediated oxidation of fluoroquinolone antibiotics in water: A review on kinetics, transformation products, and toxicity assessment

Fluoroquinolones (FQs) are among the most potent antimicrobial agents, which have seen their increasing use as human and veterinary medicines to control bacterial infections. FQs have been extensively found in surface water and municipal wastewaters, which has raised great concerns due to their negative impacts to humans and ecological health. It is of utmost importance that FQs are treated before their release into the environment. This paper reviews oxidative removal of FQs using reactive oxygen (O₃ and OH), sulfate radicals (SO₄^-), and high-valent transition metal (Mn^VII and Fe^VI) species. The role of metals in enhancing the performance of reactive oxygen and sulfur species is presented. The catalysts can significantly enhance the production of OH and/or SO₄^- radicals. At neutral pH, the second-order rate constants (k, M^-1s^-1) of the reactions between FQs and oxidants follow the order as k(OH)>k(O₃)>k(Fe^VI)>k(Mn^VII). Moieties involved to transform target FQs to oxidized products and participation of the catalysts in the reaction pathways are discussed. Generally, the piperazinyl ring of FQs was found as the preferential attack site by each oxidant. Meanwhile, evaluation of aquatic ecotoxicity of the transformation products of FQs by these treatments is summarized.

Stropharia rugosoannulata and Gymnopilus luteofolius: Promising fungal species for pharmaceutical biodegradation in contaminated water

Pharmaceuticals are environmental micropollutants that pose an emerging challenge because they are poorly eliminated in conventional wastewater treatment plants. Over the last decade, many attempts have been made to solve this problem, and wastewater fungal treatment is a promising alternative. In this study, six different ligninolytic fungi (Trametes versicolor, Ganoderma lucidum, Irpex lacteus, Stropharia rugosoannulata, Gymnopilus luteofolius and Agrocybe erebia) were studied as bioremediation candidates for the removal and degradation of six recalcitrant pharmaceutical micropollutants: Carbamazepine (CBZ), Venlafaxine (VFX), Iopromide (IPD), Diclofenac (DCF), Cyclophosphamide (CFD) and Ifosfamide (IFD). Self-immobilization in a pellet shape was achieved for all fungal mycelia (which was the first time that this was reported for S. rugosoannulata, G. luteofolius, and A. erebia). Biodegradation achievement was greater than 90% for IPD with G. luteofolius and greater than 70% for CBZ with S. rugosoannulata, which suggests a great potential for this alternative biological treatment. Besides, this was the first report where fungal treatment achieved CFD and IFD removals greater than 20% for the treatment with T. versicolor, G. lucidum and S. rugosoannulata.