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Fast Detection of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene (TNT) at ppt Level by a Laser-Induced Immunofluorometric Biosensor. BIOSENSORS-BASEL 2020; 10:bios10080089. [PMID: 32764236 PMCID: PMC7460505 DOI: 10.3390/bios10080089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The illegal use of explosives by terrorists and other criminals is an increasing issue in public spaces, such as airports, railway stations, highways, sports venues, theaters, and other large buildings. Security in these environments can be achieved by different means, including the installation of scanners and other analytical devices to detect ultra-small traces of explosives in a very short time-frame to be able to take action as early as possible to prevent the detonation of such devices. Unfortunately, an ideal explosive detection system still does not exist, which means that a compromise is needed in practice. Most detection devices lack the extreme analytical sensitivity, which is nevertheless necessary due to the low vapor pressure of nearly all explosives. In addition, the rate of false positives needs to be virtually zero, which is also very difficult to achieve. Here we present an immunosensor system based on kinetic competition, which is known to be very fast and may even overcome affinity limitation, which impairs the performance of many traditional competitive assays. This immunosensor consists of a monolithic glass column with a vast excess of immobilized hapten, which traps the fluorescently labeled antibody as long as no explosive is present. In the case of the explosive 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), some binding sites of the antibody will be blocked, which leads to an immediate breakthrough of the labeled protein, detectable by highly sensitive laser-induced fluorescence with the help of a Peltier-cooled complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) camera. Liquid handling is performed with high-precision syringe pumps and chip-based mixing-devices and flow-cells. The system achieved limits of detection of 1 pM (1 ppt) of the fluorescent label and around 100 pM (20 ppt) of TNT. The total assay time is less than 8 min. A cross-reactivity test with 5000 pM solutions showed no signal by pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), 1,3,5-trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), and octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX). This immunosensor belongs to the most sensitive and fastest detectors for TNT with no significant cross-reactivity by non-related compounds. The consumption of the labeled antibody is surprisingly low: 1 mg of the reagent would be sufficient for more than one year of continuous biosensor operation.
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2
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Ijaz M, Aftab M, Afsheen S, Iqbal T. Novel Au nano-grating for detection of water in various electrolytes. APPLIED NANOSCIENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s13204-020-01520-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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3
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Dettlaff A, Jakóbczyk P, Ficek M, Wilk B, Szala M, Wojtas J, Ossowski T, Bogdanowicz R. Electrochemical determination of nitroaromatic explosives at boron-doped diamond/graphene nanowall electrodes: 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene and 2,4,6-trinitroanisole in liquid effluents. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2020; 387:121672. [PMID: 31753664 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2019] [Revised: 11/09/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The study is devoted to the electrochemical detection of trace explosives on boron-doped diamond/graphene nanowall electrodes (B:DGNW). The electrodes were fabricated in a one-step growth process using chemical vapour deposition without any additional modifications. The electrochemical investigations were focused on the determination of the important nitroaromatic explosive compounds, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and 2,4,6-trinitroanisole (TNA). The distinct reduction peaks of both studied compounds were observed regardless of the pH value of the solution. The reduction peak currents were linearly related to the concentration of TNT and TNA in the range from 0.05-15 ppm. Nevertheless, two various linear trends were observed, attributed respectively to the adsorption processes at low concentrations up to the diffusional character of detection for larger contamination levels. The limit of detection of TNT and TNA is equal to 73 ppb and 270 ppb, respectively. Moreover, the proposed detection strategy has been applied under real conditions with a significant concentration of interfering compounds - in landfill leachates. The proposed bare B:DGNW electrodes were revealed to have a high electroactive area towards the voltammetric determination of various nitroaromatic compounds with a high rate of repeatability, thus appearing to be an attractive nanocarbon surface for further applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Dettlaff
- Gdańsk University of Technology, Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland.
| | - P Jakóbczyk
- Gdańsk University of Technology, Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - M Ficek
- Gdańsk University of Technology, Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - B Wilk
- Gdańsk University of Technology, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - M Szala
- Military University of Technology, S. Kaliskiego 2, 00-908, Warsaw, Poland
| | - J Wojtas
- Military University of Technology, S. Kaliskiego 2, 00-908, Warsaw, Poland
| | - T Ossowski
- University of Gdańsk, Faculty of Chemistry, Bażyńskiego 8, 80-309, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - R Bogdanowicz
- Gdańsk University of Technology, Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics, Narutowicza 11/12, 80-233, Gdańsk, Poland
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Alipour M, Zeinoddini M, Saeeidinia A. Anti-Trinitrotoluene Aptamers: Design, Functional Assessment and Optimization. APPL BIOCHEM MICRO+ 2018. [DOI: 10.1134/s0003683818060030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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5
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A High Aspect Ratio Bifurcated 128-Microchannel Microfluidic Device for Environmental Monitoring of Explosives. SENSORS 2018; 18:s18051568. [PMID: 29762499 PMCID: PMC5982650 DOI: 10.3390/s18051568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Revised: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Design and evolution of explosives monitoring and detection platforms to address the challenges of trace level chemical identification have led investigations into the use of intricately designed microfluidic devices. Microfluidic devices are unique tools that possess distinct characteristics that, when designed properly and configured with optical and fluidic components, can produce detection platforms with unmatched performance levels. Herein, we report the design, fabrication and integration of a bifurcated high aspect ratio microfluidic device containing 128 microchannels (40 mm × 40 μm × 250 μm; L × W × H) for explosives detection at trace levels. Aspect ratios measuring >6:1 support improved receptor-target molecule interactions, higher throughput and extremely low limits of detection (LOD). In addition to superior assay sensitivity, the bifurcated microfluidic device provides greater durability and versatility for substrate modification. Using the explosive 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) as the model compound in a fluorescence-based displacement immunoassay, we report LODs for TNT at 10 parts-per-trillion (pptr) using a neutravidin-coated biotinylated anti-TNT microfluidic device. Solution to wall interactions were also simulated in COMSOL Multiphysics to understand fluid flow characteristics. Reynolds numbers were calculated to be 0.27⁻2.45 with a maximum pressure of 1.2 × 10-2 psi.
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6
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Long Y, Wang Y, Du X, Cheng L, Wu P, Jiang Y. The Different Sensitive Behaviors of a Hydrogen-Bond Acidic Polymer-Coated SAW Sensor for Chemical Warfare Agents and Their Simulants. SENSORS 2015. [PMID: 26225975 PMCID: PMC4570322 DOI: 10.3390/s150818302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A linear hydrogen-bond acidic (HBA) linear functionalized polymer (PLF), was deposited onto a bare surface acoustic wave (SAW) device to fabricate a chemical sensor. Real-time responses of the sensor to a series of compounds including sarin (GB), dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP), mustard gas (HD), chloroethyl ethyl sulphide (2-CEES), 1,5-dichloropentane (DCP) and some organic solvents were studied. The results show that the sensor is highly sensitive to GB and DMMP, and has low sensitivity to HD and DCP, as expected. However, the sensor possesses an unexpected high sensitivity toward 2-CEES. This good sensing performance can’t be solely or mainly attributed to the dipole-dipole interaction since the sensor is not sensitive to some high polarity solvents. We believe the lone pair electrons around the sulphur atom of 2-CEES provide an electron-rich site, which facilitates the formation of hydrogen bonding between PLF and 2-CEES. On the contrary, the electron cloud on the sulphur atom of the HD molecule is offset or depleted by its two neighbouring strong electron-withdrawing groups, hence, hydrogen bonding can hardly be formed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin Long
- State Key Laboratory of Electronic Thin Films and Integrated Devices, School of Optoelectronic Information, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC), Chengdu 610054, China.
| | - Yang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Electronic Thin Films and Integrated Devices, School of Optoelectronic Information, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC), Chengdu 610054, China.
| | - Xiaosong Du
- State Key Laboratory of Electronic Thin Films and Integrated Devices, School of Optoelectronic Information, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC), Chengdu 610054, China.
| | - Luhua Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Electronic Thin Films and Integrated Devices, School of Optoelectronic Information, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC), Chengdu 610054, China.
| | - Penglin Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Electronic Thin Films and Integrated Devices, School of Optoelectronic Information, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC), Chengdu 610054, China.
| | - Yadong Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Electronic Thin Films and Integrated Devices, School of Optoelectronic Information, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (UESTC), Chengdu 610054, China.
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Pesenti A, Taudte RV, McCord B, Doble P, Roux C, Blanes L. Coupling paper-based microfluidics and lab on a chip technologies for confirmatory analysis of trinitro aromatic explosives. Anal Chem 2014; 86:4707-14. [PMID: 24766256 DOI: 10.1021/ac403062y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
A new microfluidic paper-based analytical device (μPAD) in conjunction with confirmation by a lab on chip analysis was developed for detection of three trinitro aromatic explosives. Potassium hydroxide was deposited on the μPADs (0.5 μL, 1.5 M), creating a color change reaction when explosives are present, with detection limits of approximately 7.5 ± 1.0 ng for TNB, 12.5 ± 2.0 ng for TNT and 15.0 ± 2.0 ng for tetryl. For confirmatory analysis, positive μPADs were sampled using a 5 mm hole-punch, followed by extraction of explosives from the punched chad in 30 s using 20 μL borate/SDS buffer. The extractions had efficiencies of 96.5 ± 1.7%. The extracted explosives were then analyzed with the Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer lab on a chip device with minimum detectable amounts of 3.8 ± 0.1 ng for TNB, 7.0 ± 0.9 ng for TNT, and 4.7 ± 0.2 ng for tetryl. A simulated in-field scenario demonstrated the feasibility of coupling the μPAD technique with the lab on a chip device to detect and identify 1 μg of explosives distributed on a surface of 100 cm(2).
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Pesenti
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology , Broadway, Sydney, New South Wales 2007, Australia
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8
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Yatabe R, Onodera T, Toko K. Fabrication of surface plasmon resonance sensor surface with control of the non-specific adsorption and affinity for the detection of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene using an antifouling copolymer. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2014; 2:10. [PMID: 25152884 PMCID: PMC4126440 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2014.00010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2013] [Accepted: 04/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We fabricated a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensor using a hydrophilic polymer for the highly sensitive detection of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT). The hydrophilic polymer was made from mono-2-(methacryloyloxy)ethylsuccinate (MES) and 2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate (HEMA) by surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization. The detection of TNT was carried out by displacement assay with the SPR measurement. In displacement assay, the affinity between anti-TNT antibody and the sensor surface, affects to the sensitivity. In the SPR measurement, non-specific adsorption should be controlled because SPR sensor cannot discriminate between specific and non-specific adsorption. Therefore, the affinity and non-specific adsorption were controlled by changing the ratio of HEMA to MES. A detection limit of 0.4 ng/ml (ppb) for TNT was achieved using a sensor surface with the lowest affinity without non-specific adsorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Yatabe
- Research and Development Center for Taste and Odor Sensing, Kyushu University , Fukuoka , Japan
| | - Takeshi Onodera
- Research and Development Center for Taste and Odor Sensing, Kyushu University , Fukuoka , Japan
| | - Kiyoshi Toko
- Graduate School of Information Science and Electrical Engineering, Kyushu University , Fukuoka , Japan
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9
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Zheng R, Cameron BD. Surface plasmon resonance: recent progress toward the development of portable real-time blood diagnostics. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2014; 12:5-7. [DOI: 10.1586/erm.11.91] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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10
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Taudte RV, Beavis A, Wilson-Wilde L, Roux C, Doble P, Blanes L. A portable explosive detector based on fluorescence quenching of pyrene deposited on coloured wax-printed μPADs. LAB ON A CHIP 2013; 13:4164-72. [PMID: 23959203 DOI: 10.1039/c3lc50609f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
A new technique for the detection of explosives has been developed based on fluorescence quenching of pyrene on paper-based analytical devices (μPADs). Wax barriers were generated (150 °C, 5 min) using ten different colours. Magenta was found as the most suitable wax colour for the generation of the hydrophobic barriers with a nominal width of 120 μm resulting in fully functioning hydrophobic barriers. One microliter of 0.5 mg mL(-1) pyrene dissolved in an 80:20 methanol-water solution was deposited on the hydrophobic circle (5 mm diameter) to produce the active microchip device. Under ultra-violet (UV) illumination, ten different organic explosives were detected using the μPAD, with limits of detection ranging from 100-600 ppm. A prototype of a portable battery operated instrument using a 3 W power UV light-emitting-diode (LED) (365 nm) and a photodiode sensor was also built and evaluated for the successful automatic detection of explosives and potential application for field-based screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina Verena Taudte
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology, Sydney, Broadway, NSW, Australia.
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11
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Desmet C, Blum LJ, Marquette CA. Multiplex microarray ELISA versus classical ELISA, a comparison study of pollutant sensing for environmental analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2013; 15:1876-1882. [PMID: 23945745 DOI: 10.1039/c3em00296a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The present study describes the development, optimization and performance comparison of three ELISAs and one multiplex immunoassay in a microarray format. The developed systems were dedicated to the detection of three different classes of pollutants (pesticide, explosive and toxin) in water. The characteristics and performances of these two types of assays were evaluated and compared, in order to verify that multiplex immunoassays can replace ELISA for multiple analyte sensing. 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene and okadaic acid were chosen as model targets and were immobilized in classical microtiter plate wells or arrayed at the surface of a microarray integrated within a classical 96-well plate. Once optimized, the classical ELISAs and microarray-based ELISA performances were evaluated and compared in terms of limit of detection, IC50, linearity range and reproducibility. Classical ELISAs provided quite good sensitivity (limit of detection down to 10 μg L(-1)), but the multiplex immunoassay was proven to be more sensitive (limit of detection down to 0.01 μg L(-1)), more reproducible and an advantageous tool in terms of cost and time expenses. This multiplex tool was then used for the successful detection of the three target molecules in spiked water samples and achieved very promising recovery rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cloé Desmet
- Equipe Génie Enzymatique, Membranes Biomimétiques et Assemblages Supramoléculaires, Institut de Chimie et Biochimie Moléculaires et Supramoléculaires, Université Lyon 1 - CNRS 5246 ICBMS, Bâtiment CPE - 43, bd du 11 novembre 1918, 69622 Villeurbanne, Cedex, France.
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12
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The impact of antibody/epitope affinity strength on the sensitivity of electrochemical immunosensors for detecting small molecules. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:3889-98. [PMID: 23440393 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-6782-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2012] [Revised: 01/01/2013] [Accepted: 01/23/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
A displacement immunoassay involves having a labelled analogue of the analyte (the epitope) already bound to the antibody. The presence of the analyte causes a competition for antibodies, and some of the antibodies dissociates from the epitope so that it can bind with the analyte. Herein, the influence of the affinity of the surface-bound epitope for the antibody on the sensitivity and selectivity of a displacement immunosensor is explored both theoretically and experimentally. An electrochemical immunosensor described previously, where the dissociation of antibodies from an electrode surface causes an increase in current from surface-bound ferrocene species, is used for this purpose. As expected, the ease and effectiveness of the bound antibody being displaced is inversely related to the affinity of the antibody to the surface-bound epitope relative to the analyte in solution as expected. However, if the affinity constant is too low, selectivity and/or sensitivity are compromised. Experimental results are qualitatively compared with a simple mass-action model.
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13
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Forbes TP, Brewer TM, Gillen G. Desorption electro-flow focusing ionization of explosives and narcotics for ambient pressure mass spectrometry. Analyst 2013; 138:5665-73. [DOI: 10.1039/c3an01164j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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14
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Desmet C, Blum LJ, Marquette CA. High-Throughput Multiplexed Competitive Immunoassay for Pollutants Sensing in Water. Anal Chem 2012; 84:10267-76. [DOI: 10.1021/ac302133u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cloé Desmet
- Equipe Génie
Enzymatique,
Membranes Biomimétiques et Assemblages Supramoléculaires,
Institut de Chimie et Biochimie Moléculaires et Supramoléculaires, Université Lyon 1-CNRS 5246 ICBMS, Bâtiment
CPE-43, bd du 11 Novembre 1918-69622 Villeurbanne, Cedex, France
| | - Loic J. Blum
- Equipe Génie
Enzymatique,
Membranes Biomimétiques et Assemblages Supramoléculaires,
Institut de Chimie et Biochimie Moléculaires et Supramoléculaires, Université Lyon 1-CNRS 5246 ICBMS, Bâtiment
CPE-43, bd du 11 Novembre 1918-69622 Villeurbanne, Cedex, France
| | - Christophe A. Marquette
- Equipe Génie
Enzymatique,
Membranes Biomimétiques et Assemblages Supramoléculaires,
Institut de Chimie et Biochimie Moléculaires et Supramoléculaires, Université Lyon 1-CNRS 5246 ICBMS, Bâtiment
CPE-43, bd du 11 Novembre 1918-69622 Villeurbanne, Cedex, France
- AXO Science SAS, 34 Rue du Mail, 69004 Lyon, France
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15
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Ho MY, D'Souza N, Migliorato P. Electrochemical aptamer-based sandwich assays for the detection of explosives. Anal Chem 2012; 84:4245-7. [PMID: 22519699 DOI: 10.1021/ac300606n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is used to detect 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) in a novel sandwiched structure which relies on the specific interactions between (i) primary amine with TNT and (ii) TNT and anti-TNT aptamer. With pure targets, the assay has a sensitivity of 10(-14) M, a dynamic range of 10(-14)-10(-3) M, and employs a small sample volume (25 μL). The method's sensitivity is comparable to state of the art optical methods with the added advantages of electrochemical detection, which can be easily miniaturized and implemented into a hand-held device.
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16
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Ma L, Xin B, Chen Y. Direct mass spectrometric detection of trace explosives in soil samples. Analyst 2012; 137:1730-6. [DOI: 10.1039/c2an16058g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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17
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Adams AA, Charles PT, Deschamps JR, Kusterbeck AW. Demonstration of Submersible High-Throughput Microfluidic Immunosensors for Underwater Explosives Detection. Anal Chem 2011; 83:8411-9. [DOI: 10.1021/ac2009788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- André A. Adams
- National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Postdoctoral Research Associate, US Naval Research Laboratory (Code 6901), 4555 Overlook Ave. SW, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
| | - Paul T. Charles
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, US Naval Research Laboratory, 4555 Overlook Ave. SW, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
| | - Jeffrey R. Deschamps
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, US Naval Research Laboratory, 4555 Overlook Ave. SW, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
| | - Anne W. Kusterbeck
- Center for Bio/Molecular Science and Engineering, US Naval Research Laboratory, 4555 Overlook Ave. SW, Washington, D.C. 20375, United States
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18
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Garcia-Reyes JF, Harper JD, Salazar GA, Charipar NA, Ouyang Z, Cooks RG. Detection of Explosives and Related Compounds by Low-Temperature Plasma Ambient Ionization Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2010; 83:1084-92. [DOI: 10.1021/ac1029117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Juan F. Garcia-Reyes
- Analytical Chemistry Research Group, Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, University of Jaen, 23071 Jaen, Spain
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19
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Chen L, Zeng G, Zhang Y, Tang L, Huang D, Liu C, Pang Y, Luo J. Trace detection of picloram using an electrochemical immunosensor based on three-dimensional gold nanoclusters. Anal Biochem 2010; 407:172-9. [PMID: 20709012 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2010.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2010] [Revised: 08/01/2010] [Accepted: 08/02/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Picloram, a herbicide widely used for broadleaf weed control, is persistent and mobile in soil and water with adverse health and environmental effects. It is important to develop a sensitive method for accurate detection of trace picloram in the environment. In this article, a type of ordered three-dimensional (3D) gold (Au) nanoclusters obtained by two-step electrodeposition using the spatial obstruction/direction of the polycarbonate membrane is reported. Bovine serum albumin (BSA)-picloram was immobilized on the 3D Au nanoclusters by self-assembly, and then competitive immunoreaction with picloram antibody and target picloram was executed. The horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-labeled secondary antibody was applied for enzyme-amplified amperometric measurement. The electrodeposited Au nanoclusters built direct electrical contact and immobilization interface with protein molecules without postmodification and positioning. Under the optimal conditions, the linear range for picloram determination was 0.001-10 μg/ml with a correlation coefficient of 0.996. The detection and quantification limits were 5.0 × 10(-4) and 0.0021 μg/ml, respectively. Picloram concentrations in peach and excess sludge supernatant extracts were tested by the proposed immunosensor, which exhibited good precision, sensitivity, selectivity, and storage stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijuan Chen
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
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20
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Basova EY, Goryacheva IY, Mikhirev DA, Rusanova TY, Burmistrova NA, Kerkaert B, Cucu T, De Saeger S, De Meulenaer B. Rapid method for qualitative detection of in environmental samples. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2009; 1:170-176. [PMID: 32938054 DOI: 10.1039/b9ay00144a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
A gel-based immunoassay that can be used for the detection of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) in water samples was developed. Four polyclonal antibodies were generated in chickens using TNT derivatives. The assay was based on the immunoaffinity preconcentration and immuno-enzyme analysis of TNT in the gel. The results of the assay, assessed by color development, were evaluated visually and also by using a flatbed scanner and subsequent digital processing of the scanned gel. The most sensitive color mode, parameter S (saturation, HSB mode), was used for the immunoassay optimization and evaluation of the results. The immunoassays with the best parameters were optimized and characterized. A cut-off level of 5 µg TNT L-1 was reached for water samples. It was shown that tap and environmental water samples could be analyzed directly, without sample preparation and dilution. The developed test is acceptable for use in an on-site field test to provide rapid (about 15 min for six samples), qualitative and reliable results for making environmental decisions such as identifying "hot spots", monitoring of military and terrorist activities, and selecting of site samples for laboratory analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evgenia Yu Basova
- Department of Common and Inorganic Chemistry, Chemistry Institute, Saratov State University, Astrakhanskaya 83, 410012, Saratov, Russia.
| | - Irina Yu Goryacheva
- Department of Common and Inorganic Chemistry, Chemistry Institute, Saratov State University, Astrakhanskaya 83, 410012, Saratov, Russia.
| | - Dmitry A Mikhirev
- Department of Common and Inorganic Chemistry, Chemistry Institute, Saratov State University, Astrakhanskaya 83, 410012, Saratov, Russia.
| | - Tatiana Yu Rusanova
- Department of Common and Inorganic Chemistry, Chemistry Institute, Saratov State University, Astrakhanskaya 83, 410012, Saratov, Russia.
| | - Natalia A Burmistrova
- Department of Common and Inorganic Chemistry, Chemistry Institute, Saratov State University, Astrakhanskaya 83, 410012, Saratov, Russia.
| | - Barbara Kerkaert
- Research Group Food Chemistry and Human Nutrition, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Tania Cucu
- Research Group Food Chemistry and Human Nutrition, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Harelbekestraat 72, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Bruno De Meulenaer
- Research Group Food Chemistry and Human Nutrition, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
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21
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Yuan J, Addo J, Aguilar MI, Wu Y. Surface plasmon resonance assay for chloramphenicol without surface regeneration. Anal Biochem 2009; 390:97-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2009.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2009] [Revised: 03/30/2009] [Accepted: 04/01/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Abstract
Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensors are optical sensors that use special electromagnetic waves (surface plasmon-polaritons) to probe interactions between an analyte in solution and a biomolecular recognition element immobilized on the SPR sensor surface. Major application areas include the detection of biological analytes and analysis of biomolecular interactions, where SPR biosensors provide benefits of label-free real-time analytical technology. The information obtained is both qualitative and quantitative and it is possible to obtain the kinetic parameters of the interaction. This new technology has been used to study a diverse set of interaction partners of biological interest, such as protein-protein, protein-lipids, protein-nucleic acids, or protein and low molecular weight molecules such as drugs, substrates, and cofactors. In addition to basic biomedical research, the SPR biosensor has recently been used in food analysis, proteomics, immunogenicity, and drug discovery. This chapter reviews the major developments in SPR technology. The main application areas are outlined and examples of applications of SPR sensor technology are presented. Future prospects of SPR sensor technology are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Willander
- Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, Gothenburg University, SE-60174, Norrköpin, Sweden.
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A novel broad-specific noncompetitive immunoassay and its application in the determination of total aflatoxins. Anal Chim Acta 2008; 630:82-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2008.09.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2008] [Revised: 08/19/2008] [Accepted: 09/29/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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24
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Tang L, Zeng GM, Shen GL, Li YP, Zhang Y, Huang DL. Rapid detection of picloram in agricultural field samples using a disposable immunomembrane-based electrochemical sensor. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2008; 42:1207-1212. [PMID: 18351094 DOI: 10.1021/es7024593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Picloram, a widely used chlorinated herbicide, is quite persistent and mobile in soil and water with adverse health and environmental effects. It is essential to establish a rapid and sensitive method for accurate detection of trace picloram in agricultural samples. We employed a disposable, nontoxic, and conductive chitosan/gold nanoparticles composite membrane on electrochemical sensor for the sensitive detection of picloram in several agricultural field samples. A self-synthesized picloram antibody was encapsulated in the immunomembrane to form an immunoconjugate by a competitive immunoreaction in sample solution, followed by the immobilization of horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-labeled secondary antibody. The immunomembrane possessed good reproducibility for fabrication in batch, providing a congenial microenvironment for the immune molecules. The diffused colloidal Au nanoparticles shuttled the electron transfer between the immobilized HRP and the electrode surface. To demonstrate the suitability of the immunosensor for on-site detection, rice, lettuce, and paddy field water were spiked with picloram and assayed without preconcentration. Under optimal conditions, picloram could be detected in the range from 0.005 to 10 microg/mL with the correlation coefficient of 0.9937, and the detection limit is 5 ng/ mL. The proposed immunosensor exhibited good precision, sensitivity, selectivity, and storage stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Tang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
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Smith RG, D'Souza N, Nicklin S. A review of biosensors and biologically-inspired systems for explosives detection. Analyst 2008; 133:571-84. [DOI: 10.1039/b717933m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Hwang SY, Kumada Y, Seong GH, Choo J, Katoh S, Lee EK. Characteristics of a liposome immunoassay on a poly(methyl methacrylate) surface. Anal Bioanal Chem 2007; 389:2251-7. [PMID: 17899025 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-007-1614-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2007] [Revised: 09/05/2007] [Accepted: 09/06/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Liposome immunoassay (LIA) is based on enzyme immunoassay (EIA) but the detection sensitivity could be significantly enhanced by using antibody-coupled immunoliposomes encapsulating HRP (horse radish peroxidase). Here, we applied LIA to non-porous poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and polystyrene (PS) surfaces to compare its detection sensitivity with that of EIA, using rabbit IgG (a ligand molecule) and anti-rabbit IgG antibody (a capture molecule) as the model system. LIA developed much stronger color signals than EIA, especially at a lower concentration range (< ca. 1 microg mL(-1)). PMMA showed higher affinity toward rabbit IgG than the PS surface, and the anti-rabbit IgG antibody adsorbed on PMMA was more stable than that on PS. Furthermore, the effects of spot volume and antibody concentration on the signal density were analyzed. The signal density increased as the antibody concentration increased, but it was not significantly affected by the spot volume (2.5-20 microL). In conclusion, LIA on PMMA as a solid support is a very useful, highly sensitive microarray detection system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang Youn Hwang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Hanyang University, Ansan, South Korea
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{MSU/PDDA}n LBL assembled modified sensor for electrochemical detection of ultratrace explosive nitroaromatic compounds. Electrochem commun 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2007.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Singh S. Sensors--an effective approach for the detection of explosives. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2007; 144:15-28. [PMID: 17379401 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 230] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2006] [Revised: 02/07/2007] [Accepted: 02/07/2007] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The detection of explosives and explosive related illicit materials is an important area for preventing terrorist activities and for putting a check on their deleterious effects on health. A number of different methods, based on different principles, have been developed in the past for the detection of explosives. Sensors are one of those methods of detection which have capability to mimic the canine system and which are known to be the most reliable method of detection. The objective of this review is to provide comprehensive knowledge and information on the sensors operating on different transduction principles, ranging from electrochemical to immunosensors, being used for the detection of explosives as they pose a threat for both health and security of the nation. The review focuses mainly on the sensors developed in the recent 5 years and is prepared through summary of literature available on the subject.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suman Singh
- Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, M. G Avenue, Durgapur, 713209 West Bengal, India.
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Hsiao VKS, Waldeisen JR, Zheng Y, Lloyd PF, Bunning TJ, Huang TJ. Aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES)-functionalized nanoporous polymeric gratings: fabrication and application in biosensing. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1039/b711200a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Chaignon P, Cortial S, Ventura A, Lopes P, Halgand F, Laprevote O, Ouazzani J. Purification and identification of a Bacillus nitroreductase: Potential use in 3,5-DNBTF biosensoring system. Enzyme Microb Technol 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2006.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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31
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Shankaran DR, Kawaguchi T, Kim SJ, Matsumoto K, Toko K, Miura N. Evaluation of the molecular recognition of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies for sensitive detection of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) by indirect competitive surface plasmon resonance immunoassay. Anal Bioanal Chem 2006; 386:1313-20. [PMID: 16900380 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-006-0699-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2006] [Revised: 07/16/2006] [Accepted: 07/19/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Detection of TNT is an important environmental and security concern all over the world. We herein report the performance and comparison of four immunoassays for rapid and label-free detection of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR). The immunosensor surface was constructed by immobilization of a home-made 2,4,6-trinitrophenyl-keyhole limpet hemocyanin (TNPh-KLH) conjugate onto an SPR gold surface by simple physical adsorption within 10 min. The immunoreaction of the TNPh-KLH conjugate with four different antibodies, namely, monoclonal anti-TNT antibody (M-TNT Ab), monoclonal anti-trinitrophenol antibody (M-TNP Ab), polyclonal anti-trinitrophenyl antibody (P-TNPh Ab), and polyclonal anti-TNP antibody (P-TNP Ab), was studied by SPR. The principle of indirect competitive immunoreaction was employed for quantification of TNT. Among the four antibodies, the P-TNPh Ab prepared by our group showed highest sensitivity with a detection limit of 0.002 ng/mL (2 ppt) TNT. The lowest detection limits observed with other commercial antibodies were 0.008 ng/mL (8 ppt), 0.25 ng/mL (250 ppt), and 40 ng/mL (ppb) for M-TNT Ab, P-TNP Ab, and M-TNP Ab, respectively, in the similar assay format. The concentration of the conjugate and the antibodies were optimized for use in the immunoassay. The response time for an immunoreaction was 36 s and a single immunocycle could be done within 2 min, including the sensor surface regeneration using pepsin solution. In addition to the quantification of TNT, all immunoassays were evaluated for robustness and cross-reactivity towards several TNT analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhesingh Ravi Shankaran
- Art, Science and Technology Center for Cooperative Research, Kyushu University, Kasuga-shi, Fukuoka 816-8580, Japan.
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Ghosh R. Membrane chromatographic immunoassay method for rapid quantitative analysis of specific serum antibodies. Biotechnol Bioeng 2006; 93:280-5. [PMID: 16196053 DOI: 10.1002/bit.20707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
This paper discusses a membrane chromatographic immunoassay method for rapid detection and quantitative analysis of specific serum antibodies. A type of polyvinylidine fluoride (PVDF) microfiltration membrane was used in the method for its ability to reversibly and specifically bind IgG antibodies from antiserum samples by hydrophobic interaction. Using this form of selective antibody binding and enrichment an affinity membrane with antigen binding ability was obtained in-situ. This was done by passing a pulse of diluted antiserum sample through a stack of microporous PVDF membranes. The affinity membrane thus formed was challenged with a pulse of antigen solution and the amount of antigen bound was accurately determined using chromatographic methods. The antigen binding correlated well with the antibody loading on the membrane. This method is direct, rapid and accurate, does not involve any chemical reaction, and uses very few reagents. Moreover, the same membrane could be repeatedly used for sequential immunoassays on account of the reversible nature of the antibody binding. Proof of concept of this method is provided using human hemoglobin as model antigen and rabbit antiserum against human hemoglobin as the antibody source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raja Ghosh
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4L7.
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Ngo TT, Narinesingh D. Ligand Displacement Fluorescence Immunoassay for Gentamicin and Human IgG#. ANAL LETT 2005. [DOI: 10.1081/al-200051030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Shankaran DR, Gobi KV, Sakai T, Matsumoto K, Toko K, Miura N. Surface plasmon resonance immunosensor for highly sensitive detection of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene. Biosens Bioelectron 2005; 20:1750-6. [PMID: 15681190 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2004.06.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2004] [Revised: 06/24/2004] [Accepted: 06/29/2004] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We have examined the sensing characteristics of a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) immunoassay for the detection of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) using an immunoreaction between 2,4,6-trinitrophenol-ovalbumin (TNP-OVA) conjugate and anti-2,4,6-trinitrophenol antibody (anti-TNP antibody). TNP-OVA conjugate was attached to a SPR-gold sensing surface by means of physical immobilization, which undergoes binding interaction with anti-TNP antibody. Both the immobilization and binding processes were studied from a change in the SPR-resonance angle. The quantification of TNT is based on the principle of indirect competitive immunoassay, in which the immunoreaction between the TNP-OVA conjugate and anti-TNP antibody was inhibited in the presence of free TNT in solution. The decrease in the resonance angle shift is proportional to an increase in concentration of TNT used for incubation. The immunoassay exhibited excellent sensitivity for the detection of TNT in the concentration range from 0.09 to 1000 ng/ml with good stability and reproducibility. The immunosensor developed could detect TNT as low as 0.09 ng/ml, within a response time of approximately 22 min. The sensor surface was regenerated by a brief flow of pepsin solution, which disrupts the antigen-antibody complex without destroying the conjugate biofilm. Cross-reactivity of the SPR sensor to some structurally related nitroaromatic derivative and the detection of TNT in the presence of these nitroaromatic compounds were investigated. The cross-reactivity of the SPR sensor to 2,4-dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT), 1,3-dinitrobenzene (1,3-DNB), 2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene (2A-4,6-DNT) and 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene (4A-2,6-DNT) were very low (< or =1.1%). The analytical characteristics of the proposed immunosensor are highly promising for the development of new field-portable sensors for on-site detection of landmines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhesingh Ravi Shankaran
- Art, Science and Technology Center for Cooperative Research, Kyushu University, Kasuga-shi, Fukuoka 816-8580, Japan.
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Altamirano M, García-Villada L, Agrelo M, Sánchez-Martín L, Martín-Otero L, Flores-Moya A, Rico M, López-Rodas V, Costas E. A novel approach to improve specificity of algal biosensors using wild-type and resistant mutants: an application to detect TNT. Biosens Bioelectron 2004; 19:1319-23. [PMID: 15046765 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2003.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2003] [Revised: 10/01/2003] [Accepted: 11/05/2003] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A new genetic approach was developed for increasing specificity of microalgal biosensors. This method is based on the use of two different genotypes jointly to detect a given pollutant: (i) a sensitive genotype to obtain sensitivity; and (ii) a resistant mutant to obtain specificity. The method was tested by the development of a microalgal biosensor for the detection of the explosive 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) using a wild-type strain (DcG1wt) of Dictyosphaerium chlorelloides (Chlorophyceae) as the sensitive organism, and a TNT-resistant mutant, obtained from DcG1wt strain by a modified Luria-Delbrück fluctuation analysis. The inhibition of chlorophyll a fluorescence of PSII by TNT was used as the biological signal. Significant differences in maximal fluorescence of light-adapted algae (F'(m)) between wild-type DcG1wt cells and TNT-resistant mutants, were observed in all the TNT concentrations tested (from 0.5 to 31.3 mg l(-1)) after only 3 min of exposure. Resistant mutants always exhibited significant higher F'(m) values in the presence of TNT than wild-type cells. These results suggest that the use of two different genotypes (sensitive and resistant to a given pollutant) jointly is a useful method to improve microalgal biosensors specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Altamirano
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal (Botánica), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Málaga, E-29071 Málaga, Spain
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Nambayah M, Quickenden TI. A quantitative assessment of chemical techniques for detecting traces of explosives at counter-terrorist portals. Talanta 2004; 63:461-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2003.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2003] [Revised: 11/11/2003] [Accepted: 11/12/2003] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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