Long-term effects of pubertal anabolic-androgenic steroid exposure on reproductive and aggressive behaviors in male rats

Association between nandrolone and behavioral alterations: A systematic review of preclinical studies

BACKGROUND AND AIM

In recent years the expanding misuse of Nandrolone among non-athletes, particularly adolescent males is a prevalent global concern due to its adverse effects. This article provides a summary of the experimental studies to clarify the relationship between Nandrolone exposure and behavioral and cognitive performances.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present systematic review was conducted using PubMed, Embase and ScienceDirect databases, from 2000 to 2020, using the following key terms: Nandrolone AND Cognition, Nandrolone AND Learning, Nandrolone AND Memory, Nandrolone AND (Synaptic plasticity or Hippocampal synaptic plasticity), Nandrolone AND (Aggression or Aggressive-like behavior), Nandrolone AND (Anxiety or Anxiety-like behavior), Nandrolone AND (Depression or Depressive-like behavior).

RESULTS

33 qualified papers were selected from the 2498 sources found. Of the 33 cases, 32 (96.97%) were males while only 1 (3.03%) was female and male. From 33 selected articles 8 reported studies were related to spatial memory, 2 reported studies were related to avoidance memory, 11 studies reported information on synaptic plasticity, 11 reported studies were related to aggressive behavior, 8 reported studies were related to aggressive behavior and 6 reported studies were related to depression.

CONCLUSION

Nandrolone can change spatial ability, avoidance memory and hippocampal synaptic plasticity. Also, Nandrolone exposure produces variable effects on behavioral function such as aggression, depression and anxiety. This despite the fact that the results are contradictory. These discrepancies might be due to the differences in sex, age, dosage and treatment duration, and administration route. However, the negative results are more common than the published positive ones.

Anabolic androgenic steroids, antisocial personality traits, aggression and violence

BACKGROUND

Anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) use is associated with a wide range of adverse physical, psychological and social effects. While some experience few side effects, others might experience severe consequences. Aggression and violence are among the often-cited side effects associated with high-dose AAS use; however, most of the knowledge is generated from subgroups, such as prison populations. A likely hypothesis is that AAS use is associated with aggression and violence, but that these associations are complex and may be mediated by several factors, such as substance use, AAS dependence and personality traits.

METHODS

In the present study, we tested this hypothesis by examining the relations between long-term AAS use and AAS dependence, aggression, interpersonal violence and potential mediating factors in a sample of male AAS exposed and non-exposed weightlifting controls (WLC), using self-report questionnaires. Based upon AAS dependence criteria, a sample of male AAS users and WLC (N = 139) were stratified into three groups: WLC (n = 66), AAS dependents (n = 41) and AAS non-dependents (n = 32).

RESULTS

The results demonstrate that AAS dependents reported significantly higher levels of aggression compared to WLC and AAS non-dependents. While interpersonal violence was reported in all three groups, the highest percentage was found in the AAS dependent group.

CONCLUSION

In summary, our study confirms a link between AAS use, aggression and violence in a weightlifting population. However, the association is foremost seen in AAS dependent users and it seems that antisocial personality traits are an important mediator.

Examining the Effects of Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids on Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (RmTBI) Outcomes in Adolescent Rats

Background: Repetitive mild traumatic brain injury (RmTBI) is increasingly common in adolescents. Anabolic–androgenic steroid (AAS) consumption among younger professional athletes is a significant risk factor for impaired neurodevelopment. Given the increased rates and overlapping symptomology of RmTBI and AAS use, we sought to investigate the behavioural and neuropathological outcomes associated with the AAS Metandienone (Met) and RmTBI on rats. Methods: Rats received either Met or placebo and were then administered RmTBIs or sham injuries, followed by a behavioural test battery. Post-mortem MRI was conducted to examine markers of brain integrity and qRT-PCR assessed mRNA expression of markers for neurodevelopment, neuroinflammation, stress responses, and repair processes. Results: Although AAS and RmTBI did not produce cumulative deficits, AAS use was associated with detrimental outcomes including changes to depression, aggression, and memory; prefrontal cortex (PFC) atrophy and amygdala (AMYG) enlargement; damaged white matter integrity in the corpus callosum; and altered mRNA expression in the PFC and AMYG. RmTBI affected general activity and contributed to PFC atrophy. Conclusions: Findings corroborate previous results indicating that RmTBI negatively impacts neurodevelopment but also demonstrates that AAS results in significant neuropathological insult to the developing brain.

The Relationship Between the Big Five Personality Traits, Impulsivity, and Anabolic Steroid Use

BACKGROUND

The increase in the prevalence of anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) use has been the subject of study in the last decades. Several studies indicated a strong association between the use of AAS and the performance of risky behaviors mediated by factors such as aggression, impulsivity, depression, and anxiety.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to identify differences in personality trait, impulsivity, and the ability to delay gratification between AAS users and non-users that predispose or serve as a buffering mechanism against its usage and whether it is related to an increased likelihood of engaging in infidelity.

METHODS

Two hundred and twelve male volunteers (88 AAS users), aged between 21 and 36 years (M = 28.22), completed self-report measures of personality, impulsivity, delayed gratification, and attitudes toward infidelity. Multivariate analysis of variance and logistic regression were conducted to establish differences between AAS users and non-users.

RESULTS

The results showed that AAS users displayed an inability to delay gratification, a greater impulsivity, and a more benevolent attitude toward infidelity. AAS users obtained higher scores on openness and neuroticism, which was larger "off-cycle," although they presented lower scores on extraversion compared to the non-users group. Regression analysis revealed that neuroticism, impulsivity, and delaying gratification scores were significant predictors of AAS usage. In addition, impulsivity functioned as a partial mediator in the relationship between neuroticism and AAS use.

CONCLUSION

The results of this research highlight a pivotal implication of impulsivity in AAS use in conjunction with neuroticism, openness, and extraversion traits.

Pubertal anabolic androgenic steroid exposure in male rats affects levels of gonadal steroids, mating frequency, and pregnancy outcome

Background Testosterone, nandrolone, and stanozolol are among the highly consumed anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs). Although the desired effects of AAS are being achieved by the abusers, unfortunately, this leads to numerous physical and physiological side effects. The present study was designed to investigate and determine whether early pubertal exposure to AAS treatment had detrimental effects on blood testosterone and estradiol concentrations, mating behavior, and pregnancy outcome during the pubertal period in male rats. Materials Early pubertal rats (PND41) were given two doses (2.5 mg/kg and 5 mg/kg) each of testosterone, nandrolone, and stanozolol subcutaneously for 6 weeks. Upon completion, three rats with the highest weight were chosen from each group for mating with the females, in a ratio of one male to two females for 10 days. After 10 days, all male rats were sacrificed to obtain the testes for weight recording, and blood samples were collected for testosterone and estradiol quantitation. Pregnant females were housed separately until birth, and the number of offsprings produced was counted. Results The results clearly show a reduction in reproductive hormonal and behavioral parameters between testosterone and nandrolone, and testosterone and stanozolol. Stanozolol administration exhibited suppressing effects in all parameters including testicular weight deterioration, serum testosterone and estradiol reduction, low mating preferences, and declined pregnancy outcome. Conclusions AAS exposure during the onset of puberty results in reproductive detrimental effects, which are postulated to affect the pregnancy rate.

Effects of stanozolol on apoptosis mechanisms and oxidative stress in rat cardiac tissue

Stanozolol is a widely used 17α-alkylated anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) derivative. Despite stanozolol's adverse effects, its effect on oxidative stress parameters and mitochondrial apoptosis pathway is not clearly defined. In our study, thirty four male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 5 groups as control (C), vehicle control (VC), steroid (ST), vehicle control-exercise (VCE), and steroid-exercise (STE). Animals were subcutaneously administered stanozolol 5 mg/kg in steroid groups and propylene glycol 1 ml/kg in the vehicle-control groups. On the 28th day-after sacrification, oxidative stress (MDA, GSH, PC, SOD, CAT) and apoptosis parameters (TUNEL, Cytochrome-c) in cardiac tissue were evaluated. Also, blood vessel morphology of cardiac tissue was evaluated with Verhoeff-van Giesen staining. It has been demonstrated that stanozolol administration triggers apoptosis by using TUNEL assay and cytochrome-c immunohistochemical staining intensity, while this effect is significantly reduced in the presence of exercise. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that stanozolol administration induces apoptosis with increasing PC and CAT levels, while GSH, MDA and SOD parameters do not reveal any significant change. Exercise has a protective role in stanozolol induced oxidative stress and apoptosis. According to Verhoeff-van Giesen staining results for blood vessel morphology assessment, it has been seen that exercise has a protective role on cardiac blood vessels. This mechanism needs further investigations with long term exposure studies for clarifying possible pathways.

Chronic intermittent hypoxia induces hormonal and male sexual behavioral changes: Hypoxia as an advancer of aging

Sleep apnea is a common sleep disorder characterized by intermittent periods of low blood oxygen levels. The risk for sleep apnea increases with age and is more prevalent in men than women. A common comorbidity of sleep apnea includes male sexual dysfunction, but it is not clear if a causal relationship exists between sleep apnea and sexual dysfunction. Possible mechanisms that link these two disorders include oxidative stress and testosterone. Oxidative stress is elevated in clinical patients with sleep apnea and in rodents exposed to chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH), an animal model for apnea-induced hypopnea. Further, oxidative stress levels increase with age. Therefore, age may play a role in sleep apnea-induced sexual dysfunction and oxidative stress generation. To investigate this relationship, we exposed gonadally intact 3 (young) and 12 (middle-aged) month old male F344/BN F1 hybrid male rats to 8 days of CIH, and then examined male sexual function. Plasma was used to assess circulating oxidative stress and hormone levels. Middle-aged male rats had lower testosterone levels with increased sexual dysfunction and oxidative stress, independent of CIH. However, CIH decreased testosterone levels and increased sexual dysfunction and oxidative stress only in young gonadally intact male rats, but not in gonadectomized young rats with physiological testosterone replacement. In sum, CIH had a greater impact on younger gonadally intact animals, with respect to sexual behaviors, testosterone, and oxidative stress. Our data indicate CIH mimics the effects of aging on male sexual behavior in young gonadally intact male rats.

Mad men, women and steroid cocktails: a review of the impact of sex and other factors on anabolic androgenic steroids effects on affective behaviors

RATIONALE

For several decades, elite athletes and a growing number of recreational consumers have used anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) as performance enhancing drugs. Despite mounting evidence that illicit use of these synthetic steroids has detrimental effects on affective states, information available on sex-specific actions of these drugs is lacking.

OBJECTIVES

The focus of this review is to assess information to date on the importance of sex and its interaction with other environmental factors on affective behaviors, with an emphasis on data derived from non-human studies.

METHODS

The PubMed database was searched for relevant studies in both sexes.

RESULTS

Studies examining AAS use in females are limited, reflecting the lower prevalence of use in this sex. Data, however, indicate significant sex-specific differences in AAS effects on anxiety-like and aggressive behaviors, interactions with other drugs of abuse, and the interplay of AAS with other environmental factors such as diet and exercise.

CONCLUSIONS

Current methods for assessing AAS use have limitations that suggest biases of both under- and over-reporting, which may be amplified for females who are poorly represented in self-report studies of human subjects and are rarely used in animal studies. Data from animal literature suggest that there are significant sex-specific differences in the impact of AAS on aggression, anxiety, and concomitant use of other abused substances. These results have relevance for human females who take these drugs as performance-enhancing substances and for transgender XX individuals who may illicitly self-administer AAS as they transition to a male gender identity.

Anabolic/androgenic steroid administration during adolescence and adulthood differentially modulates aggression and anxiety

Anabolic/androgenic steroid (AAS) use remains high in both teens and adults in the U.S. and worldwide despite studies showing that AAS use is associated with a higher incidence of aggression and anxiety. Recently we showed that chronic exposure to AAS through adolescence increases aggression and decreases anxious behaviors, while during AAS-withdrawal aggression is lowered to species-normative levels and anxiety increases. AAS exposure is known to differentially alter behaviors and their underlying neural substrates between adults and adolescents and thus the current study investigated whether exposure to AAS during adulthood affects the relationship between aggression and anxiety in a manner similar to that previously observed in adolescents. Male hamsters were administered a moderate dose of AAS (5.0mg/kg/day×30days) during adolescence (P27-56) or young adulthood (P65-P94) and then tested for aggression and anxiety during AAS exposure (i.e., on P57 or P95) and during AAS withdrawal (i.e., 30days later on P77 or P115). Adolescent exposure to AAS increased aggressive responding during the AAS exposure period and anxiety-like responding during AAS withdrawal. Neither behavior was similarly influenced by adult exposure to AAS. Adult AAS exposure produced no difference in aggressive responding during AAS exposure (P95) or AAS withdrawal (P115); however, while AAS exposure during adulthood produced no difference in anxiety-like responding during AAS exposure, adult hamsters administered AAS were less anxious than vehicle control animals following AAS withdrawal. Together these data suggest that the aggression and anxiety provoking influence of AAS are likely a developmental phenomenon and that adult exposure to AAS may be anxiolytic over the long term.

The impact of nandrolone decanoate on the central nervous system

Nandrolone is included in the class II of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) which is composed of 19-nor-testosterone-derivates. In general, AAS is a broad and rapidly increasing group of synthetic androgens used both clinically and illicitly. AAS in general and nandrolone decanoate (ND) in particular have been associated with several behavioral disorders. The purpose of this review is to summarize the literature concerning studies dealing with ND exposure on animal models, mostly rats that mimic human abuse systems (i.e. supraphysiological doses). We have focused in particular on researches that have investigated how ND alters the function and expression of neuronal signaling molecules that underlie behavior, anxiety, aggression, learning and memory, reproductive behaviors, locomotion and reward.

Anabolic-androgenic steroids and appetitive sexual behavior in male rats

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) increase libido and sexual behavior, but the underlying behavioral mechanisms are unclear. One way AAS may enhance expression of sexual behavior is by increasing the willingness to work for sex. In the present study, sexually-experienced male rats received daily injections of testosterone at supraphysiologic doses (7.5 mg/kg in water with 13% cyclodextrin) or vehicle and were tested for appetitive sexual behavior measured by operant responding for access to an estrous female. Initially, rats were trained in their home cage to respond on a nose-poke under a 10-min fixed-interval schedule for food reward. Once rats achieved stable response rates, the food was replaced by a female, followed by mating for 10 min. There was no effect of testosterone on operant responding for food (28.1 ± 4.4 responses/10 min for testosterone, 30.6 ± 4.3 for vehicle) or sex (35.0 ± 4.0 responses/10 min for testosterone, 37.3 ± 5.2 for vehicle). However, rats made significantly more responses for sex than for food (p < 0.05), and responses for food and sex were positively correlated among individuals (R(2) = 0.6). Additional groups of rats were trained to respond on a lever for the female under a 2nd-order schedule of reinforcement, where 5 responses opened a door to show the female for 5s. After 15 door openings, the male gained access to the female. There was no effect of testosterone on time to complete 75 responses: 38.4 ± 7.8 min for vehicle controls vs 43.3 ± 6.6 min for testosterone-treated rats (p > 0.05). These findings suggest that chronic high-dose testosterone does not enhance appetitive drive for sexual behavior.

Testosterone enhances risk tolerance without altering motor impulsivity in male rats

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) increase impulsive and uncontrolled aggressive ('roid rage) in humans and enhance agonistic behavior in animals. However, the underlying mechanisms for AAS-induced aggression remain unclear. Potential contributing elements include an increase risk-taking and/or motor impulsivity due to AAS. This study addressed the effects of chronic high-dose testosterone on risk tolerance using a risky decision-making task (RDT) and motor impulsivity with a go/no-go task in operant chambers. Male Long-Evans rats were treated for at least 4 weeks with testosterone (7.5mg/kg) or vehicle beginning in late adolescence. Testosterone was used because it is popular among human AAS users. In RDT testing, one lever was paired with delivery of a small "safe" food reward, while the other was paired with a large "risky" reward associated with an increasing risk of footshock (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%) in successive test blocks. Three shock intensities were used: 1.0, 1.2, and 1.4mA/kg. As shock intensity and risk of shock increased, preference for the lever signifying a large reward significantly declined for both vehicle- and testosterone-treated rats (p<0.05). There was also a significant effect of drug (p<0.05), where testosterone-treated rats showed greater preference for the large reward, compared to vehicle-treated controls. Increased preference for the large reward, despite risk of footshock, is consistent with increased risk tolerance. In go/no-go testing, rats were trained to press a single lever if the go cue was presented (stimulus light) or to refrain from pressing during the no-go cue (tone). There was no effect of testosterone on pre-cue responses, or performance in go and no-go trials. These results suggest that AAS may increase risk-tolerance without altering motor impulsivity.

Administration of an anabolic steroid during the adolescent phase changes the behavior, cardiac autonomic balance and fluid intake in male adult rats

Few data are available on adolescent users because most behavioral studies on anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) abuse have been performed in adults. Studies evaluating the impact of long-term effects of AAS abuse on the prepubertal phase are even more uncommon. Accordingly, this study was developed to test the hypothesis that changes induced by the use of AAS during the adolescent phase may be noted in the adult phase even when the AAS treatment cycle is discontinued. Therefore, not only behavioral changes but also possible autonomic and electrolyte disorders were evaluated. For this purpose, we used male prepubertal, 26-day-old (P26) Wistar rats that were treated with vehicle (control, n=10) or testosterone propionate (TP; 5 mg/kg intramuscular (IM) injection, AAS, n=10) five times per week for 5 weeks, totaling 25 applications during the treatment. Aggression tests were performed at the end of the cycle (P54-56), whereas open-field tests (OFTs), elevated plus maze (EPM) behavioral tests and measurements of heart rate variability (HRV), fluid intake and pathology were conducted in the adult phase (P87-92). The AAS group showed greater aggressiveness in the pubertal phase and higher levels of horizontal and vertical exploration and anxiety-related behavior in the adult phase than the control group (P<0.05). HRV tests showed an increase in sympathetic autonomic modulation, and hydroelectrolytic assessment showed lower basal intake levels of hypertonic saline than the control group (P<0.05), without statistically significant changes in the basal intake of water. These data together suggest that the use of AAS during the prepubertal phase induces behavioral, autonomic and hydroelectrolytic changes that manifest in the adult phase even when treatment is discontinued in late adolescence in rats.

Androgenic anabolic steroid exposure during adolescence: ramifications for brain development and behavior

This article is part of a Special Issue "Puberty and Adolescence". Puberty is a critical period for brain maturation that is highly dependent on gonadal sex hormones. Modifications in the gonadal steroid environment, via the use of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS), have been shown to affect brain development and behavior. Studies in both humans and animal models indicate that AAS exposure during adolescence alters normal brain remodeling, including structural changes and neurotransmitter function. The most commonly reported behavioral effect is an increase in aggression. Evidence has been presented to identify factors that influence the effect of AAS on the expression of aggression. The chemical composition of the AAS plays a major role in determining whether aggression is displayed, with testosterone being the most effective. The hormonal context, the environmental context, physical provocation and the perceived threat during the social encounter have all been found to influence the expression of aggression and sexual behavior. All of these factors point toward an altered behavioral state that includes an increased readiness to respond to a social encounter with heightened vigilance and enhanced motivation. This AAS-induced state may be defined as emboldenment. The evidence suggests that the use of AAS during this critical period of development may increase the risk for maladaptive behaviors along with neurological disorders.

'Roid rage in rats? Testosterone effects on aggressive motivation, impulsivity and tyrosine hydroxylase

In humans and animals, anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) increase aggression, but the underlying behavioral mechanisms are unclear. AAS may increase the motivation to fight. Alternatively, AAS may increase impulsive behavior, consistent with the popular image of 'roid rage. To test this, adolescent male rats were treated chronically with testosterone (7.5mg/kg) or vehicle and tested for aggressive motivation and impulsivity. Rats were trained to respond on a nose-poke on a 10 min fixed-interval schedule for the opportunity to fight in their home cage with an unfamiliar rat. Although testosterone increased aggression (6.3±1.3 fights/5 min vs 2.4±0.8 for controls, p<0.05), there was no difference in operant responding (28.4±1.6 nose-pokes/10 min for testosterone, 32.4±7.0 for vehicle). This suggests that testosterone does not enhance motivation for aggression. To test for impulsivity, rats were trained to respond for food in a delay-discounting procedure. In an operant chamber, one lever delivered one food pellet immediately, the other lever gave 4 pellets after a delay (0, 15, 30 or 45 s). In testosterone- and vehicle-treated rats, body weights and food intake did not differ. However, testosterone-treated rats chose the larger, delayed reward more often (4.5±0.7 times in 10 trials with 45 s delay) than vehicle controls (2.5±0.5 times, p<0.05), consistent with a reduction in impulsive choice. Thus, although chronic high-dose testosterone enhances aggression, this does not include an increase in impulsive behavior or motivation to fight. This is further supported by measurement of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) by Western immunoblot analysis in brain regions important for motivation (nucleus accumbens, Acb) and executive function (medial prefrontal cortex, PFC). There were no differences in TH between testosterone- and vehicle-treated rats in Acb or PFC. However, testosterone significantly reduced TH (to 76.9±3.1% of controls, p<0.05) in the caudate-putamen, a brain area important for behavioral inhibition, motor control and habit learning.

The Sturm und Drang of anabolic steroid use: angst, anxiety, and aggression

Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are illicitly administered to enhance athletic performance and body image. Although conferring positive actions on performance, steroid abuse is associated with changes in anxiety and aggression. AAS users are often keenly invested in understanding the biological actions of these drugs. Thus, mechanistic information on AAS actions is important not only for the biomedical community, but also for steroid users. Here we review findings from animal studies on the impact of AAS exposure on neural systems that are crucial for the production of anxiety and aggression, and compare the effects of the different classes of AAS and their potential signaling mechanisms, as well as context-, age- and sex-dependent aspects of their actions.

Effects of anabolic androgenic steroids and social subjugation on behavior and neurochemistry in male rats

Early abuse and anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) both increase aggression. We assessed the behavioral and neurochemical consequences of AAS, alone or in combination with social subjugation (SS), an animal model of child abuse. On P26, gonadally intact male rats began SS consisting of daily pairings with an adult male for 2 weeks followed by daily injections of the AAS, testosterone on P40. As adults, males were tested for sexual and aggressive behaviors towards females in various hormonal conditions and inter-male aggression in a neutral setting using home or opponent bedding. Neurotransmitter levels were assessed using HPLC. Results showed that AAS males displayed significantly more mounts toward sexually receptive, vaginally obstructed females (OBS) and displayed significantly more threats towards ovariectomized females. SS males mounted OBS females significantly less and were not aggressive toward females. The role of olfactory cues in a neutral setting did not affect aggression regardless of treatment. AAS significantly increased brainstem DOPAC and NE. SS decreased 5HIAA, DA, DOPAC, and NE in brainstem. 5HIAA was significantly increased in the prefrontal cortex of all experimental groups. We conclude that AAS and SS differentially affect behavior towards females as well as neurotransmitter levels.

Impact of anabolic androgenic steroids on adolescent males

Anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) use increased dramatically among adolescent males. This review focuses on studies using animal models of AAS exposure during adolescence which is a hormonally sensitive developmental period. AAS exposure during this critical period has wide-ranging consequences, including increased dendritic spine density, altered brain serotonin levels and escalated aggression in response to physical provocation. Human data suggest that AAS induces indiscriminate and unprovoked aggression often described as "'roid rage". However, animal studies indicate that the behavioral impact of AAS is modulated by experiential and social contingencies, a perceived provocation, and the chemical composition of the AAS. The AAS, testosterone increases aggression in juvenile and adult male rats when physically provoked. In contrast, stanzolol, inhibits aggression in both juvenile and adult male rats, even when physically provoked. Nandrolone has minimal effects on aggression, unless preceded by attack training. Exposure to AAS during adolescence may have a host of unintended bio-behavioral consequences. Yet, the perception of harmlessness surrounds AAS use. The perception of harmlessness is promoted by the availability of AAS especially through internet pharmacies. The perception of acceptability is reflected in current cultural ethics that no longer condemn cheating to obtain personal achievement or success. A prevailing conviction is that although AAS are illegal they are not really bad. Reduction of the availability of AAS to adolescents requires ardent legislative and legal intervention. The problem of acceptability can be addressed by educating adolescents about the short-term and long-term effects of AAS on brain and behavior, to increase awareness of the potential consequences of AAS use that apply directly to them.

Anabolic steroids have long-lasting effects on male social behaviors

Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) use by adolescents is steadily increasing. Adolescence involves remodeling of steroid-sensitive neural circuits that mediate social behaviors, and previous studies using animal models document effects of AAS on male social behaviors. The present experiments tested whether AAS have persistent and more pronounced behavioral consequences when drug exposure occurs during adolescence as compared to exposure in adulthood. Male Syrian hamsters were injected daily for 14 days with either vehicle or an AAS cocktail containing testosterone cypionate (2 mg/kg), nandrolone decanoate (2 mg/kg), and boldenone undecylenate (1 mg/kg), either during adolescence (27-41 days of age) or adulthood (63-77 days of age). As adults, subjects were tested two or four weeks after the last injection for either sexual behavior with a receptive female or male-male agonistic behavior in a resident-intruder test. Compared with vehicle-treated males, AAS-treated males, regardless of age of treatment, displayed fewer long intromissions and a significant increase in latency to the first long intromission, indicative of reduced potential to reach sexual satiety. Increased aggression was observed in males exposed to AAS compared with males treated with vehicle, independently of age of AAS treatment. However, unlike hamsters exposed to AAS in adulthood, hamsters exposed to AAS during adolescence did not display any submissive or risk-assessment behaviors up to 4 weeks after discontinuation of AAS treatment. Thus, AAS have long-lasting effects on male sexual and agonistic behaviors, with AAS exposure during adolescence resulting in a more pronounced reduction in submissive behavior compared to AAS exposure in adulthood.

Anabolic-androgenic steroid dependence? Insights from animals and humans

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are drugs of abuse. They are taken in large quantities by athletes and others to increase performance, with negative health consequences. As a result, in 1991 testosterone and related AAS were declared controlled substances. However, the relative abuse and dependence liability of AAS have not been fully characterized. In humans, it is difficult to separate the direct psychoactive effects of AAS from reinforcement due to their systemic anabolic effects. However, using conditioned place preference and self-administration, studies in animals have demonstrated that AAS are reinforcing in a context where athletic performance is irrelevant. Furthermore, AAS share brain sites of action and neurotransmitter systems in common with other drugs of abuse. In particular, recent evidence links AAS with opioids. In humans, AAS abuse is associated with prescription opioid use. In animals, AAS overdose produces symptoms resembling opioid overdose, and AAS modify the activity of the endogenous opioid system.

Anabolic androgenic steroids and aggression: studies using animal models

The use of anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) has escalated in teenagers and is associated with increased violence. Adolescent exposure to chronic high levels of AASs is of particular concern because puberty is a hormonally sensitive period during which neural circuitry for adult male patterns of behavior develop. Thus, teenage AAS use may have long-term repercussions on the potential for displaying aggression and violence. Animal models have contributed valuable information on the effects of AAS use. For example, studies in rodents confirmed that exposure to the AASs testosterone and nandrolone, but not stanozolol, does indeed increase aggression. A side effect of AAS use reported in humans is "'roid rage," characterized by indiscriminate and unprovoked aggression. Results of animal studies demonstrated that pubertal rats receiving AASs respond appropriately to social cues as they are more aggressive toward intact males than are castrates. Also, testosterone-treated males recognize appropriate environmental cues as they are most aggressive in their home cage. Thus, adolescent AAS exposure increases aggressive behaviors, but does not induce indiscriminate aggression. To assess whether AAS exposure increases aggression after provocation, rats were tested following a mild tail-pinch. In adolescent males, provocation increased aggression after withdrawal from testosterone, nandrolone, and stanozolol, an effect which persisted for many weeks. The data suggest that AASs sensitize animals to their surroundings and lower the threshold to respond to provocation with aggression. Thus, in humans, pubertal AAS exposure may not cause violent behaviors, but may increase the likelihood that aggressive acts will result in violence. This may persist into adulthood.

Prepubertal social subjugation and anabolic androgenic steroid-induced aggression in male rats

Abused children are more prone to abuse drugs, such as anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS), as teenagers and display violence as adults. AAS use has been linked with elevated aggression. Thus, exposure to child abuse and AAS may potentiate aggression. A social subjugation paradigm was used as an animal model of childhood abuse to determine whether prior subjugation increases AAS-induced aggression in male rats. Prepubertal gonadally intact male rats were exposed to social subjugation, a novel cage experience, or remained undisturbed in their home cages. Experimental males were socially subjugated by being placed in the home cage of an adult male. At puberty, both subjugated and nonsubjugated rats were injected with either the AAS testosterone or vehicle. AAS treatment continued for 5 weeks. Aggression was measured during the last week of AAS exposure. AAS was then discontinued. Aggression was again tested 12 weeks after AAS withdrawal. Aggression was tested under three conditions: (i) physical provocation of the experimental male; (ii) provocation of the intruder male; and (iii) without provocation. Both AAS-treated males and socially subjugated males displayed significantly more aggression than did controls. Elevated aggression by subjugated males was still present 17 weeks after social subjugation. AAS males also showed increased aggression 12 weeks after AAS withdrawal. However, exposure to both social subjugation and AAS had no long-term effects on aggression. The results of the present study indicate that social subjugation may have lasting consequences on the expression of adaptive social behaviours.

The effects of an anabolic androgenic steroid and low serotonin on social and non-social behaviors in male rats

The behavioral and neurochemical impact of low serotonin (5-HT) was examined in gonadally intact male rats exposed to an anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) during puberty. Low 5-HT was induced beginning on postnatal day 26 using parachlorophylalanine (PCPA). Injections of the AAS, testosterone (TP), began on day 40. The rats were tested in both non-social (locomotor activity and nose poke for food) and social (low-threat and high-threat) contexts. PCPA and TP+PCPA significantly decreased locomotor activity. PCPA alone significantly increased nose poke latency compared to controls. Freezing in the PCPA group was significantly elevated compared to TP and TP+PCPA groups, but not compared to controls. AAS did not affect non-social behaviors. Thus, low serotonin may increase freezing in a non-social context. Following provocation, PCPA and TP+PCPA significantly increased aggression toward smaller non-threatening opponents, suggesting that males with low 5-HT are more aggressive in a low-threat context when provoked. In the resident-pair intruder test, TP significantly increased aggression whereas PCPA did not, suggesting that in a high-threat context, aggression is primarily mediated by AAS. TP+PCPA males were also significantly more aggressive in the high-threat context suggesting that exposure to AAS may override freezing behavior induced by low serotonin. Both PCPA and TP+PCPA significantly and substantially depleted 5-HT and 5-HIAA in all brain regions examined. AAS significantly decreased 5-HIAA levels in the hypothalamus and increased 5-HT levels in the frontal cortex. Following withdrawal from TP+PCPA, most behavioral and neurochemical measures returned to control levels. These data suggest that low serotonin may be a contributing factor in the increased aggression displayed by adolescents who abuse AAS.

Pubertal exposure to anabolic androgenic steroids increases spine densities on neurons in the limbic system of male rats

Human studies show that the number of teenagers abusing anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) is increasing. During adolescence, brain development is altered by androgen exposure, which suggests that AAS may potentially alter central nervous system (CNS) development. The goal of the present study was to determine whether pubertal AAS exposure increased dendritic spine densities on neurons within the medial amygdala and the dorsal hippocampus. Pubertal gonadally intact male rats received the AAS testosterone propionate (5 mg/kg) or vehicle for 5 days/week for 4 weeks. To determine the long-term implications of pubertal AAS use, another set of males received the same AAS treatment and was then withdrawn from AAS exposure for 4 weeks. Results showed that pubertal AAS exposure significantly increased spine densities on neurons in the anterior medial amygdala, posterodorsal medial amygdala, and the cornu ammonis region 1 (CA1) of the hippocampus compared with gonadally intact control males. Spine densities returned to control levels within the anterior medial amygdala and the posterodorsal medial amygdala 4 weeks after withdrawal. However, spine densities remained significantly elevated after AAS withdrawal in the CA1 region of the hippocampus, suggesting that pubertal AAS exposure may have a long-lasting impact on CA1 hippocampal neuroanatomy. Since pubertal AAS exposure increased spine densities and most excitatory synapses in the CNS occur on dendritic spines, AAS may increase neuronal excitation. It is proposed that this increase in excitation may underlie the behavioral responses seen in pubertal AAS-treated male rats.

Effects of anabolic androgenic steroids on the development and expression of running wheel activity and circadian rhythms in male rats

In humans, anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) use has been associated with hyperactivity and disruption of circadian rhythmicity. We used an animal model to determine the impact of AAS on the development and expression of circadian function. Beginning on day 68 gonadally intact male rats received testosterone, nandrolone, or stanozolol via constant release pellets for 60 days; gonadally intact controls received vehicle pellets. Wheel running was recorded in a 12:12 LD cycle and constant dim red light (RR) before and after AAS implants. Post-AAS implant, circadian activity phase, period and mean level of wheel running wheel activity were compared to baseline measures. Post-AAS phase response to a light pulse at circadian time 15 h was also tested. To determine if AAS differentially affects steroid receptor coactivator (SRC) expression we measured SRC-1 and SRC-2 protein in brain. Running wheel activity was significantly elevated by testosterone, significantly depressed by nandrolone, and unaffected by stanozolol. None of the AAS altered measures of circadian rhythmicity or phase response. While SRC-1 was unaffected by AAS exposure, SRC-2 was decreased by testosterone in the hypothalamus. Activity levels, phase of peak activity and circadian period all changed over the course of development from puberty to adulthood. Development of activity was clearly modified by AAS exposure as testosterone significantly elevated activity levels and nandrolone significantly suppressed activity relative to controls. Thus, AAS exposure differentially affects both the magnitude and direction of developmental changes in activity levels depending in part on the chemical composition of the AAS.

Factors influencing aggression toward females by male rats exposed to anabolic androgenic steroids during puberty

Previous results showed that male rats pubertally exposed to anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) displayed aggression towards females in response to physical provocation. This experiment examined two factors that may modulate AAS-induced behavior towards females: olfactory cues and frustration. Gonadally intact males began one of three AAS treatments at puberty (D40): testosterone propionate (T), stanozolol (S), T+S, or vehicle control. To test for the relevance of olfactory cues in the elicitation of behavior toward females, a hidden neighbor paradigm was used. The proximal stimulus was an ovariectomized (OVX) female, estrogen plus progesterone (E+P) female, or an E+P female with tape-obstructed vagina (OBS). Distal olfactory cues from a hidden neighbor were delivered from a separate cage connected to the testing arena. The vaginally obstructed, sexually receptive female (OBS) was used to determine the effects of frustration on behavior by AAS males. Both sexual and aggressive behaviors were measured. The presence of distal olfactory cues had no effect on either sexual or aggressive behavior. In the presence of E+P and OBS females, all males displayed sex behaviors, not aggression. However, AAS males displayed significantly more aggression towards proximal OVX females than controls. AAS males mounted OBS females significantly more than controls, indicating a persistence of once rewarded behavior. These results suggest (1) proximal cues of the conspecific female are more salient than distal olfactory cues in determining behavior and (2) AAS males display frustration-induced persistence in response to vaginally obstructed receptive females.

Behavioral effects of pubertal anabolic androgenic steroid exposure in male rats with low serotonin

The goal of this study was to assess the interactive effects of chronic anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) exposure and brain serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) depletion on behavior of pubertal male rats. Serotonin was depleted beginning on postnatal day 26 with parachlorophenylalanine (PCPA 100 mg/kg, every other day); controls received saline. At puberty (P40), half the PCPA-treated rats and half the saline-treated rats began treatment with testosterone (T, 5 mg/kg, 5 days/week). Behavioral measures included locomotion, irritability, copulation, partner preference, and aggression. Animals were tested for aggression in their home cage, both with and without physical provocation (mild tail pinch). Brain levels of 5-HT and its metabolite, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), were determined using HPLC. PCPA significantly and substantially depleted 5-HT and 5-HIAA in all brain regions examined. Chronic T treatment significantly decreased 5-HT and 5-HIAA in certain brain areas, but to a much lesser extent than PCPA. Chronic exposure to PCPA alone significantly decreased locomotor activity and increased irritability but had no effect on sexual behavior, partner preference, or aggression. T alone had no effect on locomotion, irritability, or sexual behavior but increased partner preference and aggression. The most striking effect of combining T+PCPA was a significant increase in attack frequency as well as a significant decrease in the latency to attack, particularly following physical provocation. Based on these data, it can be speculated that pubertal AAS users with low central 5-HT may be especially prone to exhibit aggressive behavior.

Physical provocation of pubertal anabolic androgenic steroid exposed male rats elicits aggression towards females

Human studies suggest that anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) users are aggressive towards women. This study used a rat model to evaluate whether AAS potentiated aggression towards females and the conditions under which this occurs. Gonadally intact pubertal male rats received one of the following AAS treatments (5 mg/kg s.c. 5 days/week for nine weeks): testosterone (T), stanozolol (S), testosterone + stanozolol (T + S), or vehicle control. Each rat was tested with 3 conspecific stimuli: ovariectomized females (OVX), estrogen only females (E), and estrogen + progesterone females (E + P). The response to physical provocation was tested under three conditions: without physical provocation, provocation of the experimental male, and provocation of the conspecific female. Provocation was a mild tail pinch. Both aggressive and sexual behaviors were measured during each test. In the absence of physical provocation, AAS males were not aggressive towards females. However, provocation significantly increased aggression in males treated with testosterone but only towards OVX females. In the presence of E or E + P females, all animals displayed sex behavior, not aggression. Thus, factors such as the nature of the AAS and the hormonal status of the females are important in determining whether male rats will be aggressive towards females. However, the most salient factor determining aggression towards females is the presence of provocation in combination with high levels of testosterone.

Plasticity in anterior hypothalamic vasopressin correlates with aggression during anabolic-androgenic steroid withdrawal in hamsters

In hamsters, adolescent anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) exposure facilitates offensive aggression, in part by altering the development and activity of anterior hypothalamic arginine vasopressin (AH-AVP). This study assessed whether these effects were lasting by examining aggression and AH-AVP during AAS withdrawal. Adolescent hamsters administered AAS were tested as adults for aggression at 1, 4, 11, 18, or 25 days of withdrawal, sacrificed the following day, and examined for AH-AVP afferent innervation using immunohistochemistry. Through Day 12 of withdrawal, aggression and AVP were significantly higher in AAS-treated hamsters than in controls. These differences were no longer observable by Day 19 of withdrawal, at which point the behavior and neurobiology of AAS-treated hamsters reverted to that observed in controls. These data indicate that adolescent AAS exposure has short-term, reversible effects on both aggression and AH-AVP, correlating AH-AVP with the aggressive/nonaggressive behavioral phenotype during AAS withdrawal.

Stacking anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) during puberty in rats: A neuroendocrine and behavioral assessment

Anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) abuse is increasing in teenagers. We examined the effects of stacked AAS in adolescent male rats. Stacking, in which multiple AAS are taken simultaneously, is commonly employed by humans. Beginning at puberty gonadally intact male rats received testosterone, nandrolone, or stanozolol. Additional groups received stacked AAS: testosterone + stanozolol, nandrolone + stanozolol, or nandrolone + testosterone. Injections continued during tests for sexual behavior, vocalizations, scent marking, partner preference, aggression and fertility. Body and reproductive tissue weights were taken. Sexual and aggressive behaviors were increased by testosterone yet inhibited by stanozolol; nandrolone had no effect. Stacking testosterone with stanozolol prevented the inhibitory effects of stanozolol. Body weight was decreased by testosterone and all stacked AAS. Cell nuclear androgen receptor binding in brain was significantly increased in nandrolone males and decreased in stanozolol males; testosterone males were slightly higher than controls. Androgen receptors in stacked groups were intermediate between individual AAS suggesting that stanozolol competed with other AAS for androgen receptors despite its low affinity. The results indicate that stacking AAS influences the effects of individual AAS on behavioral and endocrine measures, and levels of androgen receptor occupation are not directly correlated with AAS effects on behavior.

The effect of sub-chronic nandrolone decanoate treatment on dopaminergic and serotonergic neuronal systems in the brains of rats

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) are widely abused by adolescents, although persistent AAS use can cause several adverse physical and mental effects, including drug dependence. The first aim of the present study was to study the action of nandrolone decanoate on dopaminergic and serotonergic activities in the brains of rats. In order to evaluate the anabolic or toxic effects of the dosing regimens used, selected peripheral effects were monitored as well. Male Wistar rats were treated for 2 weeks. Injections containing nandrolone (5 and 20 mg/kg, i.m.) or vehicle were given once daily, 5 days a week. The levels of dopamine (DA), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and their metabolites were assayed from dissected brain regions 3 days after the last injection. Blood was collected for chemical assays before, after 1 week treatment and at decapitation. Both doses of nandrolone significantly increased the levels of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), a metabolite of DA in the cerebral cortex, and the higher dose of nandrolone increased the concentrations of 5-HT in the cerebral cortex compared with the vehicle. In addition, after nandrolone treatment, the levels of hemoglobin and erythrocytes increased, and reticulocyte levels decreased. The results suggest that nandrolone at supraphysiological doses, high enough to induce erythropoiesis, induces changes in the dopaminergic and serotonergic neuronal system in the brains of rats. These phenomena may account to some of the observed central stimulatory properties that have been reported following AAS abuse.