Congophilicity (Congo red affinity) of different beta2-microglobulin conformations characterized by dye affinity capillary electrophoresis

Capillary electrophoresis analysis of different variants of the amyloidogenic protein β2 -microglobulin as a simple tool for misfolding and stability studies

Free solution capillary electrophoresis with UV detection is here used to retrieve information on the conformational changes of wild-type β2 -microglobulin and a series of naturally and artificially created variants known to have different stability and amyloidogenic potential. Under nondenaturing conditions, the resolution of at least two folding conformers at equilibrium is obtained and a third species is detected for the less stable isoforms. Partial denaturation by using chaotropic agents such as acetonitrile or trifluoroethanol reveals that the separated peaks are at equilibrium, as the presence of less structured species is either enhanced or induced at the expenses of the native form. Reproducible CE data allow to obtain an interesting semiquantitative correlation between the peak areas observed and the protein stability. Thermal unfolding over the range 25-42°C is induced inside the capillary for the two pathogenic proteins (wtβ2 -microglobulin and D76N variant): the large differences observed upon small temperature variation draw attention on the robustness of analytical methods when dealing with proteins prone to misfolding and aggregation.

C-terminal unfolding of an amyloidogenic β2-microglobulin fragment: ΔN6β2-microglobulin

OBJECTIVES

A β2-microglobulin (β2m) fragment that lacks the first six amino acids, i.e., ΔN6β2-microglobulin (ΔN6β2m), is an endogenous, proteolytically derived, amyloidogenic fragment of β2m, the precursor protein in Aβ2M amyloidosis (dialysis-related amyloidosis). As reports suggest the importance of C-terminal unfolding for the amyloidogenicity of β2m, in this study we aimed to investigate conformational characteristics of ΔN6β2m related to amyloidogenicity. We also measured the concentration of an amyloidogenic intermediate of β2m with C-terminal unfolding (β2m92-99) in serum samples from 10 patients undergoing hemodialysis (HD).

METHODS

We utilized capillary electrophoretic analysis, surface plasmon resonance and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

We confirmed the normal core structure of ΔN6β2m with a commercial monoclonal anti-β2m antibody. In addition, using the specific monoclonal antibody for the C-terminal peptide, i.e. mAb 92-99, we confirmed unfolding in the C-terminal region of ΔN6β2m. On the basis of these findings, we established an ELISA to measure β2m92-99 using ΔN6β2m as a standard molecule in circulation. However, we did not detect β2m92-99 in serum from 10 HD patients, despite the absence of uremic inhibitors in the serum.

Native-state heterogeneity of β(2)-microglobulin as revealed by kinetic folding and real-time NMR experiments

The kinetic folding of β(2)-microglobulin from the acid-denatured state was investigated by interrupted-unfolding and interrupted-refolding experiments using stopped-flow double-jump techniques. In the interrupted unfolding, we first unfolded the protein by a pH jump from pH7.5 to pH2.0, and the kinetic refolding assay was carried out by the reverse pH jump by monitoring tryptophan fluorescence. Similarly, in the interrupted refolding, we first refolded the protein by a pH jump from pH2.0 to pH7.5 and used a guanidine hydrochloride (GdnHCl) concentration jump as well as the reverse pH jump as unfolding assays. Based on these experiments, the folding is represented by a parallel-pathway model, in which the molecule with the correct Pro32 cis isomer refolds rapidly with a rate constant of 5-6 s(-1), while the molecule with the Pro32 trans isomer refolds more slowly (pH7.5 and 25°C). At the last step of folding, the native-like trans conformer produced on the latter pathway isomerizes very slowly (0.001-0.002 s(-1)) into the native cis conformer. In the GdnHCl-induced unfolding assays in the interrupted refolding, the native-like trans conformer unfolded remarkably faster than the native cis conformer, and the direct GdnHCl-induced unfolding was also biphasic, indicating that the native-like trans conformer is populated at a significant level under the native condition. The one-dimensional NMR and the real-time NMR experiments of refolding further indicated that the population of the trans conformer increases up to 7-9% under a more physiological condition (pH7.5 and 37°C).

Capillary electrophoretic profile of β2-microglobulin intermediate associated with hemodialysis

We previously identified an intermediate β(2)-microglobulin (I-β(2) m), which is an amyloidogenic β(2) m variant, via capillary electrophoresis (CE) and reported hemodialysis (HD)-associated variations in the serum concentrations of each β(2) m component, including that found in the rebound phase. Recent research has indicated that I-β(2) m can bind, via the SO(3)(-) moiety, with glycosaminoglycan or proteoglycan, which are major components of interstitial tissue. Because alterations in I-β(2) m are likely to be important in view of the possible accumulation of amyloidogenic precursor proteins in the interstitial space, we studied the I-β(2) m profile as related to HD. We used CE to determine the I-β(2) m profile both at the start and at the end of HD and during the rebound phase in 12 HD patients. We found both an unfolded β(2) m and a destructured I-β(2) m. More important, two peaks appeared in the rebound phase, one suggesting a refolding and one suggesting an irreversible destruction. Given that the intercompartmental transfer coefficient for β(2) m is 1.0, our results indicated concomitant processes occurring after HD: refolding of the β(2) m conformation and trapping of destructured I-β(2) m in the extravascular space. Because the trapping of destructured I-β(2) m supposedly leads to accumulation of β(2) m in the interstitial space, we have proposed a new concept-a "shuttle" concept-for amyloid formation from β(2) m in the HD setting.

Monomeric α-synuclein binds Congo Red micelles in a disordered manner

The histological dye Congo Red (CR) previously has been shown to inhibit α-synuclein (aS) fibrillation, but the mode of this inhibition remained unclear. Because of favorable exchange kinetics, interaction between CR and aS lends itself to a detailed nuclear magnetic resonance study, and relaxation dispersion measurements yield the bound fraction and time scales for the interaction of aS with CR. We find that at pH 6, CR exists as a micelle, and at a CR:aS molar ratio of ∼1, only a small fraction of aS (∼2%) is bound to these micelles. Rapid exchange (k_ex ∼ 3000 s^–1) between the free and CR-bound states broadens and strongly attenuates resonances of aS by two processes: a magnetic field-dependent contribution, caused by the chemical shift difference between the two states, and a nearly field-independent contribution caused by slower tumbling of aS bound to the CR micelle. The salt dependence of the interaction suggests a predominantly electrostatic mechanism for the 60 N-terminal residues, while the weaker interaction between residues 61–100 and CR is mostly hydrophobic. Chemical shift and transferred NOE data indicate that aS becomes slightly more helical but remains largely disordered when bound to CR. Results indicate that inhibition of fibril formation does not result from binding of CR to free aS and, therefore, must result from interaction of aS fibrils or protofibrils with CR micelles.

Influence of the electric field on supramolecular structure and properties of amyloid-specific reagent Congo red

Among specific amyloid ligands, Congo red and its analogues are often considered potential therapeutic compounds. However, the results of the studies so far have not been univocal because the properties of this dye, derived mostly from its supramolecular nature, are still poorly understood. The supramolecular structure of Congo red, formed by π–π stacking of dye molecules, is susceptible to the influence of the electric field, which may significantly facilitate electron delocalization. Consequently, the electric field may generate altered physico-chemical properties of the dye. Enhanced electron delocalization, induced by the electric field, alters the total charge of Congo red, making the dye more acidic (negatively charged). This is a consequence of withdrawing electrons from polar substituents of aromatic rings—sulfonic and amino groups—thus increasing their tendency to dissociate protons. The electric field-induced charge alteration observed in electrophoresis depends on dye concentration. This concentration-dependent charge alteration effect disappears when the supramolecular structure disintegrates in DMSO. Dipoles formed from supramolecular fibrillar species in the electric field become ordered in the solution, introducing the modified arrangement to liquid crystalline phase. Experimental results and theoretical studies provide evidence confirming predictions that the supramolecular character of Congo red is the main reason for its specific properties and reactivity.

A combined high-resolution mass spectrometric and in silico approach for the characterisation of small ligands of beta2-microglobulin

Beta(2)-microglobulin (beta(2)-m) is a protein responsible for a severe complication of long-term hemodialysis, known as dialysis-related amyloidosis, in which initial beta(2)-m misfolding leads to amyloid fibril deposition, mainly in the skeletal tissue. Whereas much attention is paid to understanding the complex mechanism of amyloid formation, the evaluation of small molecules that may bind beta(2)-m and possibly inhibit the aggregation process is still largely unexplored mainly because the protein lacks a specific active site. Based on our previous findings, we selected a pilot set of sulfonated molecules that are known to either bind or not to the protein, including binders that are anti-amyloidogenic. We show how a complementary approach, using high-resolution mass spectrometry and in silico studies, can offer rapid and precise information on affinity, as well as insight into the structural requisites that favour or disfavour the inhibitory activity. Overall, this approach can be used for predictive purposes and for a rapid screening of fibrillogenesis inhibitors.

Capillary electrophoresis in drug discovery

The several advantages that capillary electrophoresis (CE) offers in the study of protein folding, protein-ligand and protein-protein interactions, render this methodology appealing in several areas. In this chapter, a specific example is reported, where the use of affinity CE (ACE) in drug discovery is particularly advantageous over other separative and spectroscopic techniques. ACE is an analytical approach in which the migration patterns of interacting molecules in an electric field are recorded and used to identify specific binding and to estimate binding constants. A library of compounds has been tested, in free solution and with minimum sample consumption, for the affinity to two targets previously separated by CE, the native form and the partially structured intermediate of the folding of beta(2)-microglobulin (beta(2)-m) [Chiti et al. (J. Biol. Chem. 276:46714-46721, 2001), Quaglia et al. (Electrophoresis 26:4055-4063, 2005)]. beta(2)-m is an intrinsically amyloidogenic protein, and its tendency to misfold is responsible for dialysis-related amyloidosis, an unavoidable complication of chronic haemodialysed patients. The criteria for choosing the compounds to be screened, the method conditions, and the possible data analysis strategies are detailed and discussed in this chapter.

Analysis of proteins in solution using affinity capillary electrophoresis

Analysis of protein interactions by means of capillary electrophoresis (CE) has unique challenges and rewards. The choice of analysis conditions, especially involving electrophoresis buffers, are crucial and not universal for protein analysis. If conditions for analysis can be worked out, it is possible to utilize CE quantitatively and qualitatively to characterize protein-ligand binding involving unmodified molecules in solution and taking place under physiological conditions. This chapter deals with the most important practical considerations in capillary electrophoretic affinity approaches, affinity CE (ACE). The text emphasizes the most critical factors for successful analyses and has application examples illustrating various types of information offered by ACE-based studies. Also included are step-by-step accounts of the two main classes of experimental design: the pre-equilibration ACE (in the form of CE-frontal analysis (CE-FA)) and mobility shift ACE together with examples of their use. The ACE approaches for binding assays of proteins should be considered when the biological material is scarce, when any kind of labeling is not possible or desired, when the interacting molecules are the same size and when rapid and simple method development is a priority.

On the application of CZE to the study of protein denaturation

Experimental mobilities obtained from CZE are used to study protein denaturation through a model based on known physicochemical theories. This model is able to provide additional information concerning the folded and unfolded protein states from mobility data. Its use comprises first the evaluation of relevant parameters of the protein microstates like the electrostatic free energy, apart from the classical conformational free energy, and second the expression of raw experimental data concerning the folding-unfolding transition into more specific physicochemical parameters like protein hydrodynamic radius, net charge number, and hydration. Spurious effects that are intrinsic to the experimental evaluation of the mobility of protein states, like BGE viscosity, pH, and ionic strength variations accompanying the changes of the denaturant agent intensity are eliminated. In order to illustrate the proposal of this work, two case studies are considered here. The first one concerns thermal and urea denaturations of horse heart ferricytochrome c and the second one involves thermal denaturation of hen egg-white lysozyme. Thus, relevant theoretical thermodynamic considerations of the folded-unfolded protein transition are presented, where the electrostatic free energy is included explicitly in the effective free energy. It is found that this transition involves sharp increases of hydrodynamic radius and protein hydration.

Variants of beta-microglobulin cleaved at lysine-58 retain the main conformational features of the native protein but are more conformationally heterogeneous and unstable at physiological temperature

Cleavage of the small amyloidogenic protein beta2-microglobulin after lysine-58 renders it more prone to unfolding and aggregation. This is important for dialysis-related beta2-microglobulin amyloidosis, since elevated levels of cleaved beta2-microglobulin may be found in the circulation of dialysis patients. However, the solution structures of these cleaved beta2-microglobulin variants have not yet been assessed using single-residue techniques. We here use such methods to examine beta2-microglobulin cleaved after lysine-58 and the further processed variant (found in vivo) from which lysine-58 is removed. We find that the solution stability of both variants, especially of beta2-microglobulin from which lysine-58 is removed, is much reduced compared to wild-type beta2-microglobulin and is strongly dependent on temperature and protein concentration. 1H-NMR spectroscopy and amide hydrogen (1H/2H) exchange monitored by MS show that the overall three-dimensional structure of the variants is similar to that of wild-type beta2-microglobulin at subphysiological temperatures. However, deviations do occur, especially in the arrangement of the B, D and E beta-strands close to the D-E loop cleavage site at lysine-58, and the experiments suggest conformational heterogeneity of the two variants. Two-dimensional NMR spectroscopy indicates that this heterogeneity involves an equilibrium between the native-like fold and at least one conformational intermediate resembling intermediates found in other structurally altered beta2-microglobulin molecules. This is the first single-residue resolution study of a specific beta2-microglobulin variant that has been found circulating in dialysis patients. The instability and conformational heterogeneity of this variant suggest its involvement in beta2-microglobulin amyloidogenicity in vivo.

Bioanalytical interaction studies executed by preincubation affinity capillary electrophoresis

The versatility of CE is beneficial for the study of many types of molecular interactions, because different experimental designs can be made to suit the characteristics of a particular interaction. A very versatile starting point is the preequilibration type of affinity CE that has been used extensively for characterizing biomolecular interactions in the last 15 years. We review this field here and include a comprehensive overview of the existing preincubation ACE modes including their advantages and limitations as well as the methodological developments and applications within the bioanalytical field.

A novel specific heparin-binding activity of bovine folate-binding protein characterized by capillary electrophoresis

Folate-binding proteins (FBPs) are ubiquitous, soluble and membrane-bound high-affinity receptors for folate, an essential nutrient involved in nucleic and amino acid metabolism. In the course of optimizing CE separation conditions for FBP purified from cow's milk we discovered a novel specific heparin-binding activity of FBP by affinity CE. Heparin is a highly sulfated glycosaminoglycan and thus prone to induce anodic migration shifts of complexing analytes. Prior complexation of FBP with folate abolished heparin binding, and thus folate competes with heparin for binding to FBP. It was estimated that heparin bound several orders of magnitude less strongly than folate with an average dissociation constant in the 1-10 microM range. In contrast to the mobility shifts induced by heparin, free and folate-bound FBP were not separated by CE. However, binding of folate induced a distinct increase in FBP-peak symmetry, and using heparin as an affinity displacer, the free FBP in equilibrium with folate-FBP complexes could readily be separated from the complexes. While the folate-FBP interaction was too strong to be characterized quantitatively because of inadequate detection limits of a UV-based detection system, it was possible to estimate the folate-FBP binding stoichiometry using this approach. The heparin interaction fractionated FBP into distinct subfractions, and the CE approach thus promises to be useful for unraveling the complex oligomerization behavior of FBP isoforms as well as for evaluating the FBP affinity for various species and analogs of glycosaminoglycans and folate.

Search of ligands for the amyloidogenic protein beta2-microglobulin by capillary electrophoresis and other techniques

Beta2-microglobulin (beta2-m) is a small amyloidogenic protein normally present on the surface of most nucleated cells and responsible for dialysis-related amyloidosis, which represents a severe complication of long-term hemodialysis. A therapeutic approach for this amyloidosis could be based on the stabilization of beta2-m through the binding to a small molecule, and consequent inhibition of protein misfolding and amyloid fibril formation. A few compounds have been described to weakly bind beta2-m, including the drug suramin. The lack of a binding site for nonpolypeptidic ligands on the beta2-m structure makes it difficult for both the identification of functional groups responsible for the binding and the search of hits to be optimized. The characterization of the binding properties of suramin for beta2-m by using three different techniques (surface plasmon resonance, affinity CE (ACE), ultrafiltration) is here described and the results obtained are compared. The common features of the chemical structures of the compounds known to bind the protein led us to select 200 sulfonated/suramin-like molecules from a wider chemical library on the basis of similarity rules, so as to possibly single out some interesting hits and to gain more information on the functional groups involved in the binding. The development of screening methods to test the compounds by using ultrafiltration and ACE is described.

Interactions of charged ligands with β2-microglobulin conformers in affinity capillary electrophoresis

Alternative conformations of beta(2)-microglobulin (beta(2)m) are involved in its transformation from soluble monomeric precursor molecules to the insoluble polymeric material that constitutes beta(2)m amyloid. Accordingly, non-native conditions such as low pH or high ionic strength promote beta(2)m amyloid formation in vitro. The early events in these processes are not well known, partly because of the paucity of techniques available for the characterization of transient folding intermediates in proteins. We have used high-resolution separations in capillaries (capillary electrophoresis, CE) to resolve putative conformer fractions in native and structurally modified beta(2)m and to show the induction of alternatively folded beta(2)m under different experimental conditions. The conformer fractions are observed as distinct peaks in the separation profiles and thus it is possible to probe for the reactivity of these individual beta(2)m species with specific ligands that, upon binding, alter analyte mobility in affinity capillary electrophoresis experiments. Interactions were shown in this way for the negatively charged substances heparin, Congo red, and suramin, as well as for Cu(2+) ions. Marked differences in the binding behavior of the beta(2)m conformational variants compared with native beta(2)m could be demonstrated. This approach for conformer separation and binding characterization is a valuable starting point for the assessment of various ligand molecules, or analogues thereof, as agents capable of perturbing the mechanisms of fibril formation.

Structural and conformational variants of human beta2-microglobulin characterized by capillary electrophoresis and complementary separation methods

The small (Mr = 11729) serum protein beta2-microglobulin is prone to precipitate as amyloid in a protein conformational disorder (PCD) that occurs in a significant number of patients on chronic hemodialysis. Analyses by capillary electrophoresis (CE) were undertaken to study beta2-microglobulin conformations under native separation conditions and showed an apparent heterogeneity of purified preparations when the sample matrix included organic solvents such as acetonitrile, trifluoroethanol and ethanol. We here present LC-MS, CE-MS, and CE studies of changes of separation profiles as a function of capillary temperature, organic solvent concentration, and analysis time. The results suggest that the apparent beta2-microglobulin heterogeneity observed by CE is caused by two distinct protein conformations that are present in beta2-microglobulin under partly denaturing conditions and that Met99-oxidized and normal (i.e. nonoxidized) beta2-microglobulin behave similarly with respect to the potential to attain this alternative conformation. CE is an attractive method to study early and intermediate soluble folding variants that may be involved in PCDs and CE thus may have an important role as a tool for understanding other PCDs characterized by amyloid deposition.

Congo red populates partially unfolded states of an amyloidogenic protein to enhance aggregation and amyloid fibril formation

Congo red (CR) has been reported to inhibit or enhance amyloid fibril formation by several proteins. To gain insight into the mechanism(s) for these apparently paradoxical effects, we studied as a model amyloidogenic protein, a dimeric immunoglobulin light chain variable domain. With a range of molar ratios of CR, i.e. r = [CR]/[protein dimer], we investigated the aggregation kinetics, conformation, hydrogen-deuterium exchange, and thermal stability of the protein. In addition, we used isothermal titration calorimetry to characterize the thermodynamics of CR binding to the protein. During incubation at 37 degrees C or during thermal scanning, with CR at r = 0.3, 1.3, and 4.8, protein aggregation was greatly accelerated compared with that measured in the absence of the dye. In contrast, with CR at r = 8.8, protein unfolding was favored over aggregation. The aggregates formed with CR at r = 0 or 0.3 were typical amyloid fibrils, but mixtures of amyloid fibrils and amorphous aggregates were formed at r = 1.3 and 4.8. CR decreased the apparent thermal unfolding temperature of the protein. Furthermore, CR perturbed the tertiary structure of the protein without significantly altering its secondary structure. Consistent with this result, CR also increased the rate of hydrogen-deuterium exchange by the protein. Isothermal titration calorimetry showed that CR binding to the protein was enthalpically driven, indicating that binding was mainly the result of electrostatic interactions. Overall, these results demonstrate that at low concentrations, CR binding to the protein favors a structurally perturbed, aggregation-competent species, resulting in acceleration of fibril formation. At high CR concentration, protein unfolding is favored over aggregation, and fibril formation is inhibited. Because low concentrations of CR can promote amyloid fibril formation, the therapeutic utility of this compound or its analogs to inhibit amyloidoses is questionable.

Cleaved beta 2-microglobulin partially attains a conformation that has amyloidogenic features

beta(2)-Microglobulin, a small protein localized in serum and on cell surfaces, can adopt specific aggregating conformations that generate amyloid in tissues and joints as a complication to long-term hemodialysis. We characterize a proteolytic variant of beta(2)-microglobulin (cleaved after Lys(58)) that as a trimmed form (Lys(58) is removed) can be demonstrated in the circulation in patients with chronic disease. An unexpected electrophoretic heterogeneity of these two cleaved variants was demonstrated by capillary electrophoresis under physiological conditions. Each separated into a fast and a slow component while appearing homogeneous, except for a fraction of oxidized species detected by other techniques. The two components had different binding affinities for heparin and for the amyloid-specific dye Congo red, and the equilibrium between the two forms was dependent on solvent conditions. Together with analysis of the differences in circular dichroism, the results suggest that beta(2)-microglobulin cleaved after Lys(58) readily adopts two equilibrium conformations under native conditions. In the cleaved and trimmed beta(2)-microglobulin that appears in vivo, the less populated conformation is characterized by an increased affinity for Congo red. These observations may help elucidate why beta(2)-microglobulin polymerizes as amyloid in chronic hemodialysis and facilitate the search for means to inhibit this process.

Applications of on-line weak affinity interactions in free solution capillary electrophoresis

The impressive selectivity offered by capillary electrophoresis can in some cases be further increased when ligands or additives that engage in weak affinity interactions with one or more of the separated analytes are added to the electrophoresis buffer. This on-line affinity capillary electrophoresis approach is feasible when the migration of complexed molecules is different from the migration of free molecules and when separation conditions are nondenaturing. In this review, we focus on applying weak interactions as tools to enhance the separation of closely related molecules, e.g., drug enantiomers and on using capillary electrophoresis to characterize such interactions quantitatively. We describe the equations for binding isotherms, illustrate how selectivity can be manipulated by varying the additive concentrations, and show how the methods may be used to estimate binding constants. On-line affinity capillary electrophoresis methods are especially valuable for enantiomeric separations and for functional characterization of the contents of biological samples that are only available in minute quantities.

Capillary electrophoresis investigation of a partially unfolded conformation of beta(2)-microglobulin

Dialysis-related amyloidosis is a disease in which partial unfolding of beta(2)-microglobulin plays a key pathogenetic role in the formation of the amyloid fibrils. We have recently demonstrated that a partially unfolded conformer of beta(2)-microglobulin is involved in fibrillogenesis and that this species is significantly populated under physiological conditions. In this work capillary electrophoresis has been used to measure the equilibrium between the native protein and this conformer in samples known to have a higher or lower amyloidogenic potential, namely full-length beta(2)-microglobulin, two truncated species and a mutant, created by replacing histidine in position 31 with thyrosine. In addition, for all protein species folding stability experiments have been carried out by monitoring the secondary structure by circular dichroism at increasing concentrations of guanidinium chloride. The values of free energy of unfolding in the absence of denaturant, obtained by elaboration of these experiments, were found to be inversely correlated to the area percent of the partially unfolded conformer, as measured by capillary electrophoresis. Affinity capillary electrophoresis experiments have been also carried out under nondenaturing conditions to assess the affinity of copper and suramin to either the native form or the conformational intermediate of full-length beta(2)-microglobulin.

Determination of the affinity constants of recombinant human galectin-1 and -3 for simple saccharides by capillary affinophoresis

The affinity constants of recombinant human galectin-1 and galectin-3 for sugars were determined by capillary affinophoresis. The monoliganded affinophore contains p-aminophenyl-beta-lactoside as an affinity ligand in the matrix of succinylglutathione and has three negative charges. An analysis of the mobility change of the lectins caused by the affinophore and its inhibition by neutral sugars allowed, for the first time, a determination of the affinity constants between the binding sites of the lectins and sugars. The relative magnitude of the affinity constants for each of the sugars in terms of dissociation constants found to be consistent with previously reported data on the concentrations of sugars that caused a 50% inhibition (I50) in the binding assay of the lectin to oligosaccharide-immobilized agarose beads but the absolute values of the dissociation constants were considerably smaller than the I50 values. Capillary affinophoresis indicated microheterogeneity of the lectin preparations and enabled the separate analysis of the affinity of each component simultaneously showing the advantage in using a separation method for analysis of bioaffinity.

Multiple advantages of capillary zone electrophoresis for exploring protein conformational stability

This review summarizes the work of our laboratory to explore the use of capillary zone electrophoretic (CZE) methods for the investigation of protein conformational stability. Early CZE works on protein denaturation as well as fundamental and theoretical considerations are discussed. Instrumental aspects of the CE-based approach including general and particular CE requirements are documented. Several aspects dealing with estimation of stability of enzymes (cholinesterases and organophosphate-hydrolyzing enzymes) interacting with organophosphates profusely illustrate the multiple advantages of CZE. The discrimination of parameters controlling the "good compromise" stability/plasticity for allowing functional efficiency of these enzymes is exemplified. Thermal stability, susceptibility to high electric field, alteration of stability by bound ligands and the role of associated cations in metalloenzymes have been successfully investigated.

A partially structured species of beta 2-microglobulin is significantly populated under physiological conditions and involved in fibrillogenesis

The folding of beta(2)-microglobulin (beta(2)-m), the protein forming amyloid deposits in dialysis-related amyloidosis, involves formation of a partially folded conformation named I(2), which slowly converts into the native fold, N. Here we show that the partially folded species I(2) can be separated from N by capillary electrophoresis. Data obtained with this technique and analysis of kinetic data obtained with intrinsic fluorescence indicate that the I(2) conformation is populated to approximately 14 +/- 8% at equilibrium under conditions of pH and temperature close to physiological. In the presence of fibrils extracted from patients, the I(2) conformer has a 5-fold higher propensity to aggregate than N, as indicated by the thioflavine T test and light scattering measurements. A mechanism of aggregation of beta(2)-m in vivo involving the association of the preformed fibrils with the fraction of I(2) existing at equilibrium is proposed from these results. The possibility of isolating and quantifying a partially folded conformer of beta(2)-m involved in the amyloidogenesis process provides new opportunities to monitor hemodialytic procedures aimed at the reduction of such species from the pool of circulating beta(2)-m but also to design new pharmaceutical approaches that consider such species as a putative molecular target.

Capillary electrophoresis of proteins 1999-2001

This review article with 223 references describes recent developments in capillary electrophoresis (CE) of proteins and covers papers published during last two years, from the previous review (V. Dolnik, Electrophoresis 1999, 20, 3106-3115) through Spring 2001. It describes the topics related to CE of proteins including modeling of the electrophoretic properties of proteins, sample pretreatment, wall coatings, improving selectivity, detection, special electrophoretic techniques, and applications.

Monitoring folding/unfolding transitions of proteins by capillary zone electrophoresis: measurement of deltaG and its variation along the pH scale

Free-solution capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) can be used to monitor folding/unfolding transitions of proteins and to construct the classical sigmoidal transition curve describing this isomerization process. By performing a series of CZE experiments along the pH scale (here between pH 2.5 and 6.0) it is possible to measure the parameter [urea]1/2, which represents the concentration of urea at the midpoint of each transition curve, and its dependence from the local pH value. The [urea]1/2 parameter provides an idea of the stability of the protein at a given pH; in the case of cytochrome c, for example, it shows that at and below pH 2 the protein will spontaneously unfold even in the absence of a denaturant. The equation describing the sigmoidal folding/unfolding transition can be used for deriving the term deltaG degrees, which refers to the intrinsic difference in the Gibb's free energy between the (total or partial) denatured state and the reference state, taken usually as the native configuration of a protein. The variation of deltaG degrees between the two extremes of our measurements (pH 2.5 and 6.0) along the stated pH interval has been measured (and theoretically calculated) to be of the order of 7-10 kcal/mol and is here interpreted by assuming that at pH 2.5 and below there is an additionally stretching of the polypeptide coil due to coulombic repulsion, as the unfolded chain looses its zwitterionic character and assumes a pure (or very nearly so) cationic surface. Given the minute amounts of sample required, the fully automated state of the analysis, the rapidity and ease of operation, it is hoped that the CZE technique will become more and more popular in the years to come for monitoring folding/unfolding transitions of proteins.

Conformational intermediate of the amyloidogenic protein beta 2-microglobulin at neutral pH

Aggregation and fibrillation of beta(2)-microglobulin are hallmarks of dialysis-related amyloidosis. We characterize perturbations of the native conformation of beta(2)-microglobulin that may precede fibril formation. For a beta(2)-microglobulin variant cleaved at lysine 58, we show using capillary electrophoresis that two conformers spontaneously exist in aqueous buffers at neutral pH. Upon treatment of wild-type beta(2)-microglobulin with acetonitrile or trifluoroethanol, two conformations were also observed. These conformations were in equilibrium dependent on the sample temperature and the percentage of organic solvent present. Circular dichroism showed a loss of beta-structures and gain of alpha-helices. Reversal to the native conformation occurred when removing the organics. Affinity capillary electrophoresis experiments showed increased specific interactions of the nonnative beta(2)-microglobulin conformation with the dyes 8-anilino-1-naphthalene sulfonic acid and Congo red. The observations may relate to early folding events prior to amyloid fibrillation and facilitate the development of methods to detect and inhibit pro-amyloid protein and peptide conformations.

Folding/unfolding/refolding of proteins: present methodologies in comparison with capillary zone electrophoresis

A series of techniques for monitoring protein folding/unfolding/misfolding equilibria are here assessed and compared with capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE). They include spectroscopic techniques, such as circular dichroism, intrinsic fluorescence, nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier transform infrared and Raman spectroscopy, small-angle X-ray scattering, as well as techniques based on biological assays, such as limited proteolysis and immunochemical analysis of different conformational states. Some unusual probes, such as mass spectrometry for probing unfolding transitions, are also discussed. Size-exclusion chromatography is also evaluated in view of the fact that this technique, like all electrophoretic techniques, and unlike spectroscopic probes, which can only see an average signal in mixed populations, can indeed physically separate folded vs. unfolded macromolecules, especially in the case of slow equilibria. Particular emphasis is devoted to electrophoretic techniques, such as gel-slab electrophoresis in transverse urea or thermal gradients, and CZE. In the latter case, a number of applications are shown, demonstrating the excellent correlation of CZE with more traditional probes, such as intrinsic fluorescence monitoring. It is additionally shown that CZE can be used for measuring the deltaG degrees of unfolding over the pH scale, in good agreement with theoretical calculations on the electrostatic free energy of folding vs. pH, as calculated with a linearized Poisson-Boltzmann equation. Finally, it is demonstrated that CZE can probe also aggregate formation in the presence of helix-inducing agents, such as trifluorethanol.

Is Congo red an amyloid-specific dye?

Congo red (CR) binding, monitored by characteristic yellow-green birefringence under crossed polarization has been used as a diagnostic test for the presence of amyloid in tissue sections for several decades. This assay is also widely used for the characterization of in vitro amyloid fibrils. In order to probe the structural specificity of Congo red binding to amyloid fibrils we have used an induced circular dichroism (CD) assay. Amyloid fibrils from insulin and the variable domain of Ig light chain demonstrate induced CD spectra upon binding to Congo red. Surprisingly, the native conformations of insulin and Ig light chain also induced Congo red circular dichroism, but with different spectral shapes than those from fibrils. In fact, a wide variety of native proteins exhibited induced CR circular dichroism indicating that CR bound to representative proteins from different classes of secondary structure such as alpha (citrate synthase), alpha + beta (lysozyme), beta (concavalin A), and parallel beta-helical proteins (pectate lyase). Partially folded intermediates of apomyoglobin induced different Congo red CD bands than the corresponding native conformation, however, no induced CD bands were observed with unfolded protein. Congo red was also found to induce oligomerization of native proteins, as demonstrated by covalent cross-linking and small angle x-ray scattering. Our data suggest that Congo red is sandwiched between two protein molecules causing protein oligomerization. The fact that Congo red binds to native, partially folded conformations and amyloid fibrils of several proteins shows that it must be used with caution as a diagnostic test for the presence of amyloid fibrils in vitro.