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Rai S, Girdhar M, Siraj F, Sharma S, Kumar M, Katyal A. Mechanistic insights into immunopathogenesis of murine cerebral malaria: Cues from "young" C57BL/6J and BALB/c mice. Immunol Lett 2023; 256-257:9-19. [PMID: 36931472 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2023.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023]
Abstract
Cerebral malaria (CM), a major cause of mortality in children <5 years, presents disparity in pathophysiological features and poor prognosis compared to adults. Adult C57BL/6J mice infected with Plasmodium berghei ANKA (PbA) are widely used to understand CM pathogenesis compared to relatively less prone BALB/c mice; however, age and immune status of the host also influence disease sequelae and cerebral manifestations. Murine models of CM known so far do not project complete disease spectrum of pediatric CM. The present study was designed to dissect and differentiate CM immunopathogenesis in "young" BALB/c and C57BL/6J mice infected with PbA, in search of a competent mouse model mimicking pediatric CM. Multipronged approach including the analysis of blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability and parasite infiltration, histopathology, nitric oxide levels, and pro/anti-inflammatory (TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-4, and IL-10) cytokine expression were compared in the cortices of both young BALB/c and C57BL/6J mice. The results illustrate severe course of infection and typical CM like histopathological alterations including monocytic plugging in PbA-infected "young" BALB/c compared to C57BL/6J mice. The decreased expression of tight junction proteins (ZO-1 and Claudin-3) and Evan's blue extravasation was also more evident in BALB/c mice indicating a more permeable BBB. The increased cortical expression of TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-10, iNOS, eNOS, nNOS, and associated activation of brain resident cells in cortices of BALB/c with progressive parasitaemia depicts the cumulative involvement of host immune responses and parasite accumulation in progression of CM. Thus, the incongruity of cytokine balance resulted in worsening of disease manifestation in "young" BALB/c similar to pediatric CM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shweta Rai
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi, North campus, New Delhi 110007, India
| | - Meetali Girdhar
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi, North campus, New Delhi 110007, India
| | - Fouzia Siraj
- Department of Pathology, National Institute of Pathology, ICMR, Safdarjung Hospital, New Delhi, India
| | - Sheetal Sharma
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi, North campus, New Delhi 110007, India
| | - Mukesh Kumar
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi, North campus, New Delhi 110007, India
| | - Anju Katyal
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Center for Biomedical Research, University of Delhi, North campus, New Delhi 110007, India.
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Abstract
Haemozoin is a by-product of haemoglobin digestion by intraerythrocytic malaria parasites, which induces immunologic responses on different tissues, including endothelial cells. In the present paper, the incubation of human microvascular endothelial cells with haemozoin significantly inhibited MTT reduction, a measure of cytotoxicity, without increasing the release of cytoplasmic lactate dehydrogenase. Moreover, haemozoin did not induce apoptosis or cell cycle arrest nor decreased the number of live cells, suggesting that cells viability itself was not affected and that the inhibition of MTT reduction was only apparent and probably due to accelerated MTT-formazan exocytosis. After 30 min of MTT addition, a significant increase in the % of cells exocytosing MTT formazan crystals was observed in haemozoin-treated cells compared with control cells. Such an effect was partially reversed by the addition of genistein, an inhibitor of MTT-formazan exocytosis. The rapid release of CXCL-8, a preformed chemokine contained in Weibel-Palade bodies, confirmed that haemozoin induces a perturbation of the intracellular endothelial trafficking, including the exocytosis of MTT-formazan containing vesicles. The haem moiety of haemozoin is responsible for the observed effect. Moreover, this work underlines that MTT assay should not be used to measure cytotoxicity induced by haemozoin and other methods should be preferred.
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Basilico N, Corbett Y, D' Alessandro S, Parapini S, Prato M, Girelli D, Misiano P, Olliaro P, Taramelli D. Malaria pigment stimulates chemokine production by human microvascular endothelium. Acta Trop 2017; 172:125-131. [PMID: 28476599 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2017.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Revised: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Severe falciparum malaria is characterized by the sequestration of infected erythrocytes and leukocyte recruitment in the microvasculature, resulting in impaired blood flow and metabolic disturbances. Which parasite products cause chemokine production, thus contributing to the strong host inflammatory response and cellular recruitment are not well characterized. Here, we studied haemozoin (Hz), the end-product of haem, a ferriprotoporphyrin-IX crystal bound to host and parasite lipids, DNA, and proteins. We found that natural Hz isolated from Plasmodium falciparum cultures induces CXCL8 and CCL5 production in human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1) in a time-dependent manner. This up-regulation is not caused by haem but rather by Hz-generated lipoperoxidation products (15-HETE) and fibrinogen associated to Hz, and is, at least in part, triggered by the activation of NF-κB, as it was significantly inhibited by artemisinin and other NF-κB pathway inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicoletta Basilico
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Chirurgiche e Odontoiatriche, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Pascal 36-20133, Milano, Italy.
| | - Yolanda Corbett
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Pascal 36-20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Sarah D' Alessandro
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Chirurgiche e Odontoiatriche, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Pascal 36-20133, Milano, Italy; Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Pascal 36-20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Silvia Parapini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Pascal 36-20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Mauro Prato
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze Università di Torino, Corso Raffaello 30-10125, Torino, Italy
| | - Daniela Girelli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Chirurgiche e Odontoiatriche, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Pascal 36-20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Paola Misiano
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Pascal 36-20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Piero Olliaro
- UNICEF/UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme on Research & Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR) World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland; Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, UK
| | - Donatella Taramelli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Pascal 36-20133, Milano, Italy
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Kalantari P, DeOliveira RB, Chan J, Corbett Y, Rathinam V, Stutz A, Latz E, Gazzinelli RT, Golenbock DT, Fitzgerald KA. Dual engagement of the NLRP3 and AIM2 inflammasomes by plasmodium-derived hemozoin and DNA during malaria. Cell Rep 2014; 6:196-210. [PMID: 24388751 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2013.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2013] [Revised: 11/12/2013] [Accepted: 12/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemozoin (Hz) is the crystalline detoxification product of hemoglobin in Plasmodium-infected erythrocytes. We previously proposed that Hz can carry plasmodial DNA into a subcellular compartment that is accessible to Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9), inducing an inflammatory signal. Hz also activates the NLRP3 inflammasome in primed cells. We found that Hz appears to colocalize with DNA in infected erythrocytes, even before RBC rupture or phagolysosomal digestion. Using synthetic Hz coated in vitro with plasmodial genomic DNA (gDNA) or CpG oligodeoxynucleotides, we observed that DNA-complexed Hz induced TLR9 translocation, providing a priming and an activation signal for inflammasomes. After phagocytosis, Hz and DNA dissociate. Hz subsequently induces phagolysosomal destabilization, allowing phagolysosomal contents access to the cytosol, where DNA receptors become activated. Similar observations were made with Plasmodium-infected RBCs. Finally, infected erythrocytes activated both the NLRP3 and AIM2 inflammasomes. These observations suggest that Hz and DNA work together to induce systemic inflammation during malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parisa Kalantari
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Rosane B DeOliveira
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Jennie Chan
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Yolanda Corbett
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università Degli Studi di Milano, Via Pascal 36, Milano 20133, Italy
| | - Vijay Rathinam
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Andrea Stutz
- Institute of Innate Immunity, Biomedical Center, 1G008, University Hospitals, University of Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Strasse 25, Bonn 53127, Germany
| | - Eicke Latz
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA; Institute of Innate Immunity, Biomedical Center, 1G008, University Hospitals, University of Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Strasse 25, Bonn 53127, Germany
| | - Ricardo T Gazzinelli
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA; Department of Parasitology and Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Avenida Antonio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270, Brazil
| | - Douglas T Golenbock
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Katherine A Fitzgerald
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.
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D’Alessandro S, Basilico N, Corbett Y, Scaccabarozzi D, Omodeo-Salè F, Saresella M, Marventano I, Vaillant M, Olliaro P, Taramelli D. Hypoxia modulates the effect of dihydroartemisinin on endothelial cells. Biochem Pharmacol 2011; 82:476-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2011.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2011] [Revised: 05/30/2011] [Accepted: 06/02/2011] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Prato M, D'Alessandro S, Van den Steen PE, Opdenakker G, Arese P, Taramelli D, Basilico N. Natural haemozoin modulates matrix metalloproteinases and induces morphological changes in human microvascular endothelium. Cell Microbiol 2011; 13:1275-85. [PMID: 21707906 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2011.01620.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Severe malaria, including cerebral malaria (CM), is characterized by the sequestration of parasitized erythrocytes in the microvessels after cytoadherence to endothelial cells. Products of parasite origin, such as haemozoin (HZ), contribute to the pathogenesis of severe malaria by interfering with host inflammatory response. In human monocytes, HZ enhanced the levels of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), a protease involved in neuroinflammation. Here the effects of HZ on the regulation of MMPs by the human microvascular endothelial cell line HMEC-1 were investigated. Cells treated with natural (n)HZ appeared elongated instead of polygonal, and formed microtubule-like vessels on synthetic basement membrane. nHZ enhanced total gelatinolytic activity by inducing proMMP-9 and MMP-9 without affecting basal MMP-2. The level of the endogenous tissue inhibitor of MMP-9 (TIMP-1) was not altered by nHZ, while TIMP-2, the MMP-2 inhibitor, was enhanced. Additionally, nHZ induced MMP-1 and MMP-3, two enzymes sequentially involved in collagenolysis and proMMP-9 proteolytic activation. Lipid-free HZ did not reproduce nHZ effects. Present data suggest that the lipid moiety of HZ alters the MMP/TIMP balances and promotes the proteolytic activation of proMMP-9 in HMEC-1, thereby enhancing total gelatinolytic activity, cell activation and inflammation. These findings might help understanding the mechanisms of blood brain barrier damage during CM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro Prato
- Dipartimento di Genetica, Biologia e Biochimica, Università di Torino, Torino, Italy.
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Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 and Haemozoin: Wedding Rings for Human Host and Plasmodium falciparum Parasite in Complicated Malaria. J Trop Med 2011; 2011:628435. [PMID: 21760809 PMCID: PMC3134216 DOI: 10.1155/2011/628435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2010] [Accepted: 03/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
It is generally accepted that the combination of both Plasmodium falciparum parasite and human host factors is involved in the pathogenesis of complicated severe malaria, including cerebral malaria (CM). Among parasite products, the malarial pigment haemozoin (HZ) has been shown to impair the functions of mononuclear and endothelial cells. Different CM models were associated with enhanced levels of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), a family of proteolytic enzymes able to disrupt subendothelial basement membrane and tight junctions and shed, activate, or inactivate cytokines, chemokines, and other MMPs through cleavage from their precursors. Among MMPs, a good candidate for targeted therapy might be MMP-9, whose mRNA and protein expression enhancement as well as direct proenzyme activation by HZ have been recently investigated in a series of studies by our group and others. In the present paper the role of HZ and MMP-9 in complicated malaria, as well as their interactions, will be discussed.
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The lipid moiety of haemozoin (Malaria Pigment) and P. falciparum parasitised red blood cells bind synthetic and native endothelin-1. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010; 2010:854927. [PMID: 20204072 PMCID: PMC2829634 DOI: 10.1155/2010/854927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2009] [Revised: 11/08/2009] [Accepted: 12/29/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Endothelin1 (ET-1) is a 21-amino acid peptide produced by the vascular endothelium under hypoxia, that acts locally as regulator of vascular tone and inflammation. The role of ET-1 in Plasmodium falciparum malaria is unknown, although tissue hypoxia is frequent as a result of the cytoadherence of parasitized red blood cell (pRBC) to the microvasculature. Here, we show that both synthetic and endothelial-derived ET-1 are removed by parasitized RBC (D10 and W2 strains, chloroquine sensitive, and resistant, resp.) and native haemozoin (HZ, malaria pigment), but not by normal RBC, delipidized HZ, or synthetic beta-haematin (BH). The effect is dose dependent, selective for ET-1, but not for its precursor, big ET-1, and not due to the proteolysis of ET-1. The results indicate that ET-1 binds to the lipids moiety of HZ and membranes of infected RBCs. These findings may help understanding the consequences of parasite sequestration in severe malaria.
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9
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Sherman IW. References. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-308x(08)00430-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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10
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D'Alessandro S, Gelati M, Basilico N, Parati EA, Haynes RK, Taramelli D. Differential effects on angiogenesis of two antimalarial compounds, dihydroartemisinin and artemisone: Implications for embryotoxicity. Toxicology 2007; 241:66-74. [PMID: 17897768 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2007.08.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2007] [Revised: 08/07/2007] [Accepted: 08/08/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Artemisinin derivatives are highly effective and well-tolerated antimalarial drugs that now form the basis of antimalarial combination therapies recommended by the World Health Organization. Although not yet reported to be a problem in clinical use, neurotoxicity and embryotoxicity are displayed by the compound class in in vitro and in vivo experimental models, in particular by dihydroartemisinin, the main metabolite of all current clinical artemisinins. Embryotoxicity appears to be connected with defective angiogenesis and vasculogenesis in certain stages of embryo development. This may prevent the use of artemisinin derivatives in malaria during pregnancy, when both mother and fetus are at high risk of death. Artemisone is a novel 10-alkylamino derivative which is not metabolised to dihydroartemisinin. It was selected as a clinical drug candidate on the basis of its high efficacy against Plasmodium falciparum in vitro and its lack of detectable neurotoxicity in both in vitro and in vivo screens. Here we describe the results of a comparative study of the anti-angiogenic properties of both artemisone and dihydroartemisinin in different model systems. We evaluated the proliferation of human endothelial cells and their migration on a fibronectin matrix, the sprouting of new vessels from rat aorta sections grown in collagen and the production of pro-angiogenic cytokines such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and interleukin-8 (CXCL-8). The data show that artemisone is significantly less anti-angiogenic than dihydroartemisinin in all the experimental models, suggesting that it will be safer to use than the current clinical artemisinins during pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah D'Alessandro
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica-Microbiologia-Virologia, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Pascal 36, 20133 Milano, Milan, Italy
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Gillrie MR, Krishnegowda G, Lee K, Buret AG, Robbins SM, Looareesuwan S, Gowda DC, Ho M. Src-family kinase dependent disruption of endothelial barrier function by Plasmodium falciparum merozoite proteins. Blood 2007; 110:3426-35. [PMID: 17693580 PMCID: PMC2200906 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2007-04-084582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary complication in severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria is manifested as a prolonged impairment of gas transfer or the more severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). In either clinical presentation, vascular permeability is a major component of the pathologic process. In this report, we examined the effect of clinical P falciparum isolates on barrier function of primary dermal and lung microvascular endothelium in vitro. We showed that parasite sonicates but not intact infected erythrocytes disrupted endothelial barrier function in a Src-family kinase-dependent manner. The abnormalities were manifested both as discontinuous immunofluorescence staining of the junctional proteins ZO-1, claudin 5, and VE-cadherin and the formation of interendothelial gaps in monolayers. These changes were associated with a loss in total protein content of claudin 5 and redistribution of ZO-1 from the cytoskeleton to the membrane and the cytosolic and nuclear fractions. There was minimal evidence of a proinflammatory response or direct cellular cytotoxicity or cell death. The active component in sonicates appeared to be a merozoite-associated protein. Increased permeability was also induced by P falciparum glycophosphatidylinositols (GPIs) and food vacuoles. These results demonstrate that parasite components can alter endothelial barrier function and thus contribute to the pathogenesis of severe falciparum malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark R Gillrie
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Zhao L, Kwon MJ, Huang S, Lee JY, Fukase K, Inohara N, Hwang DH. Differential Modulation of Nods Signaling Pathways by Fatty Acids in Human Colonic Epithelial HCT116 Cells. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:11618-28. [PMID: 17303577 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m608644200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing proteins (Nods) are intracellular pattern recognition receptors recognizing conserved moieties of bacterial peptidoglycan through their leucine-rich repeats domain. The agonists for Nods activate proinflammatory signaling pathways, including NF-kappaB pathways. The results from our previous studies showed that the activation of TLR4 and TLR2, leucine-rich repeat-containing pattern recognition receptors, were differentially modulated by saturated and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in macrophages and dendritic cells. Here, we show the differential modulation of NF-kappaB activation and interleukin-8 (IL-8) expression in colonic epithelial cells HCT116 by saturated and unsaturated fatty acids mediated through Nods proteins. Lauric acid (C12:0) dose dependently activated NF-kappaB and induced IL-8 expression in HCT116 cells, which express both Nod1 and Nod2, but not detectable amounts of TLR2 and TLR4. These effects of lauric acid were inhibited by dominant negative forms of Nod1 or Nod2, but not by dominant negative forms of TLR2, TLR4, and TLR5. The effects of lauric acid were also attenuated by small RNA interference targeting Nod1 or Nod2. In contrast, polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, inhibited the activation of NF-kappaB and IL-8 expression induced by lauric acid or known Nods ligands in HCT116. Furthermore, lauric acid induced, but docosahexaenoic acid inhibited lauric acid- or Nod2 ligand MDP-induced, Nod2 oligomerization in HEK293T cells transfected with Nod2. Together, these results provide new insights into the role of dietary fatty acids in modulating inflammation in colon epithelial cells. The results suggest that Nods may be involved in inducing sterile inflammation, one of the key etiological conditions in the development of many chronic inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Zhao
- Western Human Nutrition Research Center, The Agricultural Research Service-United States Department of Agriculture, Davis, California 95616, USA
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Carney CK, Schrimpe AC, Halfpenny K, Harry RS, Miller CM, Broncel M, Sewell SL, Schaff JE, Deol R, Carter MD, Wright DW. The basis of the immunomodulatory activity of malaria pigment (hemozoin). J Biol Inorg Chem 2006; 11:917-29. [PMID: 16868743 DOI: 10.1007/s00775-006-0147-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2006] [Accepted: 07/05/2006] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The most common and deadly form of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, is responsible for 1.5-2.7 million deaths and 300-500 million acute illnesses annually [Bremen in J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 64:1-11 (2001); World Health Organization (2002)]. Hemozoin, the biomineral formed to detoxify the free heme produced during parasitic hemoglobin catabolism, has long been suspected of contributing to the pathological immunodeficiencies that occur during malarial infection. While there is a growing consensus in the literature that native hemozoin maintains immunosuppressive activity, there is considerable controversy over the reactivity of the synthetic form, beta-hematin (BH). Given the emerging importance of hemozoin in modulating a host immune response to malarial infection, a careful examination of the effects of the constitutive components of the malaria pigment on macrophage response has been made in order to clarify the understanding of this process. Herein, we present evidence that BH alone is unable to inhibit stimulation of NADPH oxidase and inducible nitric oxide synthase, the key enzymes involved in oxidative burst, and is sensitive to the microbicidal agents of these enzymes both in vitro and in vivo. Further, by systematically examining each of the malaria pigment's components, we were able to dissect their impact on the immune reactivity of a macrophage model cell line. Reactions between BH and red blood cell (RBC) ghosts effectively reconstituted the observed immunomodulatory reactivity of native hemozoin. Together, these results suggest that the interaction between hemozoin and the RBC lipids results in the generation of toxic products and that these products are responsible for disrupting macrophage function in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare K Carney
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Station B. 351822, Nashville, TN 37235, USA
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Medana IM, Turner GDH. Human cerebral malaria and the blood-brain barrier. Int J Parasitol 2006; 36:555-68. [PMID: 16616145 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2006.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2005] [Revised: 01/31/2006] [Accepted: 02/06/2006] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Malaria represents a continuing and major global health challenge and our understanding of how the Plasmodium parasite causes severe disease and death remains poor. One serious complication of the infection is cerebral malaria, a clinically complex syndrome of coma and potentially reversible encephalopathy, associated with a high mortality rate and increasingly recognised long-term sequelae in survivors. Research into the pathophysiology of cerebral malaria, using a combination of clinical and pathological studies, animal models and in vitro cell culture work, has focussed attention on the blood-brain barrier (BBB). This represents the key interface between the brain parenchyma and the parasite, which develops within an infected red cell but remains inside the vascular space. Studies of BBB function in cerebral malaria have provided some evidence for parasite-induced changes secondary to sequestration of parasitised red blood cells and host leukocytes within the cerebral microvasculature, such as redistribution of endothelial cell intercellular junction proteins and intracellular signaling. However, the evidence for a generalised increase in BBB permeability, leading to cerebral oedema, is conflicting. As well as direct cell adhesion-dependent effects, local adhesion-independent effects may activate and damage cerebral endothelial cells and perivascular cells, such as decreased blood flow, hypoxia or the effects of parasite toxins such as pigment. Finally, a number of systemic mechanisms could influence the BBB during malaria, such as the metabolic and inflammatory complications of severe disease acting 'at a distance'. This review will summarise evidence for these mechanisms from human studies of cerebral malaria and discuss the possible role for BBB dysfunction in this complex and challenging disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle M Medana
- Malaria Research Group, Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, Oxford University, Oxford, UK
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15
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Jaramillo M, Plante I, Ouellet N, Vandal K, Tessier PA, Olivier M. Hemozoin-inducible proinflammatory events in vivo: potential role in malaria infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 172:3101-10. [PMID: 14978116 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.172.5.3101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
During malaria infection, high levels of proinflammatory molecules (e.g., cytokines, chemokines) correlate with disease severity. Even if their role as activators of the host immune response has been studied, the direct contribution of hemozoin (HZ), a parasite metabolite, to such a strong induction is not fully understood. Previous in vitro studies demonstrated that both Plasmodium falciparum HZ and synthetic HZ (sHZ), beta-hematin, induce macrophage/monocyte chemokine and proinflammatory cytokine secretion. In the present study, we investigated the proinflammatory properties of sHZ in vivo. To this end, increasing doses of sHZ were injected either i.v. or into an air pouch generated on the dorsum of BALB/c mice over a 24-h period. Our results showed that sHZ is a strong modulator of leukocyte recruitment and more specifically of neutrophil and monocyte populations. In addition, evaluation of chemokine and cytokine mRNA and protein expression revealed that sHZ induces the expression of chemokines, macrophage-inflammatory protein (MIP)-1alpha/CCL3, MIP-1beta/CCL4, MIP-2/CXCL2, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1/CCL2; chemokine receptors, CCR1, CCR2, CCR5, CXCR2, and CXCR4; cytokines, IL-1beta and IL-6; and myeloid-related proteins, S100A8, S100A9, and S100A8/A9, in the air pouch exudates. Of interest, chemokine and cytokine mRNA up-regulation were also detected in the liver of i.v. sHZ-injected mice. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that sHZ is a potent proinflammatory agent in vivo, which could contribute to the immunopathology related to malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maritza Jaramillo
- Centre de Recherche en Infectiologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Quebec, Pavillon Centre Hospitalier de l'Université Laval, and Département de Biologie Médicale, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Ste-Foy, Quebec, Canada
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Abstract
The haemoglobinopathies have a celebrated role in the study of human genetics as the first examples of balanced polymorphisms described in human populations. Over the last 50 years, considerable evidence has been provided to show that these traits do confer protection from malaria. More recently, the underlying mechanisms of protection have been examined. This short review summarizes these studies and where possible shows how the putative mechanisms of protection may be linked to redox processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Roberts
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences and National Blood Service-Oxford Centre, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK.
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Becker K, Tilley L, Vennerstrom JL, Roberts D, Rogerson S, Ginsburg H. Oxidative stress in malaria parasite-infected erythrocytes: host–parasite interactions. Int J Parasitol 2004; 34:163-89. [PMID: 15037104 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2003.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 417] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2003] [Revised: 09/18/2003] [Accepted: 09/18/2003] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Experimenta naturae, like the glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, indicate that malaria parasites are highly susceptible to alterations in the redox equilibrium. This offers a great potential for the development of urgently required novel chemotherapeutic strategies. However, the relationship between the redox status of malarial parasites and that of their host is complex. In this review article we summarise the presently available knowledge on sources and detoxification pathways of reactive oxygen species in malaria parasite-infected red cells, on clinical aspects of redox metabolism and redox-related mechanisms of drug action as well as future prospects for drug development. As delineated below, alterations in redox status contribute to disease manifestation including sequestration, cerebral pathology, anaemia, respiratory distress, and placental malaria. Studying haemoglobinopathies, like thalassemias and sickle cell disease, and other red cell defects that provide protection against malaria allows insights into this fine balance of redox interactions. The host immune response to malaria involves phagocytosis as well as the production of nitric oxide and oxygen radicals that form part of the host defence system and also contribute to the pathology of the disease. Haemoglobin degradation by the malarial parasite produces the redox active by-products, free haem and H(2)O(2), conferring oxidative insult on the host cell. However, the parasite also supplies antioxidant moieties to the host and possesses an efficient enzymatic antioxidant defence system including glutathione- and thioredoxin-dependent proteins. Mechanistic and structural work on these enzymes might provide a basis for targeting the parasite. Indeed, a number of currently used drugs, especially the endoperoxide antimalarials, appear to act by increasing oxidant stress, and novel drugs such as peroxidic compounds and anthroquinones are being developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Becker
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, Justus-Liebig University, D-35392 Giessen, Germany.
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Jaramillo M, Gowda DC, Radzioch D, Olivier M. Hemozoin increases IFN-gamma-inducible macrophage nitric oxide generation through extracellular signal-regulated kinase- and NF-kappa B-dependent pathways. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 171:4243-53. [PMID: 14530348 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.171.8.4243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
NO overproduction has been suggested to contribute to the immunopathology related to malaria infection. Even though a role for some parasite molecules (e.g., GPI) in NO induction has been proposed, the direct contribution of hemozoin (HZ), another parasite metabolite, remains to be established. Therefore, we were interested to determine whether Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) HZ and synthetic HZ, beta-hematin, alone or in combination with IFN-gamma, were able to induce macrophage (Mphi) NO synthesis. We observed that neither Pf HZ nor synthetic HZ led to NO generation in B10R murine Mphi; however, they significantly increased IFN-gamma-mediated inducible NO synthase (iNOS) mRNA and protein expression, and NO production. Next, by investigating the transductional mechanisms involved in this cellular regulation, we established that HZ induces extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation as well as NF-kappaB binding to the iNOS promoter, and enhances the IFN-gamma-dependent activation of both second messengers. Of interest, cell pretreatment with specific inhibitors against either NF-kappaB or the ERK1/2 pathway blocked the HZ + IFN-gamma-inducible NF-kappaB activity and significantly reduced the HZ-dependent increase on IFN-gamma-mediated iNOS and NO induction. Even though selective inhibition of the Janus kinase 2/STAT1alpha pathway suppressed NO synthesis in response to HZ + IFN-gamma, HZ alone did not activate this signaling pathway and did not have an up-regulating effect on the IFN-gamma-induced Janus kinase 2/STAT1alpha phosphorylation and STAT1alpha binding to the iNOS promoter. In conclusion, our results suggest that HZ exerts a potent synergistic effect on the IFN-gamma-inducible NO generation in Mphi via ERK- and NF-kappaB-dependent pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maritza Jaramillo
- Centre de Recherche en Infectiologie, Département de Biologie médicale, Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Ste-Foy, Québec, Canada
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Lekana Douki JB, Traore B, Costa FTM, Fusaï T, Pouvelle B, Sterkers Y, Scherf A, Gysin J. Sequestration of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes to chondroitin sulfate A, a receptor for maternal malaria: monoclonal antibodies against the native parasite ligand reveal pan-reactive epitopes in placental isolates. Blood 2002; 100:1478-83. [PMID: 12149234 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2002-01-0315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum parasites express variant adhesion molecules on the surface of infected erythrocytes (IEs), which act as targets for natural protection. Recently it was shown that IE sequestration in the placenta is mediated by binding to chondroitin sulfate A via the duffy binding-like (DBL)-gamma 3 domain of P falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1(CSA)). Conventional immunization procedures rarely result in the successful production of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against such conformational vaccine candidates. Here, we show that this difficulty can be overcome by rendering Balb/c mice B cells tolerant to the surface of human erythrocytes or Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells before injecting P falciparum IEs or transfected CHO cells expressing the chondroitin sulfate A (CSA)-binding domain (DBL-gamma 3) of the FCR3 var(CSA) gene. We fused spleen cells with P3U1 cells and obtained between 20% and 60% mAbs that specifically label the surface of mature infected erythrocytes of the CSA phenotype (mIE(CSA)) but not of other adhesive phenotypes. Surprisingly, 70.8% of the 43 mAbs analyzed in this work were IgM. All mAbs immunoprecipitated PfEMP1(CSA) from extracts of (125)I surface-labeled IE(CSA). Several mAbs bound efficiently to the surface of CSA-binding parasites from different geographic areas and to placental isolates from West Africa. The cross-reactive mAbs are directed against the DBL-gamma 3(CSA), demonstrating that this domain, which mediates CSA binding, is able to induce a pan-reactive immune response. This work is an important step toward the development of a DBL-gamma 3-based vaccine that could protect pregnant women from pathogenesis. )
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Bernard Lekana Douki
- Unité de Parasitologie Expérimentale, Faculté de Médecine, Université de la Méditerranée (Aix-Marseille II), Marseille, France
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Biswas S, Karmarkar MG, Sharma YD. Antibodies detected against Plasmodium falciparum haemozoin with inhibitory properties to cytokine production. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2001; 194:175-9. [PMID: 11164304 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2001.tb09465.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Haemozoin, the malaria pigment, regulates the synthesis of several host cytokines and has been found to be associated with the disease severity. Here we describe that malarial patients produce a significant amount of anti-haemozoin IgM antibodies. Levels of these antibodies were higher among the complicated Plasmodium falciparum cases compared to the non-complicated P. falciparum group and Plasmodium vivax patients. The P. falciparum haemozoin also induced the synthesis of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) by the monocytes of the healthy individuals, but the production of these cytokines by the monocytes was inhibited in the presence of the anti-haemozoin IgM antibodies. Therefore, it seems that the host produces these antibodies (mainly IgM types) during malarial infection that can influence the progression of the disease by inhibiting the production of cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Biswas
- Malaria Research Centre, Delhi, India.
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Taramelli D, Recalcati S, Basilico N, Olliaro P, Cairo G. Macrophage preconditioning with synthetic malaria pigment reduces cytokine production via heme iron-dependent oxidative stress. J Transl Med 2000; 80:1781-8. [PMID: 11140691 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.3780189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemozoin (malaria pigment), a polymer of hematin (ferri-protoporphyrin IX) derived from hemoglobin ingested by intraerythrocytic plasmodia, modulates cytokine production by phagocytes. Mouse peritoneal macrophages (PM) fed with synthetic beta-hematin (BH), structurally identical to native hemozoin, no longer produce tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) and nitric oxide (NO) in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Impairment of NO synthesis is due to inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) production. BH-mediated inhibition of PM functions cannot be ascribed to iron release from BH because neither prevention by iron chelators nor down-regulation of iron-regulatory protein activity was detected. Inhibition appears to be related to pigment-induced oxidative stress because (a) thiol compounds partially restored PM functions, (b) heme oxygenase (HO-1) and catalase mRNA levels were up-regulated, and (c) free radicals production increased in BH-treated cells. The antioxidant defenses of the cells determine the response to BH: microglia cells, which show a lower extent of induction of HO-1 and catalase mRNAs and lower accumulation of oxygen radicals, are less sensitive to the inhibitory effect of BH on cytokine production. Results indicate that BH is resistant to degradation by HO-1 and that heme-iron mediated oxidative stress may contribute to malaria-induced immunosuppression. This study may help correlate the different clinical manifestations of malaria, ranging from uncomplicated to severe disease, with dysregulation of phagocyte functions and promote better therapeutic strategies to counteract the effects of hemozoin accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Taramelli
- Istituto di Microbiologia, Università di Milano, Milan, Italy.
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22
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Olliaro P, Lombardi L, Frigerio S, Basilico N, Taramelli D, Monti D. Phagocytosis of hemozoin (native and synthetic malaria pigment), and Plasmodium falciparum intraerythrocyte-stage parasites by human and mouse phagocytes. Ultrastruct Pathol 2000; 24:9-13. [PMID: 10721147 DOI: 10.1080/019131200281264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Hemozoin, the detoxification product of hemoglobin heme, piles up as electron-dense material in the food vacuole (FV) of intraerythrocytic malaria parasites (malaria pigment). In infected individuals, pigment is internalized by both circulating and resident phagocytes, thus modulating their functions. Synthetic beta-hematin, prepared in vitro from hematin (ferriprotoporphyrin IX hydroxide) in acidic condition, is spectroscopically identical to hemozoin. In this electron microscopy study, native and synthetic hemozoin also prove to be morphologically indistinguishable (large polygonal crystals with apparent transverse banding) and to undergo the same process when internalized by phagocytes (primarily a direct uptake of crystals, similar to what is described for asbestos fibers). On the contrary, whole parasites appear to follow a classical endocytic pathway. This suggests that there may be differences between the ingestion of free particles and whole parasites in terms of modulation of phagocytes' functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Olliaro
- UNDP/WorldBank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR), Geneva, Switzerland
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Silamut K, Phu NH, Whitty C, Turner GD, Louwrier K, Mai NT, Simpson JA, Hien TT, White NJ. A quantitative analysis of the microvascular sequestration of malaria parasites in the human brain. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 1999; 155:395-410. [PMID: 10433933 PMCID: PMC1866852 DOI: 10.1016/s0002-9440(10)65136-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 289] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Microvascular sequestration was assessed in the brains of 50 Thai and Vietnamese patients who died from severe malaria (Plasmodium falciparum, 49; P. vivax, 1). Malaria parasites were sequestered in 46 cases; in 3 intravascular malaria pigment but no parasites were evident; and in the P. vivax case there was no sequestration. Cerebrovascular endothelial expression of the putative cytoadherence receptors ICAM-1, VCAM-1, E-selectin, and chondroitin sulfate and also HLA class II was increased. The median (range) ratio of cerebral to peripheral blood parasitemia was 40 (1.8 to 1500). Within the same brain different vessels had discrete but different populations of parasites, indicating that the adhesion characteristics of cerebrovascular endothelium change asynchronously during malaria and also that significant recirculation of parasitized erythrocytes following sequestration is unlikely. The median (range) ratio of schizonts to trophozoites (0.15:1; 0.0 to 11.7) was significantly lower than predicted from the parasite life cycle (P < 0.001). Antimalarial treatment arrests development at the trophozoite stages which remain sequestered in the brain. There were significantly more ring form parasites (age < 26 hours) in the cerebral microvasculature (median range: 19%; 0-90%) than expected from free mixing of these cells in the systemic circulation (median range ring parasitemia: 1.8%; 0-36.2%). All developmental stages of P. falciparum are sequestered in the brain in severe malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Silamut
- Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
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