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Chen D, Rocha-Mendoza D, Shan S, Smith Z, García-Cano I, Prost J, Jimenez-Flores R, Campanella O. Characterization and Cellular Uptake of Peptides Derived from In Vitro Digestion of Meat Analogues Produced by a Sustainable Extrusion Process. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:8124-8133. [PMID: 35730749 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c01711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Whether proteins in meat analogues (MAs) have the ability to provide equivalent nutrition as those in animal meat remains unknown. Herein, a MA was produced by high-moisture extrusion using soy and wheat proteins. The physicochemical properties, in vitro digestion, and cellular uptake of the released peptides were systematically compared between the MA and the chicken breast (CB). The MA showed a higher hardness but a lower degree of texturization than the CB. After simulated digestion, soluble peptides in the MA had a higher molecular weight and higher hydrophobicity. No observable cytotoxicity or inflammatory response to Caco-2 cells was found for both MA and CB digests. The former exhibited less permeability of peptides across Caco-2 cells. Liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry found that the identified peptides in MA and CB digests contained 7-30 and 7-20 amino acid residues, respectively, and they became shorter after cellular transportation. The amino acid composition showed fewer essential and non-essential amino acids in the MA permeate than in the CB permeate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da Chen
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Diana Rocha-Mendoza
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Shengyue Shan
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Zachary Smith
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Geodetic Environmental Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Israel García-Cano
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Julie Prost
- Clextral Inc., Tampa, Florida 33626, United States
| | - Rafael Jimenez-Flores
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Osvaldo Campanella
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
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2
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Sajid MI, Moazzam M, Stueber R, Park SE, Cho Y, Malik NUA, Tiwari RK. Applications of amphipathic and cationic cyclic cell-penetrating peptides: Significant therapeutic delivery tool. Peptides 2021; 141:170542. [PMID: 33794283 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2021.170542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A new class of peptides, cyclic cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), has great potential for delivering a vast variety of therapeutics intracellularly for treating diverse ailments. CPPs have been used previously; however, their further use is limited due to instability, toxicity, endosomal degradation, and insufficient cellular penetration. Cyclic CPPs are being investigated in delivering therapeutics to treat various ailments, including multi-drug resistant microbial infections, HIV, and cancer. They can act as a carrier for a variety of cargos and target intracellularly. Approximately 40 cyclic peptides-based therapeutics are available in the market, and annually one cyclic peptide-based drug enters the market. Numerous research and review articles have been published in the last decade about linear and cyclic peptides separately. This review is the first to provide a comprehensive deliberation about cationic and amphipathic cyclic CPPs. Herein, we highlights their structures, significant advantages, translocation mechanisms, and delivery application in the area of biomedical sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Imran Sajid
- Center for Targeted Drug Delivery, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Harry and Diane Rinker Health Science Campus, Irvine, CA, 92618, USA; Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Moazzam
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
| | - Ryan Stueber
- Center for Targeted Drug Delivery, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Harry and Diane Rinker Health Science Campus, Irvine, CA, 92618, USA
| | - Shang Eun Park
- Center for Targeted Drug Delivery, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Harry and Diane Rinker Health Science Campus, Irvine, CA, 92618, USA
| | - Yeseom Cho
- Center for Targeted Drug Delivery, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Harry and Diane Rinker Health Science Campus, Irvine, CA, 92618, USA
| | - Noor Ul Ain Malik
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Central Punjab, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan
| | - Rakesh K Tiwari
- Center for Targeted Drug Delivery, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Harry and Diane Rinker Health Science Campus, Irvine, CA, 92618, USA.
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3
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Knox SL, Steinauer A, Alpha-Cobb G, Trexler A, Rhoades E, Schepartz A. Quantification of protein delivery in live cells using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. Methods Enzymol 2020; 641:477-505. [PMID: 32713536 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2020.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) is a quantitative single-molecule method that measures the concentration and rate of diffusion of fluorophore-tagged molecules, both large and small, in vitro and within live cells, and even within discrete cellular compartments. FCS is exceptionally well-suited to directly quantify the efficiency of intracellular protein delivery-specifically, how well different "cell-penetrating" proteins and peptides guide proteinaceous materials into the cytosol and nuclei of live mammalian cells. This article provides an overview of the procedures necessary to execute robust FCS experiments and evaluate endosomal escape efficiencies: preparation of fluorophore-tagged proteins, incubation with mammalian cells and preparation of FCS samples, setup and execution of an FCS experiment, and a detailed discussion of and custom MATLAB® script for analyzing the resulting autocorrelation curves in the context of appropriate diffusion models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan L Knox
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Angela Steinauer
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Garrett Alpha-Cobb
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Adam Trexler
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Elizabeth Rhoades
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Alanna Schepartz
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States; Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States.
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Abstract
Approximately 75% of all disease-relevant human proteins, including those involved in intracellular protein-protein interactions (PPIs), are undruggable with the current drug modalities (i.e., small molecules and biologics). Macrocyclic peptides provide a potential solution to these undruggable targets because their larger sizes (relative to conventional small molecules) endow them the capability of binding to flat PPI interfaces with antibody-like affinity and specificity. Powerful combinatorial library technologies have been developed to routinely identify cyclic peptides as potent, specific inhibitors against proteins including PPI targets. However, with the exception of a very small set of sequences, the vast majority of cyclic peptides are impermeable to the cell membrane, preventing their application against intracellular targets. This Review examines common structural features that render most cyclic peptides membrane impermeable, as well as the unique features that allow the minority of sequences to enter the cell interior by passive diffusion, endocytosis/endosomal escape, or other mechanisms. We also present the current state of knowledge about the molecular mechanisms of cell penetration, the various strategies for designing cell-permeable, biologically active cyclic peptides against intracellular targets, and the assay methods available to quantify their cell-permeability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick G. Dougherty
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12 Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Ashweta Sahni
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12 Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Dehua Pei
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, 484 West 12 Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
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Yang J, Luo Y, Shibu MA, Toth I, Skwarczynski M. Cell-penetrating Peptides: Efficient Vectors for Vaccine Delivery. Curr Drug Deliv 2019; 16:430-443. [PMID: 30760185 PMCID: PMC6637094 DOI: 10.2174/1567201816666190123120915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Subunit vaccines are composed of pathogen fragments that, on their own, are generally poorly immunogenic. Therefore, the incorporation of an immunostimulating agent, e.g. adjuvant, into vaccine formulation is required. However, there are only a limited number of licenced adjuvants and their immunostimulating ability is often limited, while their toxicity can be substantial. To overcome these problems, a variety of vaccine delivery systems have been proposed. Most of them are designed to improve the stability of antigen in vivo and its delivery into immune cells. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are especially attractive component of antigen delivery systems as they have been widely used to enhance drug transport into the cells. Fusing or co-delivery of antigen with CPPs can enhance antigen uptake, processing and presentation by antigen presenting cells (APCs), which are the fundamental steps in initiating an immune response. This review describes the different mechanisms of CPP intercellular uptake and various CPP-based vaccine delivery strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Istvan Toth
- Address correspondence to these authors at the School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; Tel: (617)33469892; E-mail: ;
| | - Mariusz Skwarczynski
- Address correspondence to these authors at the School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; Tel: (617)33469892; E-mail: ;
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Méndez-Ardoy A, Lostalé-Seijo I, Montenegro J. Where in the Cell Is our Cargo? Methods Currently Used To Study Intracellular Cytosolic Localisation. Chembiochem 2018; 20:488-498. [PMID: 30178574 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201800390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The internalisation and delivery of active substances into cells is a field of growing interest for chemical biology and therapeutics. As we move from small-molecule-based drugs towards bigger cargos, such as antibodies, enzymes, nucleases or nucleic acids, the development of efficient delivery systems becomes critical for their practical application. Different strategies and synthetic carriers have been developed; these include cationic lipids, gold nanoparticles, polymers, cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), protein surface modification etc. However, all of these methodologies still present limitations relating to the precise targeting of the different intracellular compartments and, in particular, difficulties in access to the cellular cytosol. Additionally, the precise quantification of the cellular uptake of a compound is not enough to demonstrate delivery and/or functional activity. Therefore, methods to determine cellular distributions of cargos and carriers are of critical importance for identifying the barriers that are blocking the activity. Herein we survey the different techniques that can currently be used to track and to monitor the subcellular localisation of the synthetic compounds that we deliver inside cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Méndez-Ardoy
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e, Materiais Moleculares (CIQUS), Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Irene Lostalé-Seijo
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e, Materiais Moleculares (CIQUS), Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Javier Montenegro
- Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica e, Materiais Moleculares (CIQUS), Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
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Li Z, Zhang Y, Zhu D, Li S, Yu X, Zhao Y, Ouyang X, Xie Z, Li L. Transporting carriers for intracellular targeting delivery via non-endocytic uptake pathways. Drug Deliv 2017; 24:45-55. [PMID: 29069996 PMCID: PMC8812582 DOI: 10.1080/10717544.2017.1391889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
To develop novel therapies for clinical treatments, it increasingly depends on sophisticated delivery systems that facilitate the drugs entry into targeting cells. Profound understanding of cellular uptake routes for transporting carriers promotes the optimization of performance in drug delivery systems. Although endocytic pathway is the most important part of cellular uptake routes for many delivery systems, it suffers the trouble of enzymatic degradation of transporting carriers trapped in endosomes/lysosomes. Therefore, it is desirable to develop alternative transporting methods for delivery systems via non-endocytic pathways to achieve more effective intracellular delivery. In this review, we summarize the literature exploring transporting carriers that mediate intracellular delivery via non-endocytic pathways to present the current research status in this field. Cell-penetrating peptides, pH (low) insertion peptides, and nanoparticles are categorized to exhibit their ability to directly transport various cargos into cytoplasm via non-endocytic uptake in different cell lines. It is hoped that this review can spur the interesting on development of drug delivery systems via non-endocytic uptake pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuhong Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Yanhong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Danhua Zhu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Shuiqing Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Xiaopeng Yu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Yalei Zhao
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Xiaoxi Ouyang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Zhongyang Xie
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Lanjuan Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China
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8
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Sabouri-Rad S, Oskuee RK, Mahmoodi A, Gholami L, Malaekeh-Nikouei B. The effect of cell penetrating peptides on transfection activity and cytotoxicity of polyallylamine. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 7:139-145. [PMID: 29159141 PMCID: PMC5684505 DOI: 10.15171/bi.2017.17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2016] [Revised: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
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Introduction: Cationic polymers have the potential to be modified to achieve an ideal gene vector lacking viral vector defects. The aim of the present study was to improve polyallylamine (PAA) transfection efficiency and to reduce cytotoxicity by incorporating of cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs).
Methods: To prepare the peptide-based polyplexes, PAA (15 kDa) was modified with 2 peptides (TAT and CyLoP-1) by covering the 0.5% and 1% of amines. Buffer capacity and DNA condensation ability of modified polymer, particle size and zeta potential of nanoparticles, cell viability, and transfection activity of vectors were evaluated.
Results: In low carrier to plasmid (C/P) weight ratios such as 0.5 and 1, the unmodified polymer was more capable to condense the DNA compared to the synthesized vectors. In C/P ratio of 2, the plasmid was fully condensed in all vectors. The size of polyplexes ranged from 195 to 240 nm. The zeta potential was almost as the same as PAA and varied from 25 to 27 mV. All polyplexes increased the buffer capacity compared to PAA. The transfection efficiency was improved compared to unmodified polymer especially in the vectors modified with 1% of TAT or CyLoP-1 peptides in C/P ratio of 2. The cytotoxicity of prepared vectors was less than PAA. In most ratios, the cytotoxicity of the CyLoP-1 modified samples was less than the TAT modified ones.
Conclusion: Modification of PAA with CPPs improved the transfection activity of vector.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Reza Kazemi Oskuee
- Targeted Drug Delivery Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Asma Mahmoodi
- School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Leila Gholami
- Department of Modern Sciences and Technologies, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
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9
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Zakrewsky M, Muraski JA, Mitragotri S. Mechanistic Analysis of Cellular Internalization of a Cell- and Skin-Penetrating Peptide. REGENERATIVE ENGINEERING AND TRANSLATIONAL MEDICINE 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s40883-016-0011-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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10
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Zaro JL, Shen WC. Cationic and amphipathic cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs): Their structures and in vivo studies in drug delivery. Front Chem Sci Eng 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11705-015-1538-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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11
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Discovery of a non-cationic cell penetrating peptide derived from membrane-interacting human proteins and its potential as a protein delivery carrier. Sci Rep 2015; 5:11719. [PMID: 26114640 PMCID: PMC4481774 DOI: 10.1038/srep11719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2014] [Accepted: 06/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) are peptides that can be translocated into cells and used as a carrier platform for the intracellular uptake of cargo molecules. Subject to the source of CPP sequences and their positively charged nature, the cytotoxicity and immunogenicity of conventional CPPs needs to be optimized to expand their utility for biomedical applications. In addition to these safety issues, the stability of CPPs needs to be addressed since their positively charged residues are prone to interact with the biological milieu. As an effort to overcome these limitations of the current CPP technology, we isolated CPP candidate sequences and synthesized peptides from twelve isoforms of annexin, a family of membrane-interacting human proteins. The candidate screen returned a CPP rich in hydrophobic residues that showed more efficient cellular uptake than TAT-CPP. We then investigated the uptake mechanism, subcellular localization, and biophysical properties of the newly found CPP, verifying low cytotoxicity, long-term serum stability, and non-immunogenicity. Finally, model proteins conjugated to this peptide were successfully delivered into mammalian cells both in vitro and in vivo, indicating a potential use of the peptide as a carrier for the delivery of macromolecular cargos.
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12
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Zhao J, Zhou R, Fu X, Ren W, Ma L, Li R, Zhao Y, Guo L. Cell-Penetrable Lysine Dendrimers for Anti-Cancer Drug Delivery: Synthesis and Preliminary Biological Evaluation. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 2014; 347:469-77. [PMID: 24740712 DOI: 10.1002/ardp.201300415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2013] [Revised: 01/24/2014] [Accepted: 01/31/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Drug Targeting and Drug Delivery System of Education Ministry; Department of Medicinal Chemistry; West China School of Pharmacy; Sichuan University; Chengdu P. R. China
| | - Rui Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Drug Targeting and Drug Delivery System of Education Ministry; Department of Medicinal Chemistry; West China School of Pharmacy; Sichuan University; Chengdu P. R. China
| | - Xiaoyu Fu
- Key Laboratory of Drug Targeting and Drug Delivery System of Education Ministry; Department of Medicinal Chemistry; West China School of Pharmacy; Sichuan University; Chengdu P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy; West China Hospital; Sichuan University; Chengdu P. R. China
| | - Wen Ren
- Key Laboratory of Drug Targeting and Drug Delivery System of Education Ministry; Department of Medicinal Chemistry; West China School of Pharmacy; Sichuan University; Chengdu P. R. China
| | - Lifang Ma
- School of Chemical Engineering; Sichuan University; Chengdu P. R. China
| | - Ran Li
- Key Laboratory of Drug Targeting and Drug Delivery System of Education Ministry; Department of Medicinal Chemistry; West China School of Pharmacy; Sichuan University; Chengdu P. R. China
| | - Yi Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Drug Targeting and Drug Delivery System of Education Ministry; Department of Medicinal Chemistry; West China School of Pharmacy; Sichuan University; Chengdu P. R. China
| | - Li Guo
- Key Laboratory of Drug Targeting and Drug Delivery System of Education Ministry; Department of Medicinal Chemistry; West China School of Pharmacy; Sichuan University; Chengdu P. R. China
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13
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Huang A, Su Z, Li S, Sun M, Xiao Y, Ping Q, Deng Y. Oral absorption enhancement of salmon calcitonin by using bothN-trimethyl chitosan chloride and oligoarginines-modified liposomes as the carriers. Drug Deliv 2013; 21:388-96. [DOI: 10.3109/10717544.2013.848247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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14
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Chen Y, Wang M, Fang L. Biomaterials as novel penetration enhancers for transdermal and dermal drug delivery systems. Drug Deliv 2013; 20:199-209. [DOI: 10.3109/10717544.2013.801533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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15
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Bechara C, Sagan S. Cell-penetrating peptides: 20 years later, where do we stand? FEBS Lett 2013; 587:1693-702. [PMID: 23669356 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2013.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 630] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2012] [Revised: 04/22/2013] [Accepted: 04/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Twenty years ago, the discovery of peptides able to cross cellular membranes launched a novel field in molecular delivery based on these non-invasive vectors, most commonly called cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) or protein transduction domains (PTDs). These peptides were shown to efficiently transport various biologically active molecules inside living cells, and thus are considered promising devices for medical and biotechnological developments. Moreover, CPPs emerged as potential tools to study the prime mechanisms of cellular entry across the plasma membrane. This review is dedicated to CPP fundamentals, with an emphasis on the molecular requirements and mechanism of their entry into eukaryotic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chérine Bechara
- UPMC-Univ Paris 6, Laboratoire des BioMolecules, cc 182, UMR 7203 CNRS, ENS, Paris, France.
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17
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Takechi Y, Mizuguchi C, Tanaka M, Kawakami T, Aimoto S, Okamura E, Saito H. Physicochemical Mechanism for the Lipid Membrane Binding of Polyarginine: The Favorable Enthalpy Change with Structural Transition from Random Coil to α-Helix. CHEM LETT 2012. [DOI: 10.1246/cl.2012.1374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Takechi
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Himeji Dokkyo University
| | - Chiharu Mizuguchi
- Institute of Health Biosciences and Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokushima
| | - Masafumi Tanaka
- Department of Biophysical Chemistry, Kobe Pharmaceutical University
| | | | | | - Emiko Okamura
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Himeji Dokkyo University
| | - Hiroyuki Saito
- Institute of Health Biosciences and Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokushima
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18
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Kenien R, Shen WC, Zaro JL. Vesicle-to-cytosol transport of disulfide-linked cargo mediated by an amphipathic cell-penetrating peptide. J Drug Target 2012; 20:793-800. [DOI: 10.3109/1061186x.2012.719899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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19
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Functional RNA delivery targeted to dendritic cells by synthetic nanoparticles. Ther Deliv 2012; 3:1077-99. [DOI: 10.4155/tde.12.90] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are essential to many aspects of immune defense development and regulation. They provide important targets for prophylactic and therapeutic delivery. While protein delivery has had considerable success, RNA delivery is still expanding. Delivering RNA molecules for RNAi has shown particular success and there are reports on successful delivery of mRNA. Central, therein, is the application of cationic entities. Following endocytosis of the delivery vehicle for the RNA, cationic entities should promote vesicular membrane perturbation, facilitating cytosolic release. The present review explains the diversity of DC function in immune response development and control. Promotion of delivered RNA cytosolic release is discussed, relating to immunoprophylactic and therapeutic potential, and DC endocytic machinery is reviewed, showing how DC endocytic pathways influence the handling of internalized material. The potential advantages for application of replicating RNA are presented and discussed, in consideration of their value and development in the near future.
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Jo J, Song H, Park SG, Lee S, Ko J, Park J, Jeong J, Cheon Y, Lee DR. Regulation of Differentiation Potential of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells by Intracytoplasmic Delivery of Coactivator‐Associated Arginine Methyltransferase 1 Protein Using Cell‐Penetrating Peptide. Stem Cells 2012; 30:1703-1713. [DOI: 10.1002/stem.1146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Junghyun Jo
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Life Science, CHA University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Haengseok Song
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Life Science, CHA University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sang Gyu Park
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Life Science, CHA University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Soo‐Hong Lee
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Life Science, CHA University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jung‐Jae Ko
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Life Science, CHA University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jong‐Hyuk Park
- Division of Development and Physiology, School of Biological Sciences and Chemistry, Institute for Basic Sciences, College of Natural Science, Sungshin Women's University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jaemin Jeong
- Division of Radiation Cancer Research, Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Science, Seoul, Korea
| | - Yong‐Pil Cheon
- Division of Development and Physiology, School of Biological Sciences and Chemistry, Institute for Basic Sciences, College of Natural Science, Sungshin Women's University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Dong Ryul Lee
- Department of Biomedical Science, College of Life Science, CHA University, Seoul, Korea
- CHA Stem Cell Institute, CHA University, Seoul, Korea
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21
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Hu Y, Qiao C, Lv M, Feng J, Yu M, Shen B, Zhang Q, Li Y. Arg9 facilitates the translocation and downstream signal inhibition of an anti-HER2 single chain antibody. BMC Res Notes 2012; 5:336. [PMID: 22748113 PMCID: PMC3477046 DOI: 10.1186/1756-0500-5-336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2012] [Accepted: 05/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND HER2 plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of many cancers and is linked to poor prognosis or cancer metastases. Monoclonal antibodies, such as Herceptin against HER2-overexpressing cancers, have showed satisfactory clinical therapeutic effect. However, they have difficulty to surmount obstacles to enter cells or blood-brain barrier. RESULTS In this study, a cell-penetrating peptide Arg9 was linked to the C-terminus of anti-HER2 single chain antibody (MIL5scFv). Flow cytometry, confocal microscopy and electron microscopy analysis all revealed that Arg9 peptide facilitated the penetration of MIL5scFv into HER2-negative cell line NIH3T3 and orientate in mitochondria. More interestingly, Western blot assay showed the potential enhanced bioactivity of MIL5scFv-Arg9 in HER2+ cell line SKOV3, indicating that Arg9 could help large molecules (e.g. antibody) to penetrate into cells and therefore enhance its anti-neoplastic function. CONCLUSIONS Our work represented an attractive by preliminary strategy to enhance the therapeutic effect of existing antibodies by entering cells easier, or more desirable, surmounting the physical barriers, especially in hard-to-reach cancers such as brain metastases cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Hu
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical ScienÎ, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071, China
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Chunxia Qiao
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Ming Lv
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Jiannan Feng
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Ming Yu
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Beifen Shen
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Qiuping Zhang
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical ScienÎ, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071, China
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Science, Wuhan University, Donghu Road #185, Wuchang, Wuhan, 430071, China
| | - Yan Li
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100850, China
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, P.O. Box 130(3), Taiping Road #27, Beijing, 100850, China
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22
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Zaro JL, Fei L, Shen WC. Recombinant peptide constructs for targeted cell penetrating peptide-mediated delivery. J Control Release 2012; 158:357-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2012.01.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2011] [Revised: 01/24/2012] [Accepted: 01/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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23
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24
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Takechi Y, Tanaka H, Kitayama H, Yoshii H, Tanaka M, Saito H. Comparative study on the interaction of cell-penetrating polycationic polymers with lipid membranes. Chem Phys Lipids 2011; 165:51-8. [PMID: 22108318 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2011.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2011] [Revised: 11/02/2011] [Accepted: 11/04/2011] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides are arginine- and lysine-rich cationic peptides that can readily enter cells not only by themselves but also carrying other macromolecular cargos. In fact, we have reported that polycationic polymer such as poly-l-lysine (PLL) and poly-l-arginine (PLA) translocate through negatively charged phospholipid liposome membranes. In this work, we made a comparative study of the interaction of PLL or PLA with lipid membranes consisting of negatively charged phospholipids to understand the role of basic amino acid residue (i.e. arginine and lysine) in the membrane-penetrating activity of polypeptides. PLA and PLL translocated into giant unilamellar vesicle composed of soybean phospholipids. ζ-potential and turbidity measurements demonstrated the electrostatic binding of PLL and PLA to large unilamellar vesicle (LUV). Fluorescence studies using membrane probes revealed that the binding of PLA and PLL to LUV affects the hydration and packing of the membrane interface region, in which the membrane insertion of PLA appeared to be greater than PLL. Differential scanning calorimetry showed that the enthalpy of the gel to liquid-crystalline phase transition for dipalmitoyl phosphatidylglycerol vesicle was greatly reduced by binding of PLL and PLA, in which the reduction is much larger in PLA than in PLL. Circular dichroism measurements in 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol/water mixture or in the presence of LUV indicated that the propensity of PLA to form α-helical structure is greater than PLL. Consistently, attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy revealed that there is greater α-helical structure in PLA bound to LUV compared to PLL, which has much less ordered structure. Furthermore, isothermal titration calorimetry measurements demonstrated that the contribution of enthalpy to the energetics of binding to LUV is two-fold larger in PLA than in PLL. These results suggest that the stronger interaction of arginine residue with negatively charged phospholipid membranes compared to lysine residue appears to facilitate the conformational change in cationic polypeptide and its insertion into lipid membrane interior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Takechi
- Institute of Health Biosciences, The University of Tokushima Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 1-78-1 Shomachi, Tokushima 770-8505, Japan
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25
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Choi WI, Lee JH, Kim JY, Kim JC, Kim YH, Tae G. Efficient skin permeation of soluble proteins via flexible and functional nano-carrier. J Control Release 2011; 157:272-8. [PMID: 21867735 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2011.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2011] [Revised: 08/03/2011] [Accepted: 08/09/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
In spite of several intrinsic and distinct advantages, a topical and transdermal administration of drugs has been limited mainly due to very low permeability of drugs across skin. Especially, it is generally regarded that hydrophilic macromolecules such as proteins, peptides, and vaccines cannot penetrate across skin. In this study, we demonstrated that chitosan-conjugated, Pluronic-based nano-carrier (nanogel) can act as an efficient delivery vehicle of hydrophilic proteins across human skin. The functional nano-carrier (<100 nm in size), chemically-crosslinking Pluronic F 127 with chitosan conjugation, is flexible and soft with reservoir characteristics for biomacromolecules. The in-vitro permeation experiments through human cadaver skin revealed remarkable permeability of hydrophilic proteins of various sizes including FITC-BSA (67 kDa) and FITC-Insulin (6 kDa) by direct penetration of the nano-carrier across skin. The bioactivity post-permeation of proteins via the functional nano-carrier was also confirmed by delivering ß-galactosidase. Results presented in this paper suggest the use of chitosan-conjugated flexible nano-carrier as a novel platform for transcutaneous delivery of hydrophilic macromolecules and other drug-delivery applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Won Il Choi
- School of Materials Science and Engineering and Department of Nanobio Materials and Electronics, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, 261 Cheomdan-gwagiro, Buk-gu, Gwangju 500-712, South Korea
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26
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Vargas N, Álvarez-Cubela S, Giraldo JA, Nieto M, Fort NM, Cechin S, García E, Espino-Grosso P, Fraker CA, Ricordi C, Inverardi L, Pastori RL, Domínguez-Bendala J. TAT-mediated transduction of MafA protein in utero results in enhanced pancreatic insulin expression and changes in islet morphology. PLoS One 2011; 6:e22364. [PMID: 21857924 PMCID: PMC3150355 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0022364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2011] [Accepted: 06/24/2011] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Alongside Pdx1 and Beta2/NeuroD, the transcription factor MafA has been shown to be instrumental in the maintenance of the beta cell phenotype. Indeed, a combination of MafA, Pdx1 and Ngn3 (an upstream regulator of Beta2/NeuroD) was recently reported to lead to the effective reprogramming of acinar cells into insulin-producing beta cells. These experiments set the stage for the development of new strategies to address the impairment of glycemic control in diabetic patients. However, the clinical applicability of reprogramming in this context is deemed to be poor due to the need to use viral vehicles for the delivery of the above factors. Here we describe a recombinant transducible version of the MafA protein (TAT-MafA) that penetrates across cell membranes with an efficiency of 100% and binds to the insulin promoter in vitro. When injected in utero into living mouse embryos, TAT-MafA significantly up-regulates target genes and induces enhanced insulin production as well as cytoarchitectural changes consistent with faster islet maturation. As the latest addition to our armamentarium of transducible proteins (which already includes Pdx1 and Ngn3), the purification and characterization of a functional TAT-MafA protein opens the door to prospective therapeutic uses that circumvent the use of viral delivery. To our knowledge, this is also the first report on the use of protein transduction in utero.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Animals, Newborn
- Blotting, Western
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cells, Cultured
- Female
- Gene Expression
- Gene Products, tat/genetics
- Gene Products, tat/metabolism
- Insulin/genetics
- Insulin/metabolism
- Islets of Langerhans/cytology
- Islets of Langerhans/metabolism
- Maf Transcription Factors, Large/genetics
- Maf Transcription Factors, Large/metabolism
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Pancreas/embryology
- Pancreas/metabolism
- Pregnancy
- Promoter Regions, Genetic/genetics
- Protein Binding
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/genetics
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/metabolism
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Transfection
- Uterus/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Vargas
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Silvia Álvarez-Cubela
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Jaime A. Giraldo
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Margarita Nieto
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Nicholas M. Fort
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Sirlene Cechin
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Enrique García
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Pedro Espino-Grosso
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Christopher A. Fraker
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Camillo Ricordi
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
- Department of Surgery, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Luca Inverardi
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Ricardo L. Pastori
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
| | - Juan Domínguez-Bendala
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
- Department of Surgery, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America
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27
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Takechi Y, Yoshii H, Tanaka M, Kawakami T, Aimoto S, Saito H. Physicochemical mechanism for the enhanced ability of lipid membrane penetration of polyarginine. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2011; 27:7099-7107. [PMID: 21526829 DOI: 10.1021/la200917y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Arginine-rich, cell-penetrating peptides (e.g., Tat-peptide, penetratin, and polyarginine) are used to carry therapeutic molecules such as oligonucleotides, DNA, peptides, and proteins across cell membranes. Two types of processes are being considered to cross the cell membranes: one is an endocytic pathway, and another is an energy-independent, nonendocytic pathway. However, the latter is still not known in detail. Here, we studied the effects of the chain length of polyarginine on its interaction with an anionic phospholipid large unilamellar vesicle (LUV) or a giant vesicle using poly-l-arginine composed of 69 (PLA69), 293 (PLA293), or 554 (PLA554) arginine residues, together with octaarginine (R8). ζ-potential measurements confirmed that polyarginine binds to LUV via electrostatic interactions. Circular dichroism analysis demonstrated that the transition from the random coil to the α-helix structure upon binding to LUV occurred for PLA293 and PLA554, whereas no structural change was observed for PLA69 and R8. Fluorescence studies using membrane probes revealed that the binding of polyarginine to LUV affects the hydration and packing of the membrane interface region, in which the degree of membrane insertion is greater for the longer polyarginine. Isothermal titration calorimetry measurements demonstrated that although the binding affinity (i.e., the Gibbs free energy of binding) per arginine residue is similar among all polyarginines the contribution of enthalpy to the energetics of binding of polyarginine increases with increasing polymer chain length. In addition, confocal laser scanning microscopy showed that all polyarginines penetrate across giant vesicle membranes, and the order of the amount of membrane penetration is R8 ≈ PLA69 < PLA293 ≈ PLA554. These results suggest that the formation of α-helical structure upon lipid binding drives the insertion of polyarginine into the membrane interior, which appears to enhance the membrane penetration of polyarginine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Takechi
- Institute of Health Biosciences and Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokushima, Tokushima 770-8505, Japan
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28
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Wang CL, Guo C, Wang YQ, Zhou Y, Li Q, Ni JM, Wang R. Synthesis and antinociceptive effects of endomorphin-1 analogs with C-terminal linked by oligoarginine. Peptides 2011; 32:293-9. [PMID: 21055434 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2010.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2010] [Revised: 10/25/2010] [Accepted: 10/25/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Endomorphins (EMs) cannot be delivered into the central nervous system (CNS) in sufficient quantity to elicit antinociception when given systemically because they are severely restricted by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In the present study, we investigated herein a series of EM-1 analogs with C-terminal linked by oligoarginine in order to improve the brain delivery and antinociception after systemic administration. Indeed, all these analogs decreased the opioid receptor affinity and in vitro pharmacological activity. Moreover, analogs 4, 7-9 produced a less potent antinociceptive activity after intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration, with the ED(50) values about 11- to 13-fold lower potencies than that of EM-1. Nevertheless, our results revealed that EM-1 failed to induce any significant antinociception at a dose of 50μmol/kg after subcutaneous (s.c.) administration, whereas equimolar dose of these four analogs produced a little low but significant antinociceptive effects. Naloxone (10nmol/kg, i.c.v.) significantly blocked the antinociceptive effects, indicating an opioid and central mechanism. These results demonstrated that C-terminal of EM-1 linked to oligoarginine improved the brain delivery, eliciting potent antinociception following peripheral administration.
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MESH Headings
- Analgesics, Opioid/chemical synthesis
- Analgesics, Opioid/chemistry
- Analgesics, Opioid/metabolism
- Analgesics, Opioid/pharmacology
- Animals
- Arginine/chemistry
- Brain/metabolism
- Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid
- Female
- Guinea Pigs
- Ileum/drug effects
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred Strains
- Muscle Contraction/drug effects
- Naloxone/pharmacology
- Oligopeptides/chemical synthesis
- Oligopeptides/chemistry
- Oligopeptides/metabolism
- Oligopeptides/pharmacology
- Pain/prevention & control
- Pain Measurement
- Radioligand Assay
- Rats
- Rats, Wistar
- Receptors, Opioid, delta/metabolism
- Receptors, Opioid, mu/metabolism
- Spectrometry, Mass, Electrospray Ionization
- Vas Deferens/drug effects
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-lin Wang
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
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29
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Fei L, Ren L, Zaro JL, Shen WC. The influence of net charge and charge distribution on cellular uptake and cytosolic localization of arginine-rich peptides. J Drug Target 2010; 19:675-80. [DOI: 10.3109/1061186x.2010.531729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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30
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Izumisawa T, Hattori Y, Date M, Toma K, Maitani Y. Cell line-dependent internalization pathways determine DNA transfection efficiency of decaarginine-PEG-lipid. Int J Pharm 2010; 404:264-70. [PMID: 21093557 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2010.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2010] [Revised: 10/21/2010] [Accepted: 11/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Previously, we have reported that decaarginine-conjugated PEG-lipids (R10B) efficiently delivered plasmid DNA (pDNA) into human cervical carcinoma HeLa cells via macropinocytosis; however, the mechanism of cellular uptake by R10B was not evaluated in other cell lines. In this study, we investigated the internalization mechanism by R10B/pDNA complex (R10B-lipoplex) in human prostate tumor PC-3 and human nasopharyngeal tumor KB cells, and compared with that in HeLa cells. Although it was necessary for R10B-lipoplex to associate with heparan sulfate (HS) on the cell surface in all cell lines, the R10B-lipoplex was internalized primarily through clathrin-mediated endocytosis in PC-3 and KB cells, and macropinosytosis in HeLa cells. In HeLa cells, treatment with the R10B-lipoplex induced the formation of lamellipodia for macropinocytosis, but did not in KB and PC-3 cells. Furthermore, the highest transfection efficiency by R10B-lipoplex was observed in HeLa cells. These findings indicated that the R10B-lipoplex induced the formation of lamellipodia in HeLa cells after binding to HS on the cells and was then internalized by macropinocytosis, which could induce high gene expression because of escaping degradation in lysosomes. Cell physiology might be a critical factor in cellular internalization and efficient transfection by cell penetration peptide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiro Izumisawa
- Institute of Medicinal Chemistry, Hoshi University, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8501, Japan
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31
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Aubry S, Aussedat B, Delaroche D, Jiao CY, Bolbach G, Lavielle S, Chassaing G, Sagan S, Burlina F. MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry: a powerful tool to study the internalization of cell-penetrating peptides. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2009; 1798:2182-9. [PMID: 19932680 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2009.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2009] [Accepted: 11/15/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
This review summarizes the contribution of MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry in the study of cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) internalization in eukaryote cells. This technique was used to measure the efficiency of cell-penetrating peptide cellular uptake and cargo delivery and to analyze carrier and cargo intracellular degradation. The impact of thiol-containing membrane proteins on the internalization of CPP-cargo disulfide conjugates was also evaluated by combining MALDI-TOF MS with simple thiol-specific reactions. This highlighted the formation of cross-linked species to cell-surface proteins that either remained trapped in the cell membrane or led to intracellular delivery. MALDI-TOF MS is thus a powerful tool to dissect CPP internalization mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soline Aubry
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 4 place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France
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32
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Zaro JL, Vekich JE, Tran T, Shen WC. Nuclear localization of cell-penetrating peptides is dependent on endocytosis rather than cytosolic delivery in CHO cells. Mol Pharm 2009; 6:337-44. [PMID: 19718791 DOI: 10.1021/mp800239p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The nuclear localization of various cell penetrating peptides (CPPs), including Tat [47-57], YG(R)9, YG(K)9, and model amphipathic peptide (MAP), was examined and correlated with the endocytosis and cytosolic transfer efficiency in CHO cells. The results showed that the internalization of the amphipathic peptide, MAP, was much higher than that of the other cationic CPPs tested. During subcellular fractionation analysis, MAP was only found in the vesicular fraction and was not detectable in the cytosol, similar to the intracellular localization of YG(K)9 as previously determined. This localization pattern differs greatly from the cationic CPPs oligoarginine and Tat, which were previously found primarily in the cytosol. Both quantitative and qualitative analysis of MAP showed high nuclear localization, with staining in perinuclear vesicles. On the other hand, YG(R)9 was found to be excluded from the nucleus. Lysosomotropic amines altered the nuclear localization of the CPPs tested, and the change was correlated with the release of degradation products from the treated cells. These results suggest that highly endocytosed CPPs such as MAP may be more suitable for nuclear drug delivery applications than peptides such as Tat and YG(R)9 that are efficiently delivered to the cytosol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennica L Zaro
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, 1985 Zonal Avenue, PSC 404B, Los Angeles, California 90033-1039, USA
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33
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Patel LN, Wang J, Kim KJ, Borok Z, Crandall ED, Shen WC. Conjugation with cationic cell-penetrating peptide increases pulmonary absorption of insulin. Mol Pharm 2009; 6:492-503. [PMID: 19228019 DOI: 10.1021/mp800174g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we determined if cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) can be used to enhance the absorption rate of insulin (INS) across the alveolar epithelial barrier. Using a heterobifunctional cross-linker, INS was conjugated to a series of cationic CPPs, including Tat peptide, oligoarginine (r9) or oligolysine (k9), via disulfide bridge to a D-isoform cysteine (c) present at the N-terminal of the peptide sequence, yielding INS-cTat, INS-cr9, and INS-ck9, respectively. SDS-PAGE and MALDI-TOF mass spectroscopy confirmed homogeneous conjugates with a 1:1 ratio of INS and various CPPs. Transport of INS and INS-CPPs across primary cultured rat alveolar epithelial cell monolayers was in the order INS-cr9 > INS-cTat > INS-ck9 > INS, with 27-, 19- and 4-fold increase compared to native INS, respectively. Transport of INS-cr9 was temperature- and time-dependent. Covalent conjugation between r9 and INS, as opposed to adding unconjugated INS and r9 together into donor fluid, was necessary to enhance transport of INS. Absorption of INS-cr9 across the alveolar epithelial barrier appeared to be in part transcellular, since INS-cr9 transport in the presence of heparin and protamine was decreased by approximately 20%. Adsorptive transcytosis appeared to be in part responsible for INS-cr9 absorption, as INS-cr9 did not compete with free INS in binding assays for INS receptors. Finally, intratracheal instillation of INS-cr9 in diabetic rats resulted in a steady decrease in blood glucose level that was more sustained over time when compared with INS. These results suggest that oligoarginine can be used to increase the alveolar absorption rate of insulin (and potentially other macromolecules as well).
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Affiliation(s)
- Leena N Patel
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Will Rogers Institute Pulmonary Research Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089-9121, USA
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34
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Zhang X, Jin Y, Plummer MR, Pooyan S, Gunaseelan S, Sinko PJ. Endocytosis and membrane potential are required for HeLa cell uptake of R.I.-CKTat9, a retro-inverso Tat cell penetrating peptide. Mol Pharm 2009; 6:836-48. [PMID: 19278221 DOI: 10.1021/mp800121f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) can enter many types of cells and have become useful tools for introducing a variety of cargo such as exogenous peptides, proteins, and nucleic acids into cultured cells in vitro. Tat CPPs derived from the HIV-1 Tat protein are the most widely used among the arginine-rich CPPs. Even though CPPs hold considerable promise for drug delivery, poor biological stability and high in vivo clearance may limit their effectiveness for delivering cargo. Therefore, we utilize a retro-inverso form of a Tat peptide, R.I.-CKTat9, which is proteolytically stable. In the current study, the cellular entry mechanism of this arginine-rich CPP is investigated. Fluorescently labeled R.I.-CKTat9 entered HeLa cells in a concentration- and energy-dependent manner demonstrating both diffuse and punctate (vesicular) appearance inside the cells. The labeled R.I.-CKTat9 colocalized with labeled transferrin in the punctate structure, suggesting that the peptide enters HeLa cells by clathrin-dependent endocytosis. Incubation of cells with an isotonic/high K(+) buffer (KPBS) or an NH(4)Cl solution abolished the diffuse but not the punctate fluorescence, suggesting that membrane potential plays a critical role. This result also suggests that the flux originates from the endosome, not the extracellular space, and relies on the acidity of the endosome. Impairment of clathrin-mediated endocytosis by RNAi with clathrin heavy chain function and endocytosis inhibitors greatly reduced or completely abolished both diffuse and punctate fluorescence, further supporting a single route of endocytosis and subsequent endosomal escape. Since cells in the mitotic (M) phase shut down endocytosis but maintain plasma membrane potential, this property was used to further confirm the endocytic mechanism. Direct measurement of plasma membrane potential confirmed its persistence in M phase arrested HeLa cells. Consistent with our working hypothesis, these cells did not show any vesicular nor diffuse fluorescence of labeled R.I.-CKTat9, providing compelling evidence for the sequential steps of endocytosis and endosomal escape. Binding of labeled R.I.-CKTat9 to the surface of HeLa cells at 0 degrees C was reduced under the mildly acidic conditions of early endosomes, suggesting an acidity-dependent endosomal escape mechanism. Overall, these results indicate that both endocytosis and membrane potential are required for R.I.-CKTat9 entry into HeLa cells and suggest that translocation occurs at the endosomal membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoping Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
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35
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Barnes MP, Shen WC. Disulfide and thioether linked cytochrome c-oligoarginine conjugates in HeLa cells. Int J Pharm 2008; 369:79-84. [PMID: 19059469 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2008.10.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2008] [Revised: 10/30/2008] [Accepted: 10/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The intracellular processing and the apoptotic activity of conjugates of oligoarginine and cytochrome c (Cyt c) were studied. Disulfide and thioether linked conjugates were prepared by coupling Cyt c to cysteinyl-nonaarginine, C(R)(9), through SPDP and SMPB cross-linkers, respectively. Internalization of the radiolabeled conjugates was measured, and biological activity via induction of apoptosis was determined using the annexin V and the acridine orange assays in HeLa cells. The internalization of both conjugates is increased when compared to that of Cyt c alone. However, the biological activity of the internalized Cyt c, indicated by apoptosis in HeLa cells, was expressed only in the thioether (SMPB) conjugate, but not the disulfide (SPDP) conjugate or free Cyt c. The addition of the proteasomal inhibitor MG132 increased the apoptotic activity of both the disulfide conjugate and free Cyt c, but not the thioether conjugate. Our results suggest that the intracellular cleavage of the linker in cell penetrating peptide conjugates is critical in determining the fate and activity of biologically degradable cargo molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maureen P Barnes
- University of Southern California, School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Los Angeles, CA 90033, United States
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36
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Kloss A, Henklein P, Siele D, Schmolke M, Apcher S, Kuehn L, Sheppard PW, Dahlmann B. The cell-penetrating peptide octa-arginine is a potent inhibitor of proteasome activities. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2008; 72:219-25. [PMID: 19027853 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2008.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2008] [Revised: 10/27/2008] [Accepted: 10/31/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Oligo-arginines are cell-penetrating peptides and find use as carriers for transportation of various membrane-impermeable biopharmaceuticals into target cells. We have found that oligo-arginines of a length of 4-10 amino acids, but especially (Arg)(8), are able to inhibit the major intracellular proteolytic system, the proteasome, with mixed-type inhibition characteristics. The IC(50) values of (Arg)(8) for the proteasomal chymotrypsin-like and caspase-like activities are approximately 100 and 200 nM, respectively. The inhibition of the trypsin-like activity never exceeds 50% even at micromolar concentrations. (Arg)(8) also inhibits 20S proteasome/PA28 complexes as well as 26S proteasomes, although with a decreased efficiency. Due to its cell membrane-penetrating capability, incubation of HeLa cells in the presence of (Arg)(8) resulted in an impaired activity of proteasomes going along with an accumulation of high-molecular mass ubiquitin-conjugated proteins, the preferred substrates of 26S proteasomes. The in vivo susceptibility of the three proteasome activities resembles that found in vitro with chymotrypsin-like>caspase-like>trypsin-like activities. Since inhibition of the proteasome system might affect fundamental basic cellular processes but on the other side might also prevent the degradation of a proteinacous cargo, we suggest that this proteasome inhibitory activity should be taken into account when oligo-arginines are being considered for use as vectors for the intracellular delivery of pharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Kloss
- Institut für Biochemie/CCM, Charité-Universitätsmedizin-Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Räägel H, Lust M, Uri A, Pooga M. Adenosine-oligoarginine conjugate, a novel bisubstrate inhibitor, effectively dissociates the actin cytoskeleton. FEBS J 2008; 275:3608-24. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2008.06506.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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38
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Molecular dynamics simulation of Kv channel voltage sensor helix in a lipid membrane with applied electric field. Biophys J 2008; 95:1729-44. [PMID: 18487312 DOI: 10.1529/biophysj.108.130658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In this article, we present the results of the molecular dynamics simulations of amphiphilic helix peptides of 13 amino-acid residues, placed at the lipid-water interface of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine bilayers. The peptides are identical with, or are derivatives of, the N-terminal segment of the S4 helix of voltage-dependent K channel KvAP, containing four voltage-sensing arginine residues (R1-R4). Upon changing the direction of the externally applied electric field, the tilt angle of the wild-type peptide changes relative to the lipid-water interface, with the N-terminus heading up with an outward electric field. These movements were not observed using an octane membrane in place of the dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine membrane, and were markedly suppressed by 1), substituting Phe located one residue before the first arginine (R1) with a hydrophilic residue (Ser, Thr); or 2), changing the periodicity rule of Rs from at-every-third to at-every-fourth position; or 3), replacing R1 with a lysine residue (K). These and other findings suggest that the voltage-dependent movement requires deep positioning of Rs when the resting (inward) electric field is present. Later, we performed simulations of the voltage sensor domain (S1-S4) of Kv1.2 channel. In simulations with a strong electric field (0.1 V/nm or above) and positional restraints on the S1 and S2 helices, S4 movement was observed consisting of displacement along the S4 helix axis and a screwlike axial rotation. Gating-charge-carrying Rs were observed to make serial interactions with E183 in S1 and E226 in S2, in the outer water crevice. A 30-ns-backward simulation started from the open-state model gave rise to a structure similar to the recent resting-state model, with S4 moving vertically approximately 6.7 A. The energy landscape around the movement of S4 appears very ragged due to salt bridges formed between gating-charge-carrying residues and negatively charged residues of S1, S2, and S3 helices. Overall, features of S3 and S4 movements are consistent with the recent helical-screw model. Both forward and backward simulations show the presence of at least two stable intermediate structures in which R2 and R3 form salt bridges with E183 or E226, respectively. These structures are the candidates for the states postulated in previous gating kinetic models, such as the Zagotta-Hoshi-Aldrich model, to account for more than one transition step per subunit for activation.
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Fischer PM. Cellular uptake mechanisms and potential therapeutic utility of peptidic cell delivery vectors: progress 2001-2006. Med Res Rev 2008; 27:755-95. [PMID: 17019680 DOI: 10.1002/med.20093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Cell delivery vectors (CDVs) are short amphipathic and cationic peptides and peptide derivatives, usually containing multiple lysine and arginine residues. They possess inherent membrane activity and can be conjugated or complexed with large impermeable macromolecules and even microscopic particles to facilitate cell entry. Various mechanisms have been proposed but it is now becoming clear that the main port of entry into cells of such CDV constructs involves adsorptive-mediated endocytosis rather than direct penetration of the plasma membrane. It is still unclear, however, how and to what extent CDV constructs are capable of exiting endosomal compartments and reaching their intended cellular site of action, usually the cytosol or the nucleus. Furthermore, although many CDVs can mediate cellular uptake of their cargo and appear comparatively non-toxic to cells in tissue culture, the utility of CDVs for in vivo applications remains poorly understood. Whatever the mechanisms of cell entry and disposition, the overriding question as far as potential pharmacological application of CDV conjugates is concerned is whether or not a therapeutic margin can be achieved by their administration. Such a margin will only result if the intracellular concentration in the target tissues necessary to elicit the biological effect of the CDV cargo can be achieved at systemic CDV exposure levels that are non-toxic to both target and bystander cells. It is proposed that the focus of CDV research now be shifted from mechanistic in vitro studies with labeled but otherwise unconjugated CDVs to in vivo pharmacological and toxicological studies using CDV-derivatized and other cationized forms of inherently non-permeable macromolecules of true therapeutic interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter M Fischer
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences and School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kingdom.
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40
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Wender PA, Galliher WC, Goun EA, Jones LR, Pillow TH. The design of guanidinium-rich transporters and their internalization mechanisms. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2008; 60:452-72. [PMID: 18164781 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2007.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 323] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2007] [Accepted: 10/01/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The ability of a drug or probe to cross a biological barrier has historically been viewed to be a function of its intrinsic physical properties. This view has largely restricted drug design and selection to agents within a narrow log P range. Molecular transporters offer a strategy to circumvent these restrictions. In the case of guanidinium-rich transporters (GRTs), a typically highly water-soluble conjugate is found to readily pass through the non-polar membrane of a cell and for some across tissue barriers. This activity opens a field of opportunities for the use of GRTs to enable delivery of polar and non-polar drugs or probes as well as to enhance uptake of those of intermediate polarity. The field of transporter enabled or enhanced uptake has grown dramatically in the last decade. Some GRT drug conjugates have been advanced into clinical trials. This review will provide an overview of recent work pertinent to the design and mechanism of uptake of GRTs.
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Ziegler A. Thermodynamic studies and binding mechanisms of cell-penetrating peptides with lipids and glycosaminoglycans. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2008; 60:580-97. [PMID: 18045730 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2007.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2007] [Accepted: 10/06/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) traverse the membrane of biological cells at low micromolar concentrations and are able to take various cargo molecules along with. Despite large differences in their chemical structure, CPPs share the structural similarity of a high cationic charge density. This property confers to them the ability to bind electrostatically membrane constituents such as anionic lipids and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). Controversies exist, however, about the biological response after the interaction of CPPs with such membrane constituents. Present review compares thermodynamic binding studies with conditions of the biological CPP uptake. It becomes evident that CPPs enter biological cells by different and probably competing mechanisms. For example, some amphipathic CPPs traverse pure lipid model membranes at low micromolar concentrations--at least in the absence of cargos. In contrast, no direct translocation at these conditions is observed for non-amphipathic CPPs. Finally, CPPs bind GAGs at low micromolar concentrations with potential consequences for endocytotic pathways.
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Torchilin V. Intracellular delivery of protein and peptide therapeutics. DRUG DISCOVERY TODAY. TECHNOLOGIES 2008; 5:e95-e103. [PMID: 24981097 DOI: 10.1016/j.ddtec.2009.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Many proteins and peptides are used as highly specific and effective therapeutic agents. Their use is, however, complicated by their instability and side effects. Because many protein and peptide drugs have their therapeutic targets inside cells, there is also an important task to bring these drugs into target cells without subjecting them to the lysosomal degradation. This review describes current approaches to the intracellular delivery of protein and peptide drugs. Various drug delivery systems and methods are considered allowing for safe and effective transport of protein and peptide drugs into the cell cytoplasm.:
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Torchilin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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Breunig M, Bauer S, Goepferich A. Polymers and nanoparticles: Intelligent tools for intracellular targeting? Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2008; 68:112-28. [PMID: 17804211 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2007.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2007] [Revised: 05/31/2007] [Accepted: 06/06/2007] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, a new generation of drugs has entered the pharmaceutical market. Some are more potent, but some are also more toxic and thus, therapeutical efficacy may be hindered, and severe side effects may be observed, unless they are delivered to their assigned place of effect. Those targets are not only certain cell types, moreover, in cancer therapy for example, some drugs even have to be targeted to a specific cell organelle. Those targets in eukaryotic cells include among others endo- and lysosomes, mitochondria, the so-called power plants of the cells, and the biggest compartment with almost all the genetic information, the nucleus. In this review, we describe how the drugs can be directed to specific subcellular organelles and focus especially on synthetic polymers and nanoparticles as their carriers. Furthermore, we portray the progress that has been accomplished in recent years in the field of designing the carriers for efficient delivery into these target structures. Yet, we do not fail to mention the obstacles that still exist and are preventing polymeric and nanoparticular drug carrier systems from their broad application in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Breunig
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Regensburg, Universitaetstrasse 31, Regensburg, Germany
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44
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Poon GMK, Gariépy J. Cell-surface proteoglycans as molecular portals for cationic peptide and polymer entry into cells. Biochem Soc Trans 2007; 35:788-93. [PMID: 17635149 DOI: 10.1042/bst0350788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Polycationic macromolecules and cationic peptides acting as PTDs (protein transduction domains) and CPPs (cell-penetrating peptides) represent important classes of agents used for the import and delivery of a wide range of molecular cargoes into cells. Their entry into cells is typically initiated through interaction with cell-surface HS (heparan sulfate) molecules via electrostatic interactions, followed by endocytosis of the resulting complexes. However, the endocytic mechanism employed (clathrin-mediated endocytosis, caveolar uptake or macropinocytosis), defining the migration of these peptides into cells, depends on parameters such as the nature of the cationic agent itself and complex formation with cargo, as well as the nature and distribution of proteoglycans expressed on the cell surface. Moreover, a survey of the literature suggests that endocytic pathways should not be considered as mutually exclusive, as more than one entry mechanism may be operational for a given cationic complex in a particular cell type. Specifically, the observed import may best be explained by the distribution and uptake of cell-surface HSPGs (heparan sulfate proteoglycans), such as syndecans and glypicans, which have been shown to mediate the uptake of many ligands besides cationic polymers. A brief overview of the roles of HSPGs in ligand internalization is presented, as well as mechanistic hypotheses based on the known properties of these cell-surface markers. The identification and investigation of interactions made by glycosaminoglycans and core proteins of HSPGs with PTDs and cationic polymers will be crucial in defining their uptake by cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- G M K Poon
- Division of Cancer Genomics and Proteomics, Ontario Cancer Institute, University Health Network, Ontario, Canada M5G 2M9
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45
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Torchilin VP. Targeted pharmaceutical nanocarriers for cancer therapy and imaging. AAPS JOURNAL 2007; 9:E128-47. [PMID: 17614355 PMCID: PMC2751402 DOI: 10.1208/aapsj0902015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 550] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The use of various pharmaceutical nanocarriers has become one of the most important areas of nanomedicine. Ideally, such carriers should be specifically delivered (targeted) to the pathological area to provide the maximum therapeutic efficacy. Among the many potential targets for such nanocarriers, tumors have been most often investigated. This review attempts to summarize currently available information regarding targeted pharmaceutical nanocarriers for cancer therapy and imaging. Certain issues related to some popular pharmaceutical nanocarriers, such as liposomes and polymeric micelles, are addressed, as are different ways to target tumors via specific ligands and via the stimuli sensitivity of the carriers. The importance of intracellular targeting of drug- and DNA-loaded pharmaceutical nanocarriers is specifically discussed, including intracellular delivery with cell-penetrating peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir P Torchilin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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46
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Hartig SM, Greene R, Carlesso G, Higginbotham JN, Khan WN, Prokop A, Davidson JM. Kinetic analysis of nanoparticulate polyelectrolyte complex interactions with endothelial cells. Biomaterials 2007; 28:3843-55. [PMID: 17560645 PMCID: PMC2000344 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2007.04.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2006] [Accepted: 04/25/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
A non-toxic, nanoparticulate polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) drug delivery system was formulated to maintain suitable physicochemical properties at physiological pH. Toxicity, binding, and internalization were evaluated in relevant microvascular endothelial cells. PEC were non-toxic, as indicated by cell proliferation studies and propidium iodide staining. Inhibitor studies revealed that PEC were bound, in part, via heparan sulfate proteoglycans and internalized through macropinocytosis. A novel, flow cytometric, Scatchard protocol was established and showed that PEC, in the absence of surface modification, bind cells non-specifically with positive cooperativity, as seen by graphical transformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean M. Hartig
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235-1604
| | - Rachel Greene
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235-1604
| | - Gianluca Carlesso
- Department of Pathology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232-2562
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232-2562
| | - James N. Higginbotham
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232-2562
| | - Wasif N. Khan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232-2562
| | - Ales Prokop
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235-1604
| | - Jeffrey M. Davidson
- Department of Pathology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232-2562
- Research Service, Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville, TN 37212-2637
- *To whom correspondence should be addressed.
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47
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Patel LN, Zaro JL, Shen WC. Cell Penetrating Peptides: Intracellular Pathways and Pharmaceutical Perspectives. Pharm Res 2007; 24:1977-92. [PMID: 17443399 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-007-9303-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 299] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2007] [Accepted: 03/20/2007] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Cell penetrating peptides, generally categorized as amphipathic or cationic depending on their sequence, are increasingly drawing attention as a non-invasive delivery technology for macromolecules. Delivery of a diverse set of cargo in terms of size and nature ranging from small molecules to particulate cargo has been attempted using different types of cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) in vitro and in vivo. However, the internalization mechanism of CPPs is an unresolved issue to date, with dramatic changes in view regarding the involvement of endocytosis as a pathway of internalization. A key reason for the lack of consensus on the mechanism can be attributed to the methodology in deciphering the internalization mechanism. In this review, we highlight some of the methodology concerns, focus more on the internalization pathway and also provide a novel perspective about the intracellular processing of CPPs, which is a crucial aspect to consider when selecting a cell penetrating peptide as a drug delivery system. In addition, recent applications of cell penetrating peptides for the delivery of small molecules, peptides, proteins, oligonucleotides, nanoparticles and liposomes have been reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leena N Patel
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
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Choi HS, Kim HH, Yang JM, Shin S. An insight into the gene delivery mechanism of the arginine peptide system: Role of the peptide/DNA complex size. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2006; 1760:1604-12. [PMID: 17064849 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2006.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2006] [Revised: 08/31/2006] [Accepted: 09/13/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Cationic peptides have been used successfully to transfer macromolecules into living cells. Previously, we have reported a short arginine peptide-based gene delivery system. However, the mechanisms that allow arginine peptides to promote gene delivery yet remain unknown. In the present study, we investigated the effect of the arginine peptide/DNA complex size on the transfection efficiency. After combining peptides with DNA, a 400 nm complex was observed. As the incubation time was increased, the complex grew larger, reaching 6 microm after 1 h of incubation. Transfection and cellular uptake efficiency were likewise investigated for the effects of the different sizes of complexes. Large complexes were found to be advantageous for transfection. However, better internalization efficiency was found with small complexes, indicating that the amount of peptide/DNA complexes taken up by cells is not the rate-limiting step in the final transfection efficiency. The intracellular path of the peptide/DNA complex was studied using fluorescent labeling and confocal microscopy. In the early stages of transfection, complexes were observed only on the cell surface, and these complexes migrated into cytoplasm however, after 6 h, the presence of complexes in the perinuclear region was noted. We were able to detect colocalization of green and red fluorescence in both the cytoplasm and the nucleus. These results suggest that peptide/DNA complexes reach the nucleus as associated complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Seok Choi
- Department of Life Science, Sogang University, Shinsu-Dong, Mapo-Gu, Seoul 121-742, Korea
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49
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Abstract
Intracellular delivery of various drugs, including DNA, and drug carriers can sharply increase the efficiency of various treatment protocols. However, the receptor-mediated endocytosis of drugs, drug carriers, and DNA results in their lysosomal delivery and significant degradation. The problem can be solved and therapy efficacy still further increased if the approaches for direct intracytoplasmic delivery that bypass the endocytic pathway are developed. This is especially important for many anticancer drugs (proapoptotic drugs whose primary action site is the mitochondrial membrane) and gene therapy (nuclear or mitochondrial genomes should be targeted). This review considers several current approaches for intracellular drug delivery: the use of pH-sensitive liposomes, the use of cell-penetrating proteins and peptides, and the use of immunoliposomes targeting intracellular antigens. Among intracellular targets, nuclei (gene therapy), mitochondria (proapoptotic cancer therapy and targeting of the mitochondrial genome), and lysosomes (lysosomal targeting of enzymes for the therapy of the lysosomal storage diseases) are considered. Examples of successful intracellular and organelle-specific delivery of biologically active molecules, including DNA, are presented; unanswered questions, challenges, and future trends are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir P Torchilin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
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50
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Dominguez-Bendala J, Pastori RL, Ricordi C, Inverardi L. Protein transduction: a novel approach to induce in vitro pancreatic differentiation. Cell Transplant 2006; 15 Suppl 1:S85-90. [PMID: 16826800 DOI: 10.3727/000000006783982359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
It is widely believed that human embryonic stem (huES) cells may represent a valid alternative to donor pancreata as a source of islets for transplantation. Much is known about the transcription factors whose sequential activation results in the generation of islets during pancreatic development. This knowledge has been used to articulate the theoretical possibility that such process might be recapitulated in vitro from stem cells. However, our understanding of the extracellular signals that prompt the developing pancreas to follow this sequence of molecular events is very limited. Also, the simplicity of in vitro systems makes it difficult, if not impossible, to mimic the complex signaling pattern observed in living embryos. Protein transduction (PT) technology may provide researchers with a new powerful tool to sequentially induce stem cell differentiation, entirely bypassing the need for unraveling the signaling pattern that drives the process in vivo. Here we discuss this novel application of the flourishing PT technology, which may revolutionize the way we direct stem cells along any specific lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Dominguez-Bendala
- Pancreatic Development & Stem Cell Laboratory, Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave., Miami, FL 33136, USA.
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