Homozygous deletion of the CRABPI gene in AB1 embryonic stem cells results in increased CRABPII gene expression and decreased intracellular retinoic acid concentration

Ethanol causes rapid decreases in the hepatic retinoid levels shaping the early steps of alcohol-associated liver disease

BACKGROUND

Chronic alcohol drinking causes hepatic vitamin A (retinoids and derivatives) decreases, which correlate with the progression and severity of alcohol-associated liver disease (ALD). However, the effects of short-term ethanol (EtOH) intake on liver retinoids and ALD are still undefined.

METHODS

Using high-performance liquid chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC, HPLC-MS/MS), and molecular biology techniques in mice and cultured human hepatocytes, we investigated the temporal EtOH effects on retinoids and ALD.

RESULTS

In female and male mice, acute EtOH intake caused hepatic retinol (ROL) and retinyl palmitate (RP) decreases within hours, whereas it did not significantly change the retinoic acid (RA) levels, and those of the RA catabolism metabolite, 4-oxo-RA. After EtOH withdrawal, the liver recovered the ROL and RP levels within 48 h, whereas RA and 4-oxo-RA levels remained almost undetectable by this time point. Compared with control diet-fed mice, hepatic ROL and RP levels remained decreased in the 10-day and 3-week-long EtOH treatments, while retinyl oleate and linoleate increased. Interestingly, some of the RA signaling receptors, Rarβ, along with Cyp26a1, revealed dramatic transcript increases during the 10-day-long experiments that attenuated over time (up to 8 weeks), reflecting impaired RA signaling. Our work also showed that primary human hepatocytes serve as a model to better define the role of EtOH in retinoid biology.

CONCLUSIONS

This work reveals that acute and short-term exposures to EtOH disrupt retinoid homeostasis, identifying key events in the early pathogenesis of ALD.

Opposite Effects of CRABP1 and CRABP2 Homologs on Proliferation of Breast Cancer Cells and Their Sensitivity to Retinoic Acid

Resistance of tumor cells to retinoic acid (RA), a promising therapeutic agent, is the major factor limiting the use of RA in clinical practice. The mechanisms of resistance to RA are still poorly understood. Cellular Retinoic Acid Binding Proteins, CRABP1 and CRABP2, are essential mediators of RA signaling, but role of the two CRABP homologs in regulating cellular sensitivity to RA has not been well studied. In addition, the effects of CRABP1 and CRABP2 on cell proliferation have not been compared. Here, using a broad panel of breast cancer cell lines with different levels of RA sensitivity/resistance, we show for the first time that in the RA-sensitive cells, CRABP1 expression is restricted by methylation, and protein levels are highly variable. In the moderately-RA-resistant cell lines, high level of CRABP1 is observed both at the mRNA and protein levels, unchanged by inhibition of DNA methylation. The cell lines with maximum resistance to RA are characterized by complete repression of CRABP1 expression realized at transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels, and exogenous expression of each of the CRABP homologs has no effect on the studied characteristics. CRABP1 and CRABP2 proteins have opposing effects on proliferation and sensitivity to RA. In particular, CRABP1 stimulates and CRABP2 reduces proliferation and resistance to RA in the initially RA-sensitive cells, while in the more resistant cells the role of each homolog in both of these parameters is reversed. Overall, we have shown for the first time that CRABP proteins exert different effects on the growth and sensitivity to RA of breast cancer cells (stimulation, suppression, or no effect) depending on the baseline level of RA-sensitivity, with the effects of CRABP1 and CRABP2 homologs on the studied properties always being opposite.

Dietary Vitamin A Impacts Refractory Telogen

Hair follicles cycle through periods of growth (anagen), regression (catagen), rest (telogen), and release (exogen). Telogen is further divided into refractory and competent telogen based on expression of bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) and wingless-related MMTV integration site 7A (WNT7A). During refractory telogen hair follicle stem cells (HFSC) are inhibited. Retinoic acid synthesis proteins localized to the hair follicle and this localization pattern changed throughout the hair cycle. In addition, excess retinyl esters arrested hair follicles in telogen. The purpose of this study was to further define these hair cycle changes. BMP4 and WNT7A expression was also used to distinguish refractory from competent telogen in C57BL/6J mice fed different levels of retinyl esters from two previous studies. These two studies produced opposite results; and differed in the amount of retinyl esters the dams consumed and the age of the mice when the different diet began. There were a greater percentage of hair follicles in refractory telogen both when mice were bred on an unpurified diet containing copious levels of retinyl esters (study 1) and consumed excess levels of retinyl esters starting at 12 weeks of age, as well as when mice were bred on a purified diet containing adequate levels of retinyl esters (study 2) and remained on this diet at 6 weeks of age. WNT7A expression was consistent with these results. Next, the localization of vitamin A metabolism proteins in the two stages of telogen was examined. Keratin 6 (KRT6) and cellular retinoic acid binding protein 2 (CRABP2) localized almost exclusively to refractory telogen hair follicles in study 1. However, KRT6 and CRABP2 localized to both competent and refractory telogen hair follicles in mice fed adequate and high levels of retinyl esters in study 2. In mice bred and fed an unpurified diet retinol dehydrogenase SDR16C5, retinal dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH1A2), and cytochrome p450 26B1 (CYP26B1), enzymes and proteins involved in RA metabolism, localized to BMP4 positive refractory telogen hair follicles. This suggests that vitamin A may contribute to the inhibition of HFSC during refractory telogen in a dose dependent manner.

Retinoids in Cutaneous Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Animal studies as early as the 1920s suggested that vitamin A deficiency leads to squamous cell metaplasia in numerous epithelial tissues including the skin. However, humans usually die from vitamin A deficiency before cancers have time to develop. A recent long-term cohort study found that high dietary vitamin A reduced the risk of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC). cSCC is a form of nonmelanoma skin cancer that primarily occurs from excess exposure to ultraviolet light B (UVB). These cancers are expensive to treat and can lead to metastasis and death. Oral synthetic retinoids prevent the reoccurrence of cSCC, but side effects limit their use in chemoprevention. Several proteins involved in vitamin A metabolism and signaling are altered in cSCC, which may lead to retinoid resistance. The expression of vitamin A metabolism proteins may also have prognostic value. This article reviews what is known about natural and synthetic retinoids and their metabolism in cSCC.

Functions of Intracellular Retinoid Binding-Proteins

Multiple binding and transport proteins facilitate many aspects of retinoid biology through effects on retinoid transport, cellular uptake, metabolism, and nuclear delivery. These include the serum retinol binding protein sRBP (aka Rbp4), the plasma membrane sRBP receptor Stra6, and the intracellular retinoid binding-proteins such as cellular retinol-binding proteins (CRBP) and cellular retinoic acid binding-proteins (CRABP). sRBP transports the highly lipophilic retinol through an aqueous medium. The major intracellular retinol-binding protein, CRBP1, likely enhances efficient retinoid use by providing a sink to facilitate retinol uptake from sRBP through the plasma membrane or via Stra6, delivering retinol or retinal to select enzymes that generate retinyl esters or retinoic acid, and protecting retinol/retinal from excess catabolism or opportunistic metabolism. Intracellular retinoic acid binding-proteins (CRABP1 and 2, and FABP5) seem to have more diverse functions distinctive to each, such as directing retinoic acid to catabolism, delivering retinoic acid to specific nuclear receptors, and generating non-canonical actions. Gene ablation of intracellular retinoid binding-proteins does not cause embryonic lethality or gross morphological defects. Metabolic and functional defects manifested in knockouts of CRBP1, CRBP2 and CRBP3, however, illustrate their essentiality to health, and in the case of CRBP2, to survival during limited dietary vitamin A. Future studies should continue to address the specific molecular interactions that occur between retinoid binding-proteins and their targets and their precise physiologic contributions to retinoid homeostasis and function.

The Aldo-Keto Reductase AKR1B10 Is Up-Regulated in Keloid Epidermis, Implicating Retinoic Acid Pathway Dysregulation in the Pathogenesis of Keloid Disease

Keloid disease is a recurrent fibroproliferative cutaneous tumor of unknown pathogenesis for which clinical management remains unsatisfactory. To obtain new insights into hitherto underappreciated aspects of keloid pathobiology, we took a laser capture microdissection-based, whole-genome microarray analysis approach to identify distinct keloid disease-associated gene expression patterns within defined keloid regions. Identification of the aldo-keto reductase enzyme AKR1B10 as highly up-regulated in keloid epidermis suggested that an imbalance of retinoic acid metabolism is likely associated with keloid disease. Here, we show that AKR1B10 transfection into normal human keratinocytes reproduced the abnormal retinoic acid pathway expression pattern we had identified in keloid epidermis. Cotransfection of AKR1B10 with a luciferase reporter plasmid showed reduced retinoic acid response element activity, supporting the hypothesis of retinoic acid synthesis deficiency in keloid epidermis. Paracrine signals released by AKR1B10-overexpressing keratinocytes into conditioned medium resulted in up-regulation of transforming growth factor-β1, transforming growth factor-β2, and collagens I and III in both keloid and normal skin fibroblasts, mimicking the typical profibrotic keloid profile. Our study results suggest that insufficient retinoic acid synthesis by keloid epidermal keratinocytes may contribute to the pathogenesis of keloid disease. We refocus attention on the role of injured epithelium in keloid disease and identify AKR1B10 as a potential new target in future management of keloid disease.

Cell Line-Dependent Variability of Coordinate Expression of p75NTR and CRABP1 and Modulation of Effects of Fenretinide on Neuroblastoma Cells

Neuroblastoma is a childhood neural crest tumor. Fenretinide, a retinoic acid analogue, induces accumulation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and consequent apoptosis in neuroblastoma cells. The p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) enhances the antineuroblastoma cell efficacy of fenretinide in vitro. We examined the role of the retinoid binding protein, CRABP1, in p75NTR-mediated potentiation of the efficacy of fenretinide. Knockdown and overexpression, respectively, of either p75NTR or CRABP1 were effected in neuroblastoma cell lines using standard techniques. Expression was determined by qRT-PCR and confirmed at the protein level by Western blot. Metabolic viability was determined by Alamar blue assay. While protein content of CRABP1 correlated roughly with that of p75NTR in the three neuroblastoid or epithelioid human neuroblastoma cell lines studied, manipulation of p75NTR expression resulted in cell line-dependent, variable change in CRABP1 expression. Furthermore, in some cell lines, induced expression of CRABP1 in the absence of p75NTR did not alter cell sensitivity to fenretinide treatment. The effects of manipulation of p75NTR expression on CRABP1 expression and the effects of CRABP1 expression on fenretinide efficacy are therefore neuroblastoma cell line-dependent. Potentiation of the antineuroblastoma cell effects of fenretinide by p75NTR is not mediated solely through CRABP1.

CRABP1 is associated with a poor prognosis in breast cancer: adding to the complexity of breast cancer cell response to retinoic acid

Background

Clinical trials designed to test the efficacy of retinoic acid (RA) as an adjuvant for the treatment of solid cancers have been disappointing, primarily due to RA resistance. Estrogen receptor (ER)-negative breast cancer cells are more resistant to RA than ER-positive cells. The expression and subcellular distribution of two RA-binding proteins, FABP5 and CRABP2, has already been shown to play critical roles in breast cancer cell response to RA. CRABP1, a third member of the RA-binding protein family, has not previously been investigated as a possible mediator of RA action in breast cancer.

Methods

CRABP1 and CRABP2 expression in primary breast tumor tissues was analyzed using gene expression and tissue microarrays. CRABP1 levels were manipulated using siRNAs and by transient overexpression. RA-induced subcellular translocation of CRABPs was examined by immunofluorescence microscopy and immunoblotting. RA-induced transactivation of RAR was analyzed using a RA response element (RARE)-driven luciferase reporter system. Effects of CRABP1 expression and RA treatment on downstream gene expression were investigated by semi-quantitative RT-PCR analysis.

Results

Compared to normal mammary tissues, CRABP1 expression is significantly down-regulated in ER+ breast tumors, but maintained in triple-negative breast cancers. Elevated CRABP1 levels are associated with poor patient prognosis, high Ki67 immunoreactivity and high tumor grade in breast cancer. The prognostic significance of CRABP1 is attributed to its cytoplasmic localization. We demonstrate that CRABP1 expression attenuates RA-induced cell growth arrest and inhibits RA signalling in breast cancer cells by sequestering RA in the cytoplasm. We also show that CRABP1 affects the expression of genes involved in RA biosynthesis, trafficking and metabolism.

Conclusions

CRABP1 is an adverse factor for clinical outcome in triple-negative breast cancer and a potent inhibitor of RA signalling in breast cancer cells. Our data indicate that CRABP1, in conjunction with previously identified CRABP2 and FABP5, plays a key role in breast cancer cell response to RA. We propose that these three RA-binding proteins can serve as biomarkers for predicting triple-negative breast cancer response to RA, with elevated levels of either cytoplasmic CRABP1 or FABP5 associated with RA resistance, and elevated levels of nuclear CRABP2 associated with sensitivity to RA.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12943-015-0380-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The transcriptomic response of mixed neuron-glial cell cultures to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin d3 includes genes limiting the progression of neurodegenerative diseases

Seasonal or chronic vitamin D deficiency and/or insufficiency is highly prevalent in the human population. Receptors for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, the hormonal metabolite of vitamin D, are found throughout the brain. To provide further information on the role of this hormone on brain function, we analyzed the transcriptomic profiles of mixed neuron-glial cell cultures in response to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 treatment increases the mRNA levels of 27 genes by at least 1.9 fold. Among them, 17 genes were related to neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases, or brain morphogenesis. Notably, 10 of these genes encode proteins potentially limiting the progression of Alzheimer's disease. These data provide support for a role of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in brain disease prevention. The possible consequences of circannual or chronic vitamin D insufficiencies on a tissue with a low regenerative potential such as the brain should be considered.

Effects of acute exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers on retinoid signaling in zebrafish larvae

The objectives of the present study were to investigate the effects of acute exposure to PBDEs on retinoid signaling in fish. Zebrafish embryos (2h post-fertilization, hpf) were exposed to DE-71 (0, 31.0, 68.7, and 227.6μg/L) until 120hpf. Retinoid profiles showed the content of retinal and retinoic acid was reduced significantly. While a significant up-regulation was observed in the transcription of retinal dehydrogenase (raldh2), the transcription of retinol binding protein (rbp1a), retinol dehydrogenase (rdh1), cellular retinoic acid binding protein (crabp1a and crabp2a) and retinoic acid receptor subunit (raraa) were down-regulated significantly, indicating disruption of retinoid signaling. However, the transcriptions of five opsin genes (zfrho, zfuv, zfred, zfblue, and zfgr1) were up-regulated. Furthermore, whole mount immunostaining and western blotting demonstrated increased rhodopsin protein expression in the exposure groups. Overall, the results indicated that acute exposure to PBDEs could disturb retinoid signaling and may impact on eye development of zebrafish larvae.

Cellular retinoic acid-binding proteins are essential for hindbrain patterning and signal robustness in zebrafish

The vitamin A derivative retinoic acid (RA) is a morphogen that patterns the anterior-posterior axis of the vertebrate hindbrain. Cellular retinoic acid-binding proteins (Crabps) transport RA within cells to both its nuclear receptors (RARs) and degrading enzymes (Cyp26s). However, mice lacking Crabps are viable, suggesting that Crabp functions are redundant with those of other fatty acid-binding proteins. Here we show that Crabps in zebrafish are essential for posterior patterning of the hindbrain and that they provide a key feedback mechanism that makes signaling robust as they are able to compensate for changes in RA production. Of the four zebrafish Crabps, Crabp2a is uniquely RA inducible and depletion or overexpression of Crabp2a makes embryos hypersensitive to exogenous RA. Computational models confirm that Crabp2a improves robustness within a narrow concentration range that optimizes a 'robustness index', integrating spatial information along the RA morphogen gradient. Exploration of signaling parameters in our models suggests that the ability of Crabp2a to transport RA to Cyp26 enzymes for degradation is a major factor in promoting robustness. These results demonstrate a previously unrecognized requirement for Crabps in RA signaling and hindbrain development, as well as a novel mechanism for stabilizing morphogen gradients despite genetic or environmental fluctuations in morphogen availability.

Endogenous retinoids in the hair follicle and sebaceous gland

Vitamin A and its derivatives (retinoids) are critically important in the development and maintenance of multiple epithelial tissues, including skin, hair, and sebaceous glands, as shown by the detrimental effects of either vitamin A deficiency or toxicity. Thus, precise levels of retinoic acid (RA, active metabolite) are needed. These precise levels of RA are achieved by regulating several steps in the conversion of dietary vitamin A (retinol) to RA and RA catabolism. This review discusses the localization of RA synthesis to specific sites within the hair follicle and sebaceous gland, including their stem cells, during both homeostasis and disease states. It also discusses what is known about the specific roles of RA within the hair follicle and sebaceous gland. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Retinoid and Lipid Metabolism.

RARγ is required for correct deposition and removal of Suz12 and H2A.Z in embryonic stem cells

Retinoic acid (RA) induces embryonic stem cell differentiation. The effects of RA are mediated by retinoic acid receptors (RARs) that promote epigenetic changes controlling gene transcription. We show here that RARγ, in the absence of the ligand RA, is required for deposition of the histone variant H2A.Z and the polycomb group protein Suz12 at RA target genes, and that in embryonic stem cells both RARγ and Suz12 exist in a multi-protein complex in the absence of ligand. Addition of RA causes removal of H2A.Z and Suz12 from RARγ target genes when the genes are transcriptionally activated.

Metabolism and regulation of gene expression by 4-oxoretinol versus all-trans retinoic acid in normal human mammary epithelial cells

We previously demonstrated that 4-oxoretinol (4-oxo-ROL) activated retinoic acid receptors (RARs) in F9 stem cells. We showed that 4-oxo-ROL inhibited the proliferation of normal human mammary epithelial cells (HMECs). To understand the mechanisms by which 4-oxo-ROL regulates HMEC growth we examined gene expression profiles following 4-oxo-ROL or all-trans retinoic acid (tRA). We also compared growth inhibition by tRA, 4-oxo-ROL, or 4-oxo-RA. All three retinoids inhibited HMEC proliferation. Gene expression analyses indicated that 4-oxo-ROL and tRA modulated gene expression in closely related pathways. The expression of many genes, e.g. ATP-binding cassette G1 (ABCG1); adrenergic receptorbeta2 (ADRB2); ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate (RAC2); and short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase 1 gene (SDR1) was changed after 4-oxo-ROL or tRA. Metabolism of these retinoids was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). In 1 microM tRA treated HMECs all of the tRA was found intracellularly, and tRA was the predominant intracellular retinoid. In 1 microM 4-oxo-ROL treated HMECs most 4-oxo-ROL was esterified to 4-oxoretinyl esters, no tRA was detected, and 4-oxo-ROL and 4-oxo-RA were observed intracellularly. In 1 microM 4-oxoretinoic acid (4-oxo-RA) treated HMECs little intracellular 4-oxo-RA was detected; most 4-oxo-RA was in the medium. Our results indicate that: (a) 4-oxo-ROL regulates gene expression and inhibits proliferation of HMECs; (b) 4-oxo-ROL and tRA regulate some of the same genes; (c) more tRA is found in cells, as compared to 4-oxoretinoic acid, when each drug is added at the same concentration in the medium; and (d) the mechanism by which 4-oxo-ROL exerts its biological activity does not involve intracellular tRA production.

Overexpression of CRABPI in suprabasal keratinocytes enhances the proliferation of epidermal basal keratinocytes in mouse skin topically treated with all-trans retinoic acid

We investigated whether ectopic expression of CRABPI, a cellular retinoic acid binding protein, influenced the actions of all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) in transgenic (TG) mice. We targeted CRABPI to the basal vs. suprabasal layers of mouse epidermis by using the keratin 14 (K14) and keratin 10 (K10) promoters, respectively. Greater CRABPI protein levels were detected in the epidermis of adult transgenic(+) mice than in transgenic(-) mice for both transgenes. In adult mouse skin CRABPI overexpression in the basal or suprabasal keratinocytes did not cause morphological abnormalities, but did result in decreased CRABPII mRNA levels. Ectopically overexpressed CRABPI in suprabasal keratinocytes, but not in basal keratinocytes, enhanced the thickening of the epidermis induced by topical ATRA treatments (10 microM, 400 microl for 4 days) by 1.59+/-0.2-fold (p<0.05). ATRA treatment (10 microM) resulted in a 59.9+/-9.8% increase (p<0.05) in the BrdU labeling index in K10/FLAG-CRABPI TG(+) mice vs. TG(-) mice. Retinoid topical treatments reduced p27 and CYP26A1 mRNA levels in TG(+) and TG(-) mouse skin in K14 and K10/FLAG-CRABPI transgenic mice. As epidermal basal keratinocyte proliferation is stimulated by paracrine growth factors secreted by ATRA activated suprabasal keratinocytes, our results indicate that CRABPI overexpression in suprabasal keratinocytes enhances the physiological functions of ATRA.

Immunolocalization of enzymes, binding proteins, and receptors sufficient for retinoic acid synthesis and signaling during the hair cycle

Retinoic acid (RA) is essential for maintenance of most epithelial tissues. One RA biosynthesis pathway consists of cellular retinol-binding protein (Crbp), retinol dehydrogenase (Dhrs9/eRoldh), retinal dehydrogenase 1-3 (Aldh1a1-3), and cellular RA-binding protein 2 (Crabp2). Previously, we localized Aldh1a2 and Aldh1a3 to both epithelial and mesenchymal cells within the hair follicle throughout the hair cycle. This study expands that observation by examining the complete pathway of RA biosynthesis and signaling via RA receptors alpha, beta, and gamma by immunohistochemistry in C57BL/6J mice wax-stripped to initiate and synchronize the cycle. This pathway of RA biosynthesis and signaling localized to the majority of layers of the hair follicle, sebaceous gland, and interfollicular epidermis in a hair cycle-dependent manner, suggesting that RA biosynthesis within the hair follicle is regulated in both a spatial and temporal manner. This localization pattern also revealed insights into epithelial-mesenchymal interactions and differentiation state differences within the RA biosynthesis and signaling pathway, as well as novel observations on nuclear versus cytoplasmic localization of Crabp2 and RA receptors. This complex pattern of RA biosynthesis and signaling identified by immunolocalization suggests that endogenous RA regulates specific aspects of hair follicle growth, differentiation, and cycling.

Pathogenesis of bronchopulmonary dysplasia: the role of interleukin 1beta in the regulation of inflammation-mediated pulmonary retinoic acid pathways in transgenic mice

BACKGROUND

Pulmonary inflammation, increased production of the inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), and vitamin A deficiency are risk factors for the development of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) in premature infants. To determine the mechanisms by which IL-1beta influences lung development, we have generated transgenic mice in which human IL-1beta is expressed in the lung epithelium with a doxycycline-inducible system controlled by the Clara cell secretory protein promoter. Perinatal IL-1beta production in these mice causes a phenotype that is strikingly similar to BPD. Pulmonary pathology in the mice shows inflammation, lack of alveolar septation, and impaired vascular development of the lung, similar to the histological characteristics of BPD. Retinoic acid (RA), one of the most biologically active derivatives of vitamin A, increases septation. Proteins involved in mediating the cellular responses to RA include the cellular retinoic acid binding proteins CRABP-I and CRABP-II and the nuclear retinoic acid receptors RAR-alpha, RAR-beta, and RAR-gamma.

OBJECTIVE

To test the hypothesis that IL-1beta inhibits the expression of proteins involved in mediating the cellular response to RA.

METHODS

The mRNA expression of CRABP-I, CRABP-II, RAR-alpha1, RAR-beta2, RAR-beta4, and RAR-gamma2 was studied with real-time RT-PCR on gestational day 18, and postnatal days 0, 1, 5, and 7 in IL-1beta-expressing mice and their control littermates. In addition, immunohistochemistry for CRABP-I was performed.

RESULTS

IL-1beta decreased the mRNA expression and protein production of CRABP-I as well as the mRNA expression of RAR-gamma2. In contrast, no differences between IL-1beta-expressing and control mice were detected in the expression of CRABP-II, RAR-alpha1, RAR-beta2, or RAR-beta4.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrates for the first time a link between inflammation and the retinoic acid pathway. Inhibition of CRABP-I and RAR-gamma2 expression may be one mechanism by which inflammation prevents alveolar septation. The therapeutic potential of RA in promoting septation in the setting of perinatal lung inflammation deserves further investigation.

Retinoic acid signaling and function in the adult hippocampus

Retinoic acid (RA) is an essential growth factor, derived from vitamin A, which controls growth by activating specific receptors that are members of the nuclear receptor family of transcriptional regulators. Its function in control of growth and differentiation in the embryonic CNS has been extensively investigated, but a role for RA in the mature brain has only recently become apparent. Although the adult CNS has much less capacity for change compared to the embryonic CNS, a limited amount of flexibility, referred to as neural plasticity, still exists. It is these processes that RA influences in the adult brain, including long-term potentiation and neurogenesis. The hippocampus is a brain region dependent upon neural plasticity for its function in learning and memory, and this review focuses on the roles that RA may play in regulating these processes in the adult.

Retinoid status and responsiveness to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in mice lacking retinoid binding protein or retinoid receptor forms

We have investigated the role of Vitamin A (retinoid) proteins in hepatic retinoid processing under normal conditions and during chemical stress induced by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), a chemical known to interfere with retinoid turnover and metabolism. Three separate studies were performed in wildtype control mice and transgenic mice that lack one or more isoforms of retinoic acid receptors (RAR), retinoid X receptors (RXR), or intracellular retinoid-binding proteins (CRABP I, CRABP II, CRBP I). Body and organ weight development was monitored from 2 weeks of age to adult, and hepatic levels of retinyl esters, retinol, and retinoic acid were investigated. In addition, hepatic concentrations of 9-cis-4-oxo-13,14-dihydro-retinoic acid, a recently discovered retinoid metabolite that has proven sensitive to both TCDD exposure and Vitamin A status, were also determined. Mice absent in the three proteins CRBP I, CRABP I, and CRABP II (CI/CAI/CAII-/-) displayed significantly lower hepatic retinyl ester, retinol, and all-trans-retinoic acid levels compared to wildtype mice, whereas the liver concentrations of 9-cis-4-oxo-13,14-dihydro-retinoic acid was considerably higher. After treatment with TCDD, hepatic total retinoids were almost entirely depleted in the CI/CAI/CAII-/- mice, whereas wildtype mice and mice lacking CRABP I, and CRABP II (CAI/CAII-/-) retained approximately 60-70% of their Vitamin A content compared to controls at 28 days. RAR and RXR knockout mice responded similarly to wildtype mice with respect to TCDD-induced retinoid disruption, with the exception of RXRbeta-/- mice which showed no decrease in hepatic Vitamin A concentration, suggesting that the role of RXRbeta in TCDD-induced retinoid disruption should be further investigated. Overall, the abnormal retinoid profile in the triple knockout mice (CI/CAI/CAII-/-), but not double knockout (CAI/CAII-/-) mice, suggests that a loss of CRBP I may account for the difference in retinoid profile in CI/CAI/CAII-/- mice, and is likely to result in an increased susceptibility to hepatic retinoid depletion following dioxin exposure.

Retention of the duplicated cellular retinoic acid-binding protein 1 genes (crabp1a and crabp1b) in the zebrafish genome by subfunctionalization of tissue-specific expression

The cellular retinoic acid-binding protein type I (CRABPI) is encoded by a single gene in mammals. We have characterized two crabp1 genes in zebrafish, designated crabp1a and crabp1b. These two crabp1 genes share the same gene structure as the mammalian CRABP1 genes and encode proteins that show the highest amino acid sequence identity to mammalian CRABPIs. The zebrafish crabp1a and crabp1b were assigned to linkage groups 25 and 7, respectively. Both linkage groups show conserved syntenies to a segment of the human chromosome 15 harboring the CRABP1 locus. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that the zebrafish crabp1a and crabp1b are orthologs of the mammalian CRABP1 genes that likely arose from a teleost fish lineage-specific genome duplication. Embryonic whole mount in situ hybridization detected zebrafish crabp1b transcripts in the posterior hindbrain and spinal cord from early stages of embryogenesis. crabp1a mRNA was detected in the forebrain and midbrain at later developmental stages. In adult zebrafish, crabp1a mRNA was localized to the optic tectum, whereas crabp1b mRNA was detected in several tissues by RT-PCR but not by tissue section in situ hybridization. The differential and complementary expression patterns of the zebrafish crabp1a and crabp1b genes imply that subfunctionalization may be the mechanism for the retention of both crabp1 duplicated genes in the zebrafish genome.

Transcriptional activities of retinoic acid receptors

Vitamin A derivatives plays a crucial role in embryonic development, as demonstrated by the teratogenic effect of either an excess or a deficiency in vitamin A. Retinoid effects extend however beyond embryonic development, and tissue homeostasis, lipid metabolism, cellular differentiation and proliferation are in part controlled through the retinoid signaling pathway. Retinoids are also therapeutically effective in the treatment of skin diseases (acne, psoriasis and photoaging) and of some cancers. Most of these effects are the consequences of retinoic acid receptors activation, which triggers transcriptional events leading either to transcriptional activation or repression of retinoid-controlled genes. Synthetic molecules are able to mimic part of the biological effects of the natural retinoic acid receptors, all-trans retinoic acid. Therefore, retinoic acid receptors are considered as highly valuable therapeutic targets and limiting unwanted secondary effects due to retinoid treatment requires a molecular knowledge of retinoic acid receptors biology. In this review, we will examine experimental evidence which provide a molecular basis for the pleiotropic effects of retinoids, and emphasize the crucial roles of coregulators of retinoic acid receptors, providing a conceptual framework to identify novel therapeutic targets.

Increasing the intracellular availability of all-trans retinoic acid in neuroblastoma cells

Recent data indicate that isomerisation to all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) is the key mechanism underlying the favourable clinical properties of 13-cis retinoic acid (13cisRA) in the treatment of neuroblastoma. Retinoic acid (RA) metabolism is thought to contribute to resistance, and strategies to modulate this may increase the clinical efficacy of 13cisRA. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that retinoids, such as acitretin, which bind preferentially to cellular retinoic acid binding proteins (CRABPs), or specific inhibitors of the RA hydroxylase CYP26, such as R116010, can increase the intracellular availability of ATRA. Incubation of SH-SY5Y cells with acitretin (50 μM) or R116010 (1 or 10 μM) in combination with either 10 μM ATRA or 13cisRA induced a selective increase in intracellular levels of ATRA, while 13cisRA levels were unaffected. CRABP was induced in SH-SY5Y cells in response to RA. In contrast, acitretin had no significant effect on intracellular retinoid concentrations in those neuroblastoma cell lines that showed little or no induction of CRABP after RA treatment. Both ATRA and 13cisRA dramatically induced the expression of CYP26A1 in SH-SY5Y cells, and treatment with R116010, but not acitretin, potentiated the RA-induced expression of a reporter gene and CYP26A1. The response of neuroblastoma cells to R116010 was consistent with inhibition of CYP26, indicating that inhibition of RA metabolism may further optimise retinoid treatment in neuroblastoma.

Differences in gene expression between wild type and Hoxa1 knockout embryonic stem cells after retinoic acid treatment or leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) removal

Homeobox (Hox) genes encode a family of transcription factors that regulate embryonic patterning and organogenesis. In embryos, alterations of the normal pattern of Hox gene expression result in homeotic transformations and malformations. Disruption of the Hoxa1 gene, the most 3' member of the Hoxa cluster and a retinoic acid (RA) direct target gene, results in abnormal ossification of the skull, hindbrain, and inner ear deficiencies, and neonatal death. We have generated Hoxa1(-/-) embryonic stem (ES) cells (named Hoxa1-15) from Hoxa1(-/-) mutant blastocysts to study the Hoxa1 signaling pathway. We have characterized in detail these Hoxa1(-/-) ES cells by performing microarray analyses, and by this technique we have identified a number of putative Hoxa-1 target genes, including genes involved in bone development (e.g. Col1a1, Postn/Osf2, and the bone sialoprotein gene or BSP), genes that are expressed in the developing brain (e.g. Nnat, Wnt3a, BDNF, RhoB, and Gbx2), and genes involved in various cellular processes (e.g. M-RAS, Sox17, Cdkn2b, LamA1, Col4a1, Foxa2, Foxq1, Klf5, and Igf2). Cell proliferation assays and Northern blot analyses of a number of ES cell markers (e.g. Rex1, Oct3/4, Fgf4, and Bmp4) suggest that the Hoxa1 protein plays a role in the inhibition of cell proliferation by RA in ES cells. Additionally, Hoxa1(-/-) ES cells express high levels of various endodermal markers, including Gata4 and Dab2, and express much less Fgf5 after leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) withdrawal. Finally, we propose a model in which the Hoxa1 protein mediates repression of endodermal differentiation while promoting expression of ectodermal and mesodermal characteristics.

Retinoic acid-mediated phospholipase A2 signaling in the nucleus

Retinoic acid modulates a wide variety of biological processes including proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. It interacts with specific receptors in the nucleus, the retinoic acid receptors (RARs). The molecular mechanism by which retinoic acid mediates cellular differentiation and growth suppression in neural cells remains unknown. However, retinoic acid-induced release of arachidonic acid and its metabolites may play an important role in cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. In brain tissue, arachidonic acid is mainly released by the action of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and phospholipase C (PLC)/diacylglycerol lipase pathways. We have used the model of differentiation in LA-N-1 cells induced by retinoic acid. The treatment of LA-N-1 cells with retinoic acid produces an increase in phospholipase A2 activity in the nuclear fraction. The pan retinoic acid receptor antagonist, BMS493, can prevent this increase in phospholipase A2 activity. This suggests that retinoic acid-induced stimulation of phospholipase A2 activity is a retinoic acid receptor-mediated process. LA-N-1 cell nuclei also have phospholipase C and phospholipase D (PLD) activities that are stimulated by retinoic acid. Selective phospholipase C and phospholipase D inhibitors block the stimulation of phospholipase C and phospholipase D activities. Thus, both direct and indirect mechanisms of arachidonic acid release exist in LA-N-1 cell nuclei. Arachidonic acid and its metabolites markedly affect the neurite outgrowth and neurotransmitter release in cells of neuronal and glial origin. We propose that retinoic acid receptors coupled with phospholipases A2, C and D in the nuclear membrane play an important role in the redistribution of arachidonic acid in neuronal and non-nuclear neuronal membranes during differentiation and growth suppression. Abnormal retinoid metabolism may be involved in the downstream transcriptional regulation of phospholipase A2-mediated signal transduction in schizophrenia and Alzheimer disease (AD). The development of new retinoid analogs with diminished toxicity that can cross the blood-brain barrier without harm and can normalize phospholipase A2-mediated signaling will be important in developing pharmacological interventions for these neurological disorders.

Effects of diethylstilboestrol on testicular function and luteinizing hormone receptors

Adult male Fisher-344 rats were implanted with DES-filled or empty Silastic capsules. After 14 weeks, capsules were removed and a second group of rats received DES capsules. Seven weeks later, all the rats were sacrificed. DES treatment decreased body, testes and seminal vesicle weights, and removal of the capsules partially restored the weight of these organs. The concentration of testicular LH receptors was increased by DES treatment. Circulating PRL levels were increased and gonadotropin levels were reduced in all animals having received DES at anytime. Plasma testosterone (T) levels were similar in all groups, but testicular T levels were reversibly decreased by DES. Similarly, whereas basal incubation media T levels were unchanged by DES treatment, the steroidogenic response in vitro to hCG was abolished by the presence of DES, and removal of the capsules restored this response. It appears that in this animal model DES and PRL exert opposing effects on testicular LH receptor.