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Rasooly R, Do P, Hernlem B. T-cell receptor Vβ8 for detection of biologically active streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin type C. J Dairy Sci 2023; 106:6723-6730. [PMID: 37210361 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2023-23286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Streptococcus pyogenes is an important human pathogen, commonly spread by airborne droplets but also by ingestion of contaminated food. Apart from causing infection, this pathogen produces 13 distinct types of streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxins (SPE). The current method for detection cannot distinguish between the biologically active form of SPE that has been reported to cause foodborne outbreaks and the inactivated toxin that poses no health risk. To measure the biological activity of SPE type C (SPE-C), one such toxin that was linked to foodborne outbreaks associated with milk and milk products, we developed a cell-based assay that can discern between biologically active and inactive SPE-C. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first showing that SPE-C activates T-cells expressing Vβ8. With this finding, we used a T-cell line natively expressing Vβ8 that was genetically engineered to also express the luciferase reporter gene under the regulation of nuclear factor of activated T-cells response element in combination with a B-cell line to present the recombinant SPE-C (rSPE-C) toxin via major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II to the Vβ8 T-cell receptor (TCR) in an assay to detect and to discern between biologically active and inactive rSPE-C. By using this system, we demonstrated that SPE-C induced significant IL-2 secretion after 72 h and visible light emission after only 5 h, doubling by 24 h. We utilize this finding to assess the specificity of the assay and the effect of pasteurization on SPE-C activity. We observed no cross-reactivity with SPE-B and significant loss of SPE-C biological activity in spiked phosphate-buffered saline while SPE-C spiked into milk is heat stable. Once SPE-C has formed, it is infeasible to eliminate it from milk by thermal treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reuven Rasooly
- Western Regional Research Center, Foodborne Toxin Detection and Prevention Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Albany, CA 94710.
| | - Paula Do
- Western Regional Research Center, Foodborne Toxin Detection and Prevention Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Albany, CA 94710
| | - Bradley Hernlem
- Western Regional Research Center, Foodborne Toxin Detection and Prevention Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Albany, CA 94710
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Boksha IS, Lunin VG, Danilova TA, Poponova MS, Polyakov NB, Lyashchuk AM, Konstantinova SV, Galushkina ZM, Ustenko EV. Recombinant Endopeptidases IdeS and IdeZ and Their Potential Application. BIOCHEMISTRY. BIOKHIMIIA 2023; 88:731-740. [PMID: 37748870 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297923060020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
Endopeptidases IdeS and IdeZ (streptococcal virulence factors that specifically cleave IgG heavy chains) are of particular interest because of their potential use in biotechnology, medicine, and veterinary. Genes encoding these enzymes were cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli heterologous expression system (ideS was cloned from a Streptococcus pyogenes collection strain; ideZ from Streptococcus zooepidemicus was synthesized). The 6His-tag was introduced into the amino acid sequence of each endopeptidase, and IdeS and IdeZ were purified by metal affinity chromatography to an apparent homogeneity (according to polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis). Purified enzymes were active against human and animal IgGs; their specificity toward human IgGs was confirmed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Recombinant IdeZ was used for immunological analysis of equine strangles infection (diagnostics and determination of the titer of specific antibodies in blood). Hence, IdeZ can be used in veterinary and sanitary microbiology to diagnose infections caused by Streptococcus equi and S. zooepidemicus in addition to its application in medicine and biotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina S Boksha
- Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, 123098, Russia.
- Mental Health Research Centre, Moscow, 115522, Russia
| | - Vladimir G Lunin
- Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, 123098, Russia
| | - Tatyana A Danilova
- Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, 123098, Russia
| | - Maria S Poponova
- Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, 123098, Russia
| | - Nikita B Polyakov
- Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, 123098, Russia
| | - Alexander M Lyashchuk
- Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, 123098, Russia
| | - Svetlana V Konstantinova
- Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, 123098, Russia
| | - Zoya M Galushkina
- Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, 123098, Russia
| | - Ekaterina V Ustenko
- Gamaleya National Research Center for Epidemiology and Microbiology, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, 123098, Russia
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Azpiroz MF, Burger N, Mazza M, Rodríguez G, Camou T, García Gabarrot G. Characterization of Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus isolates containing lnuB gene responsible for the L phenotype. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0284869. [PMID: 37115801 PMCID: PMC10146458 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0284869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Within the framework of the β-hemolytic streptococci surveillance carried out by the National Reference Laboratory from Uruguay, three putative Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus (SEZ) were received from different health centers. Being these the first reports associated with human infections in Uruguay, the objective of this work was to confirm their identification, to determine their genetic relationship and to study their antibiotic susceptibility. Using four different methods, they were identified as SEZ, a subspecies which has been described as the etiologic agent of rare and severe zoonosis in a few cases in other countries. The three isolates presented different pulsotypes by PFGE; however, two of them appeared to be related and were confirmed as ST431 by MLST, while the remaining isolate displayed ST72. Their resistance profile exhibited an unexpected feature: despite all of them were susceptible to macrolides, they showed different levels of resistance to clindamycin, i.e. they had the so-called "L phenotype". This rare trait is known to be due to a nucleotidyl-transferase, encoded by genes of the lnu family. Although this phenotype was previously described in a few SEZ isolates, its genetic basis has not been studied yet. This was now analyzed by PCR in the three isolates and they were found to contain a lnuB gene. The lnuB sequence was identical among the three isolates and with many lnuB sequences deposited in data banks. In conclusion, for the first time in Uruguay, three SEZ isolates recovered from non-epidemiologically related cases of human invasive infection were identified. Moreover, this is the first report about the presence of a lnu gene in the S. equi species, revealing the active lateral spread of the lnuB in a new streptococcal host.
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Affiliation(s)
- María F Azpiroz
- Facultad de Ciencias, Fisiología y Genética Bacterianas, UdelaR, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | | | | | | | - Teresa Camou
- Departamento de Laboratorios de Salud Pública, Ministerio de Salud Pública, Montevideo, Uruguay
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Waśniewska-Włodarczyk A, Pepaś R, Janowicz R, Konopka W. Streptococcus equi subsp. equi in Retropharyngeal Abscess: Case Report and Review of Literature. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10102032. [PMID: 36296308 PMCID: PMC9610968 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10102032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Revised: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Retropharyngeal abscesses (RPAs) represent the group of deep space infections of the neck. Although RPA is a well-known condition, some aspects of it still may be challenging. Localization, symptoms, and etiology may confuse even the most experienced physicians. S. equi subspecies are zoonotic agents and cause multiple diseases in diverse animals. Infections in humans are rare. This report presents an extremely rare case of retropharyngeal abscess in a 12-year-old girl caused by an infection of Streptococcus equi subsp. equi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Waśniewska-Włodarczyk
- Department of Otolaryngology, Polish Mother’s Memorial Hospital Research Institute, 93-338 Lodz, Poland
- Department of Normal and Clinical Anatomy, Medical University of Lodz, 90-419 Lodz, Poland
- Correspondence:
| | - Renata Pepaś
- Department of Otolaryngology, Polish Mother’s Memorial Hospital Research Institute, 93-338 Lodz, Poland
| | - Renata Janowicz
- Department of Otolaryngology, Polish Mother’s Memorial Hospital Research Institute, 93-338 Lodz, Poland
| | - Wiesław Konopka
- Department of Otolaryngology, Polish Mother’s Memorial Hospital Research Institute, 93-338 Lodz, Poland
- Department of Paediatric Didactics, Medical University of Lodz, 90-419 Lodz, Poland
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Pinto SW, do Nascimento Lima H, de Abreu TT, Otoni A, Koch Nogueira PC, Sesso R. Twenty-year Follow-up of Patients With Epidemic Glomerulonephritis due to Streptococcus zooepidemicus in Brazil. Kidney Int Rep 2022; 7:2029-2038. [PMID: 36090503 PMCID: PMC9458988 DOI: 10.1016/j.ekir.2022.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN) has a good prognosis in children, but few studies have evaluated the long-term renal outcomes in adults with PSGN. Methods In a follow-up study, 47 predominantly adult patients with PSGN due to group C Streptococcus zooepidemicus were reassessed 20 years after an outbreak in Nova Serrana, Brazil. We evaluated clinical characteristics, renal outcomes, and the trajectory of the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) by the creatinine-based chronic kidney disease-epidemiology collaboration equation from 5 follow-up assessments. Logistic regression and mixed-effects regression were used in the analysis. Results After 20 years, the participants’ mean age was 56.6±15.1 years. Thirty-four (72%) patients had hypertension, 21 (44.7%) had eGFR <60 ml/min per 1.73 m2, 8 of 43 (18.6%) had urine protein-to-creatinine ratio >150 mg/g, and 25 (53%) had CKD (low eGFR and/or increased proteinuria). Increasing age was associated with CKD (odds ratio: 1.07; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.02–1.13; P = 0.011) in multivariate analysis. The mean eGFR decline in the last 11 years of follow-up was −3.2 ml/min per 1.73 m2 per year (95% CI: −3.7 to −2.7). Older age at baseline (coefficient −1.05 ml/min per 1.73 m2 per year; 95% CI −1.28 to −0.81; P < 0.001), and hypertension 5 years after the outbreak (coefficient −7.78 ml/min/1.73 m2; 95% CI −14.67 to −0.78; P = 0.027) were associated with lower eGFR during the whole study period. Conclusion There was a marked worsening of renal function and a high prevalence of CKD and hypertension after 20 years of PSGN outbreak. Long-term follow-up is warranted after PSGN, especially among older patients.
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Brant Pinheiro SV, de Freitas VB, de Castro GV, Rufino Madeiro BC, de Araújo SA, Silva Ribeiro TF, Simões E Silva AC. Acute Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis In Children: A Comprehensive Review. Curr Med Chem 2022; 29:5543-5559. [PMID: 35702785 DOI: 10.2174/0929867329666220613103316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (APSGN) is an immune-complex (ICs) mediated glomerular disease triggered by group A β-hemolytic streptococcus (GAS) or Streptococcus pyogenes infections. APSGN represents a major cause of acquired kidney injury in children. METHODS This non-systematic review summarizes recent evidence on APSGN. We discuss the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical and laboratory findings, histopathology, treatment and prognosis of the disease. RESULTS The median APSGN incidence in children in developing countries is estimated at 24.3/100,000 per year, compared with 6.2/100,000 per year in developed countries. Nephritis-associated plasmin receptor, identified as glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and the cationic cysteine proteinase streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B are thought to be two leading streptococcal antigens involved in the pathogenesis of APSGN, which activate the complement system, mainly via the alternative but also the lectin pathway. This process is critical for the generation of inflammation by the ICs deposited in the glomerulus. The classic phenotype is an acute diffuse proliferative glomerulonephritis leading to features of the nephritic syndrome including hematuria, oliguria, hypertension and edema. The histopathology shows that the glomeruli are diffused affected, mostly presenting enlarged glomerular tuffs due to hypercellularity. Proliferative endothelial and mesangial cells and inflammation are also observed. APSGN frequently has spontaneous recovery. There is no specific therapy, but its morbidity and mortality are drastically reduced by the prevention and/or treatment of complications. CONCLUSION Despite recent advances, the pathogenesis of APSGN is not fully understood. There is no specific treatment for APSGN. The prognosis is generally good. However some cases may evolve to chronic kidney disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sérgio Veloso Brant Pinheiro
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Victor Buchini de Freitas
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, Faculty of Medicine, UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Gustavo Valverde de Castro
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, Faculty of Medicine, UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | | | | | - Thomas Felipe Silva Ribeiro
- Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, Faculty of Medicine, UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Ana Cristina Simões E Silva
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.,Interdisciplinary Laboratory of Medical Investigation, Faculty of Medicine, UFMG, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
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Occurrence and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Profiles of Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus Strains Isolated from Mares with Fertility Problems. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 11:antibiotics11010025. [PMID: 35052902 PMCID: PMC8773361 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11010025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus (S. zooepidemicus), is a β-hemolytic Streptococcus belonging to the Lancefield group C; it is a rare human pathogen, but in horses, it is frequently associated with endometritis. This study aimed to isolate S. zooepidemicus strains, associated with bacterial endometritis in mares, and to define their antimicrobial resistance profile. Twenty-three isolates were recovered from one hundred ninety-six equine uterine swabs (11.7%). Bacterial identification was carried out by Api 20 Strep and confirmed by matrix assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS), while antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed by disk diffusion method on Muller Hinton agar plates. The antibiotic resistance profiles of the isolates revealed a high percentage of resistance to amikacin (95.6%), ampicillin (73.9%) and tetracycline (69.6%), while ceftiofur and ceftriaxone were highly effective with 82.6% and 78.3% of the isolates inhibited, respectively. An intriguing value of resistance to penicillin (34.8%), which represents the first-choice antibiotic in equine S. zooepidemicus infections, was observed. Furthermore, a high prevalence of multidrug-resistant strains (82.6%) was recorded. Continuous surveillance of this potential zoonotic pathogen and an appropriate antimicrobial stewardship program with the promotion of correct use of antimicrobials, after a proper diagnosis, are needed to allow an effective therapy.
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Rodriguez-Iturbe B. Autoimmunity in Acute Poststreptococcal GN: A Neglected Aspect of the Disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2021; 32:534-542. [PMID: 33531351 PMCID: PMC7920173 DOI: 10.1681/asn.2020081228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute poststreptococcal GN (APSGN) is the prototype of immune complex GN and is associated with manifestations of autoimmune reactivity that have been neglected as epiphenomena. Recently, studies have demonstrated transient antifactor B autoantibodies that activate the alternative complement pathway, bringing self-immunity to a central position in the pathogenesis of APSGN. Therefore, examining other manifestations of autoimmunity that have been reported in association with poststreptococcal GN is of interest. This article reviews the renal and extrarenal manifestations of autoimmune reactivity in APSGN and considers their potential relevance in modifying the usually benign clinical course of the disease. It also discusses related aspects of the nephritogenic antigens, complement activation, and genetic elements associated with immune reactivity and their potential relevance to the familial incidence of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernardo Rodriguez-Iturbe
- Department of Nephrology, Instituto Nacional de Nutrición y Ciencias Médicas "Salvador Zubirán" and Instituto Nacional de Cardiología "Ignacio Chávez," Mexico City, Mexico
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Mitchell CM, Johnson LK, Crim MJ, Wiedmeyer CE, Pugazhenthi U, Tousey S, Tollin DJ, Habenicht LM, Fink MK, Fong DL, Leszczynski JK, Manuel CA. Diagnosis, Surveillance and Management of Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus Infections in Chinchillas ( Chinchilla lanigera). Comp Med 2020; 70:370-375. [PMID: 32731906 PMCID: PMC7446643 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-cm-20-000012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
During a 6-mo period, two 5-6 mo old female chinchillas (Chinchilla lanigera) were examined at the University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus after the discovery of firm, nonmobile masses in the left ventral cervical and left axillary region. Other than these findings and mild weight loss, both chinchillas' physical exams were normal. Bloodwork revealed an inflammatory leukogram characterized by leukocytosis, toxic neutrophils, lymphopenia, and monocytosis with mild, nonregenerative anemia. At necropsy, both masses were identified as abscesses. Streptococcus equi, subspecies zooepidemicus (S. zooepidemicus) was isolated in pure culture. Histology of the lungs, liver, spleen, and kidneys showed a marked increase in the numbers of both polymorphonuclear leukocytes and lymphocytes. Both animals were deemed unsuitable for research and were euthanized under isoflurane anesthesia by an intracardiac injection of pentobarbital sodium solution. S. zooepidemicus is an opportunistic, commensal organism found in the upper respiratory tract of horses. This organism has been documented to cause disease in other species and is zoonotic. Infections in humans have been reported, resulting in glomerulonephritis, endocarditis, septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, meningitis, and death. To aid in diagnosis and prospective surveillance of this bacteria, oral and nasal swabs were collected from the remaining cohort of chinchillas, and a qPCR screening assay was implemented. Within 12 mo, 4 of 41 additional females tested positive by culture or qPCR, resulting in a disease prevalence of 14% (6 of 43). However, only 2 of the additional 4 S. zooepidemicus positive animals developed clinical signs. The potential for the spread of infection, zoonosis, and adverse effects on research demonstrate that surveillance for S. zooepidemicus should be considered in a biomedical research environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cara M Mitchell
- Animal Resources Center Department of Surgery, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Linda K Johnson
- Department of Pathology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Marcus J Crim
- IDEXX BioAnalytics Diagnostic Services, Columbia, Missouri
| | - Charles E Wiedmeyer
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
| | - Umarani Pugazhenthi
- School of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Diabetes, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Susan Tousey
- Department of Pathology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; Office of Laboratory Animal Resources, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Daniel J Tollin
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Lauren M Habenicht
- Office of Laboratory Animal Resources, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; Department of Pathology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Michael K Fink
- Office of Laboratory Animal Resources, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; Department of Pathology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Derek L Fong
- Office of Laboratory Animal Resources, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; Department of Pathology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Jori K Leszczynski
- Office of Laboratory Animal Resources, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; Department of Pathology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
| | - Christopher A Manuel
- Office of Laboratory Animal Resources, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado; Department of Pathology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado;,
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Infections Caused by Group C and G Streptococcus ( Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis and Others): Epidemiological and Clinical Aspects. Microbiol Spectr 2019; 7. [PMID: 30977463 DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.gpp3-0016-2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptococci carrying serogroup C and G antigens, and in particular, Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis (SDSE), are emerging human pathogens that are increasingly isolated from patients with a myriad of infections that range from mundane to life-threatening. SDSE is microbiologically similar to Streptococcus pyogenes. These streptococci frequently cause infections of the throat and skin and soft tissues. Moreover, they may invade the bloodstream and disseminate widely to many deep tissue sites, including the endocardium. Life-threatening invasive infections due to SDSE, including the streptococcal toxic shock syndrome, occur most frequently in patients with severe underlying medical diseases. Treatment with penicillin is adequate under most circumstances, but treatment failure occurs. SDSE may also be resistant to other antibiotic classes including tetracyclines, macrolides, and clindamycin. Most human infections caused by groups C and G streptococci are transmitted from person to person, but infections due to Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus (and, rarely, to S. equi subsp. equi) are zoonoses. Transmission of these latter species occurs by animal contact or by contamination of food products and has been associated with the development of poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis. Members of the Streptococcus anginosus group, usually classified with the viridans group of streptococci, are associated with a variety of pyogenic infections.
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Outbreak of Glomerulonephritis Caused by Streptococcus zooepidemicus SzPHV5 Type in Monte Santo de Minas, Minas Gerais, Brazil. J Clin Microbiol 2018; 56:JCM.00845-18. [PMID: 30068536 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00845-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus zooepidemicus is an emerging and opportunistic zoonotic pathogen which plays an important role in the development of severe and life-threatening diseases and is potentially capable of triggering large glomerulonephritis outbreaks. Between December 2012 and February 2013, 175 cases of glomerulonephritis were confirmed in the town of Monte Santo de Minas, MG, Brazil. During the outbreak, 19 isolates of S. zooepidemicus were recovered, 1 from ice cream, 2 from the oropharynx of food handlers, and 16 from patients affected by acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis (APSGN). All S. zooepidemicus isolates involved in the outbreak amplified the same sequence of the hypervariable region of the SzP protein (SzPHV5) and presented indistinguishable banding patterns with high similarity (>99%) to each other by the repetitive element sequence-based PCR (rep-PCR) technique. Inspection programs on the milk supply chain should be strengthened and continuously encouraged so that the health of consumers is preserved.
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Veldeman L, De Wilde K, Vogelaers D, Lerut E, Vonck A, Mertens D, Koch A, Beckers J. Acute renal failure with need for renal replacement therapy as a complication of zoonotic S. zooepidemicus infection: case report and review of the literature. Acta Clin Belg 2018; 73:144-150. [PMID: 28508721 DOI: 10.1080/17843286.2017.1326547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus zooepidemicus is an animal commensal with the potential of zoonotic transmission through ingestion of contaminated dairy products, leading to outbreaks of Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis (PSGN). We report for the first time acute renal failure with need for renal replacement therapy, as a complication of S. zooepidemicus bacteremia resulting from direct horse to human transmission in a young adult. Both clinical disease course and immunohistochemical staining patterns on renal biopsy had some atypical features of PSGN suggesting persistent activation of the alternative complement pathway but no known complement factor dysregulations could be identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurens Veldeman
- Department of Nephrology, Ghent University Hospital, Gent, Belgium
| | - Katrien De Wilde
- Department of Nephrology, az St.-Blasius Dendermonde, Dendermonde, Belgium
| | - Dirk Vogelaers
- Department of General Internal Medicine, Ghent University Hospital, Gent, Belgium
| | - Evelyne Lerut
- Department of Pathology, Leuven University Hospital, Leuven, Belgium
| | - An Vonck
- Department of Nephrology, az St.-Blasius Dendermonde, Dendermonde, Belgium
| | - Dien Mertens
- Department of Internal Medicine, Leuven University Hospital, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Annelies Koch
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, az St.-Blasius Dendermonde, Dendermonde, Belgium
| | - Jan Beckers
- Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, az St.-Blasius Dendermonde, Dendermonde, Belgium
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Maharaj S, Seegobin K, Chrzanowski S, Chang S. Acute glomerulonephritis secondary to Streptococcus anginosus. BMJ Case Rep 2018. [PMID: 29523515 DOI: 10.1136/bcr-2017-223314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus anginosus is a clinically important pathogen that is emerging globally but remains poorly investigated. Here, we report the first case of acute glomerulonephritis resulting from infection with S. anginosus Glomerulonephritis is typically caused by S. pyogenes and reports secondary to other strains including S. zooepidemicus and S. constellatus exist. Infection with S. anginosus in this patient was associated with acute nephritis (haematuria, oedema and hypertension), nephrotic syndrome and progressive azotemia. There was activation of the complement system. The presence of low C1q and elevated anti-C1q binding complexes points to a potential pathogenic role. Testing for streptococcal antigens was strongly positive. Emerging nephritogenic strains of S. anginosus present a significant health concern for both developed and developing countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satish Maharaj
- Internal Medicine, University of Florida College of Medicine, Jacksonville, Florida, USA
| | - Karan Seegobin
- College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | | | - Simone Chang
- Hotz Children's Hospital, Jackson Health Sysrem, Miami, Florida, USA
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Steward KF, Robinson C, Holden MTG, Harris SR, Ros AF, Pérez GC, Baselga R, Waller AS. Diversity of Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus strains isolated from the Spanish sheep and goat population and the identification, function and prevalence of a novel arbutin utilisation system. Vet Microbiol 2017; 207:231-238. [PMID: 28757029 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2017.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Revised: 06/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The zoonotic bacterium Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus (S. zooepidemicus) is a diverse, opportunistic pathogen that can cause mastitis in dairy sheep and goats. We used multilocus sequence typing (MLST) to define the genetic diversity of 60 isolates of S. zooepidemicus, which were recovered from sheep and goats in Spain between 2003 and 2010. We identify a novel clonal complex based on sequence type (ST), ST-236, which accounted for 39 of the 60 isolates. A representative ST-236 strain, S. zooepidemicus strain C7 (SzC7), was sequenced and interrogated for the presence of novel nutritional uptake or utilisation systems, the acquisition of which have previously been shown to be important for environmental adaptation in other streptococcal pathogens. A novel phosphoenolpyruvate sugar phosphotransferase system (PTS), which enabled the utilisation of arbutin, was identified. Functionality of the PTS was confirmed following deletion of the PTS from SzC7. Arbutin is found in multiple animal foodstuffs and we propose that the ability to utilise arbutin may have conferred a selective advantage to strains infecting animals, the diet of which contains this sugar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen F Steward
- Centre for Preventative Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, United Kingdom
| | - Carl Robinson
- Centre for Preventative Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, United Kingdom.
| | - Matthew T G Holden
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Simon R Harris
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Ana Fernández Ros
- Microbiology Department, Exopol, 50840 San Mateo de Gállego, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Gema Chacón Pérez
- Microbiology Department, Exopol, 50840 San Mateo de Gállego, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Rafael Baselga
- Microbiology Department, Exopol, 50840 San Mateo de Gállego, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Andrew S Waller
- Centre for Preventative Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, United Kingdom
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Genomic Dissection of an Icelandic Epidemic of Respiratory Disease in Horses and Associated Zoonotic Cases. mBio 2017; 8:mBio.00826-17. [PMID: 28765219 PMCID: PMC5539424 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00826-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Iceland is free of the major infectious diseases of horses. However, in 2010 an epidemic of respiratory disease of unknown cause spread through the country’s native horse population of 77,000. Microbiological investigations ruled out known viral agents but identified the opportunistic pathogen Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus (S. zooepidemicus) in diseased animals. We sequenced the genomes of 257 isolates of S. zooepidemicus to differentiate epidemic from endemic strains. We found that although multiple endemic clones of S. zooepidemicus were present, one particular clone, sequence type 209 (ST209), was likely to have been responsible for the epidemic. Concurrent with the epidemic, ST209 was also recovered from a human case of septicemia, highlighting the pathogenic potential of this strain. Epidemiological investigation revealed that the incursion of this strain into one training yard during February 2010 provided a nidus for the infection of multiple horses that then transmitted the strain to farms throughout Iceland. This study represents the first time that whole-genome sequencing has been used to investigate an epidemic on a national scale to identify the likely causative agent and the link to an associated zoonotic infection. Our data highlight the importance of national biosecurity to protect vulnerable populations of animals and also demonstrate the potential impact of S. zooepidemicus transmission to other animals, including humans. An epidemic of respiratory disease affected almost the entire native Icelandic horse population of 77,000 animals in 2010, resulting in a self-imposed ban on the export of horses and significant economic costs to associated industries. Although the speed of transmission suggested that a viral pathogen was responsible, only the presence of the opportunistic pathogen Streptococcus zooepidemicus was consistent with the observed clinical signs. We applied genomic sequencing to differentiate epidemic from endemic strains and to shed light on the rapid transmission of the epidemic strain throughout Iceland. We further highlight the ability of epidemic and endemic strains of S. zooepidemicus to infect other animals, including humans. This study represents the first time that whole-genome sequencing has been used to elucidate an outbreak on a national scale and identify the likely causative agent.
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Kittang BR, Pettersen VK, Oppegaard O, Skutlaberg DH, Dale H, Wiker HG, Skrede S. Zoonotic necrotizing myositis caused by Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus in a farmer. BMC Infect Dis 2017; 17:147. [PMID: 28201995 PMCID: PMC5312586 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-017-2262-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus is a beta-hemolytic group C streptococcus mainly causing infections in domesticated animals. Here we describe the first case of zoonotic necrotizing myositis caused by this bacterium. CASE PRESENTATION The patient was a 73-year-old, previously healthy farmer with two asymptomatic Shetland ponies in his stable. After close contact with the ponies while feeding them, he rapidly developed erythema of his left thigh and sepsis with multiple organ failure. The clinical course was severe and complicated, requiring repetitive surgical excision of necrotic muscle, treatment with vasopressors, mechanical ventilation and continuous venovenous hemofiltration, along with adjunctive hyperbaric oxygen therapy. The patient was discharged from hospital at day 30, without obvious sequelae. The streptococcal isolate was identified as Streptococcus equi by MALDI-ToF MS, and was later assigned subspecies identification as S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus. Multilocus sequence typing identified the strain as a novel sequence type (ST 364), closely related to types previously identified in horses and cattle. A focused proteomic analysis revealed that the ST 364 expressed putative virulence factors similar to that of Streptococcus pyogenes, including homologues of the M protein, streptodornases, interleukin 8-protease and proteins involved in the biosynthesis of streptolysin S. CONCLUSION This case illustrates the zoonotic potential of S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus and the importance of early clinical recognition, rapid and radical surgical therapy, appropriate antibiotics and adequate supportive measures when necrotizing soft tissue infection is suspected. The expression of Streptococcus pyogenes-like putative virulence determinants in ST 364 might partially explain the fulminant clinical picture.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Veronika Kuchařová Pettersen
- The Gade Research Group for Infection and Immunity, Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Oddvar Oppegaard
- The Gade Research Group for Infection and Immunity, Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.,Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Dag Harald Skutlaberg
- The Gade Research Group for Infection and Immunity, Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.,Department of Microbiology, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Håvard Dale
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Harald G Wiker
- The Gade Research Group for Infection and Immunity, Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.,Department of Microbiology, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Steinar Skrede
- The Gade Research Group for Infection and Immunity, Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.,Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
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Pinto SWL, Mastroianni-Kirsztajn G, Sesso R. Ten-Year Follow-up of Patients with Epidemic Post Infectious Glomerulonephritis. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0125313. [PMID: 25962068 PMCID: PMC4427285 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2015] [Accepted: 03/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Scarce information on outcomes of epidemic post infectious glomerulonephritis is available. This is a 10-year follow-up of the patients that developed acute glomerulonephritis in an epidemic outbreak caused by group C Streptococcus zooepidemicus in Brazil in 1998, that were also previously evaluated 2 and 5 years after the acute episode. Methods In this prospective study 60 cases (out of 134 in 1998) were reevaluated after 10 years, as well as community controls matched by gender and age. They underwent clinical and renal function evaluation, including serum creatinine and cystatin C, estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), albuminuria and hematuria. Results Comparisons of clinical and renal function aspects of 60 patients and 48 community controls have not shown significant differences (eGFR <60 ml/min/1.73m2 and/or albuminuria >30mg/g creatinine: 13.8% vs. 12.2%, respectively, p = 0.817) except for a higher frequency of hypertension in the cases (45.0% vs. 20.8%, p = 0.009). Comparing the same patients affected in the acute episode, 2, 5 and 10 years later, it was observed an improvement of median eGFR levels at 2 years and a trend toward subsequent stabilization in these levels, associated with decrease in albuminuria and increased hypertension rates in the last survey. At 10 years it was not observed additional reduction of renal function using serum creatinine, eGFR and cystatin C. Conclusions During the acute episode of epidemic GN a considerable proportion of patients presented hypertension and reduced renal function; after 2 years and particularly at this 10-year follow-up survey there was no worsening of renal function parameters, except for persistent higher frequency of hypertension. Nevertheless, a longer follow up is necessary to confirm that progressive loss of renal function will not occur.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ricardo Sesso
- Division of Nephrology, Federal University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo-SP, Brazil
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Madžar D, Hagge M, Möller S, Regensburger M, Lee DH, Schwab S, Jantsch J. Endogenous endophthalmitis complicating Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus meningitis: a case report. BMC Res Notes 2015; 8:184. [PMID: 25940309 PMCID: PMC4423494 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-015-1133-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2015] [Accepted: 04/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus (Streptococcus zooepidemicus) is a rare cause of meningitis in humans. Humans mainly get infected by contact with an animal source or by ingestion of unpasteurized dairy products. In rare cases, bacterial meningitis can be complicated by endogenous endophthalmitis which is frequently associated with a poor visual prognosis. Case presentation A 73 year old male Caucasian patient presented with clinical signs indicative of bacterial meningitis. Blood and cerebrospinal fluid cultures yielded beta-hemolytic, catalase-negative cocci. The strain was identified as Streptococcus zooepidemicus. The patient was likely infected by contact with a sick horse. Under antibiotic treatment, his general condition improved rapidly. Early after hospital admission, however, he began seeing a black spot in his left eye’s central visual field. An ophthalmological examination revealed signs of endogenous endophthalmitis and so the patient underwent vitrectomy. Despite treatment, the visual acuity of his left eye remained severely impaired. He showed no further neurological deficits at hospital discharge. Conclusion Meningitis caused by Streptococcus zooepidemicus is rare with only 27 previously published adult cases in the literature. Of note, this report constitutes the third description of endogenous endophthalmitis associated with Streptococcus zooepidemicus meningitis. Thus, endogenous endophthalmitis may represent a comparatively common complication of meningitis caused by this microorganism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Madžar
- Department of Neurology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Schwabachanlage 6, 91054, Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Mareike Hagge
- Department of Neurology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Schwabachanlage 6, 91054, Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Sebastian Möller
- Department of Neurology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Schwabachanlage 6, 91054, Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Martin Regensburger
- Department of Neurology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Schwabachanlage 6, 91054, Erlangen, Germany.
| | - De-Hyung Lee
- Department of Neurology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Schwabachanlage 6, 91054, Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Stefan Schwab
- Department of Neurology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Schwabachanlage 6, 91054, Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Jonathan Jantsch
- Mikrobiologisches Institut - Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Wasserturmstraße 3-5, 91054, Erlangen, Germany. .,Present address: Institut für klinische Mikrobiologie und Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Regensburg, Franz-Josef-Strauß-Allee 11, 93053, Regensburg, Germany.
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Steward KF, Harrison T, Robinson C, Slater J, Maskell DJ, Harris SR, Holden MTG, Waller AS. PinR mediates the generation of reversible population diversity in Streptococcus zooepidemicus. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2015; 161:1105-1112. [PMID: 25701732 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.000057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Accepted: 02/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Opportunistic pathogens must adapt to and survive in a wide range of complex ecosystems. Streptococcus zooepidemicus is an opportunistic pathogen of horses and many other animals, including humans. The assembly of different surface architecture phenotypes from one genotype is likely to be crucial to the successful exploitation of such an opportunistic lifestyle. Construction of a series of mutants revealed that a serine recombinase, PinR, inverts 114 bp of the promoter of SZO_08560, which is bordered by GTAGACTTTA and TAAAGTCTAC inverted repeats. Inversion acts as a switch, controlling the transcription of this sortase-processed protein, which may enhance the attachment of S. zooepidemicus to equine trachea. The genome of a recently sequenced strain of S. zooepidemicus, 2329 (Sz2329), was found to contain a disruptive internal inversion of 7 kb of the FimIV pilus locus, which is bordered by TAGAAA and TTTCTA inverted repeats. This strain lacks pinR and this inversion may have become irreversible following the loss of this recombinase. Active inversion of FimIV was detected in three strains of S. zooepidemicus, 1770 (Sz1770), B260863 (SzB260863) and H050840501 (SzH050840501), all of which encoded pinR. A deletion mutant of Sz1770 that lacked pinR was no longer capable of inverting its internal region of FimIV. The data highlight redundancy in the PinR sequence recognition motif around a short TAGA consensus and suggest that PinR can reversibly influence the wider surface architecture of S. zooepidemicus, providing this organism with a bet-hedging solution to survival in fluctuating environments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Carl Robinson
- Animal Health Trust, Kentford, Newmarket CB8 7UU, UK
| | - Josh Slater
- Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Duncan J Maskell
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 OES, UK
| | - Simon R Harris
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Matthew T G Holden
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton CB10 1SA, UK
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21
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Streptococcus zooepidemicus and Streptococcus equi evolution: the role of CRISPRs. Biochem Soc Trans 2014; 41:1437-43. [PMID: 24256234 DOI: 10.1042/bst20130165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The host-restricted bacterium Streptococcus equi is the causative agent of equine strangles, the most frequently diagnosed infectious disease of horses worldwide. The disease is characterized by abscessation of the lymph nodes of the head and neck, leading to significant welfare and economic cost. S. equi is believed to have evolved from an ancestral strain of Streptococcus zooepidemicus, an opportunistic pathogen of horses and other animals. Comparison of the genome of S. equi strain 4047 with those of S. zooepidemicus identified examples of gene loss due to mutation and deletion, and gene gain through the acquisition of mobile genetic elements that have probably shaped the pathogenic specialization of S. equi. In particular, deletion of the CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) locus in the ancestor of S. equi may have predisposed the bacterium to acquire and incorporate new genetic material into its genome. These include four prophages and a novel integrative conjugative element. The virulence cargo carried by these mobile genetic elements is believed to have shaped the ability of S. equi to cause strangles. Further sequencing of S. zooepidemicus has highlighted the diversity of this opportunistic pathogen. Again, CRISPRs are postulated to influence evolution, balancing the need for gene gain over genome stability. Analysis of spacer sequences suggest that these pathogens may be susceptible to a limited range of phages and provide further evidence of cross-species exchange of genetic material among Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus agalactiae and Streptococcus dysgalactiae.
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22
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Waller AS. Equine respiratory disease: A causal role for Streptococcus zooepidemicus. Vet J 2014; 201:3-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/13/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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New trends of an old disease: the acute post infectious glomerulonephritis at the beginning of the new millenium. J Nephrol 2014; 27:229-39. [PMID: 24777751 DOI: 10.1007/s40620-013-0018-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2013] [Accepted: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The association between acute renal disease and infection has been known since the mid '800s: acute post-infectious glomerulonephritis (PIGN) is a reactive immunological process against the kidney secondary to an infection, classically caused by a Streptococcus. The typical clinical presentation of PIGN is an acute nephritic syndrome with macro- or microscopic hematuria, proteinuria, hypertension, edema and renal function impairment of variable degree. The histology is characterized by an intracapillary glomerular proliferation, but may rarely be associated with an extracapillary proliferation. The classical childhood form is still present nowadays, even with severe cases, in developing countries, while in the last decades it almost disappeared in industrialized countries, where post-infectious GN are often found in elderly patients with multiple comorbidities. These clinical variants are usually related to other infective agents, like Staphylococcus aureus, both methicillin resistant (MRSA) and susceptible, and may be characterized by an IgA-dominant deposition. Kidney biopsy is rarely needed, especially in the child, while in the adult or old patient a biopsy is warranted if there is an atypical presentation or evolution, like rapidly progressive renal failure, absent or delayed function recovery, persisting low C3, nephrotic range proteinuria and persisting high proteinuria. Current therapy strategies rely on culture-guided systemic antibiotics, especially in the old patient, in which MRSA are relatively frequent, support therapy and only in very selected cases on steroids. These latter cases include the rare PIGN with crescents and those with a severe interstitial inflammation.
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Pelkonen S, Lindahl SB, Suomala P, Karhukorpi J, Vuorinen S, Koivula I, Väisänen T, Pentikäinen J, Autio T, Tuuminen T. Transmission of Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus infection from horses to humans. Emerg Infect Dis 2014; 19:1041-8. [PMID: 23777752 PMCID: PMC3713971 DOI: 10.3201/eid1907.121365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus (S. zooepidemicus) is a zoonotic pathogen for persons in contact with horses. In horses, S. zooepidemicus is an opportunistic pathogen, but human infections associated with S. zooepidemicus are often severe. Within 6 months in 2011, 3 unrelated cases of severe, disseminated S. zooepidemicus infection occurred in men working with horses in eastern Finland. To clarify the pathogen’s epidemiology, we describe the clinical features of the infection in 3 patients and compare the S. zooepidemicus isolates from the human cases with S. zooepidemicus isolates from horses. The isolates were analyzed by using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, multilocus sequence typing, and sequencing of the szP gene. Molecular typing methods showed that human and equine isolates were identical or closely related. These results emphasize that S. zooepidemicus transmitted from horses can lead to severe infections in humans. As leisure and professional equine sports continue to grow, this infection should be recognized as an emerging zoonosis.
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Nitsche-Schmitz DP, Chhatwal GS. Host-pathogen interactions in streptococcal immune sequelae. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2013; 368:155-71. [PMID: 23212184 DOI: 10.1007/82_2012_296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/13/2023]
Abstract
Otherwise uncomplicated infections with Streptococcus pyogenes can cause two insidious immune sequelae known as post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN) and acute rheumatic fever (ARF). These diseases follow with a latency of a few weeks or months after primary infection and are responsible for high mortality and morbidity. PSGN has also been linked to infections with group C streptococci of the species S. equi ssp. zooepidemicus (SESZ). Moreover, there are some indications that infection with group C and G streptococci (GCGS) of the subspecies Streptococcus dysgalactiae ssp. equisimilis (SDSE) leads to ARF. Despite decades of research, the picture of the molecular pathogenesis of streptococcal immune sequelae resembles a jigsaw puzzle. Herein we try to put some of the puzzle bits together that have been collected till date.
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Evaluation of methods for identification and determination of the taxonomic status of strains belonging to the Streptococcus porcinus-Streptococcus pseudoporcinus complex isolated from animal, human, and dairy sources. J Clin Microbiol 2012; 50:3591-7. [PMID: 22933599 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.01481-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Ninety-seven animal, human, and dairy Streptococcus porcinus or Streptococcus pseudoporcinus isolates in the CDC Streptococcus strain collection were evaluated on the basis of DNA-DNA reassociation, 16S rRNA and rpoB gene sequencing, conventional biochemical and Rapid ID 32 Strep identification methods, and antimicrobial susceptibility testing to determine their taxonomic status, characteristics for species differentiation, antimicrobial susceptibility, and relevance of clinical source. Nineteen of the 97 isolates (1 human, 18 swine) were identified as S. porcinus. The remaining 72 human isolates and 6 dairy isolates were identified as S. pseudoporcinus. The use of 16S rRNA or rpoB gene sequencing was required to differentiate S. porcinus from S. pseudoporcinus. The human and dairy S. pseudoporcinus isolates were biochemically distinct from each other as well as distinct by 16S rRNA and rpoB gene sequencing. Therefore, we propose the subspecies denominations S. pseudoporcinus subsp. hominis subsp. nov. for the human isolates and S. pseudoporcinus subsp. lactis subsp. nov. for the dairy isolates. Most strains were susceptible to the antimicrobials tested, with the exception of tetracycline. Two strains of each species were also resistant to clindamycin and erythromycin and carried the erm(A) (S. pseudoporcinus) or the erm(B) (S. porcinus) gene. S. porcinus was identified from a single human isolate recovered from a wound in an abattoir worker. S. pseudoporcinus was primarily isolated from the genitourinary tract of women but was also associated with blood, placental, and wound infections. Isolates reacting with group B antiserum and demonstrating wide beta-hemolysis should be suspected of being S. pseudoporcinus and not S. agalactiae.
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Abstract
Despite identifying that rheumatic fever (RF) is the result of an immunological reaction following group-A beta-hemolytic streptococcal infection, the pathogenesis remains elusive. RF has been incorrectly designated as causing pancarditis, since it does not cause myocarditis. Research directed toward myocarditis, targeting myosin to unravel the pathogenesis has not succeeded in more than 60 years. RF causes permanent damage to cardiac valves. The mitral valve (MV), derived from the wall of the left ventricle, is composed of a central core of connective tissue, covered on both sides by endothelium. The left ventricle does not have either myocardial or intermyocardial connective tissue involvement in RF. By exclusion, therefore, the primary site of RF damage appears to be the endothelium. Evaluation of the histopathology and immunopathology indicates that RF is a disease of the valvular and vascular endothelium. It is not a connective tissue disorder. Research to identify pathogenesis needs to be focused toward valvular endothelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajendra Tandon
- Department of Cardiology, Sitaram Bhartia Institute of Science and Research, B-16, Mehrauli Institutional Area, New Delhi, India
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Abstract
Zoonotic infections caused by Streptococcus spp. have been neglected in spite of the fact that frequency and severity of outbreaks increased dramatically in recent years. This may be due to non-identification since respective species are often not considered in human medical diagnostic procedures. On the other hand, an expanding human population concomitant with an increasing demand for food and the increased number of companion animals favour conditions for host species adaptation of animal streptococci. This review aims to give an overview on streptococcal zoonoses with focus on epidemiology and pathogenicity of four major zoonotic species, Streptococcus canis, Streptococcus equi sub. zooepidemicus, Streptococcus iniae and Streptococcus suis.
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Marshall CS, Cheng AC, Markey PG, Towers RJ, Richardson LJ, Fagan PK, Scott L, Krause VL, Currie BJ. Acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis in the Northern Territory of Australia: a review of 16 years data and comparison with the literature. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2011; 85:703-10. [PMID: 21976576 PMCID: PMC3183781 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2011.11-0185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2011] [Accepted: 07/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Data relating to acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis (APSGN) from the notifiable diseases surveillance system in the Northern Territory of Australia was extracted and analyzed. Isolates of Streptococcus pyogenes from confirmed cases were emm sequence typed. From 1991 to July 2008, there were 415 confirmed cases and 23 probable cases of APSGN notified. Four hundred fifteen (94.7%) of these were Indigenous Australians and 428 (97.7%) were people living in remote or very remote locations. The median age of cases was 7 years (range 0-54). The incidence of confirmed cases was 12.5/100,000 person-years, with an incidence in Indigenous Australian children younger than 15 years of age of 94.3 cases/100,000 person-years. The overall rate ratio of confirmed cases in Indigenous Australians to non-Indigenous Australians was 53.6 (95% confidence interval 32.6-94.8). Outbreaks of disease across multiple communities occurred in 1995 (N = 68), 2000 (N = 55), and 2005 (N = 87 [confirmed cases]). Various emm types of S. pyogenes were isolated from cases of APSGN including some types not previously recognized to be nephritogenic. The widespread outbreak in 2005 was caused by emm55.0 S. pyogenes. Acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis continues to occur in remote Indigenous communities in Australia at rates comparable to or higher than those estimated in developing countries. Improvements in preventative and outbreak control strategies are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine S Marshall
- Tropical and Emerging Infectious Diseases Division, Menzies School of Health Research, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Australia.
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Eison TM, Ault BH, Jones DP, Chesney RW, Wyatt RJ. Post-streptococcal acute glomerulonephritis in children: clinical features and pathogenesis. Pediatr Nephrol 2011; 26:165-80. [PMID: 20652330 DOI: 10.1007/s00467-010-1554-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2010] [Revised: 04/16/2010] [Accepted: 04/19/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Post-streptococcal acute glomerulonephritis (PSAGN) is one of the most important and intriguing conditions in the discipline of pediatric nephrology. Although the eventual outcome is excellent in most cases, PSAGN remains an important cause of acute renal failure and hospitalization for children in both developed and underdeveloped areas. The purpose of this review is to describe both the typical and less common clinical features of PSAGN, to outline the changes in the epidemiology of PSAGN over the past 50 years, and to explore studies on the pathogenesis of the condition with an emphasis on the search for the elusive nephritogenic antigen.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Matthew Eison
- Division of Pediatric Nephrology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, and Children's Foundation Research Center at Le Bonheur Children's Medical Center, 50 North Dunlap, Memphis, TN 38103, USA
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Priestnall S, Erles K. Streptococcus zooepidemicus: an emerging canine pathogen. Vet J 2010; 188:142-8. [PMID: 20570190 PMCID: PMC7110628 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.04.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2009] [Revised: 03/05/2010] [Accepted: 04/24/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus (S. zooepidemicus) has caused several outbreaks of haemorrhagic pneumonia in dogs in recent years. This highly contagious and often fatal disease is characterised by sudden onset of clinical signs including pyrexia, dyspnoea and haemorrhagic nasal discharge. Post mortem examination typically reveals pulmonary haemorrhage and pleural effusion. Histopathology demonstrates fibrino-suppurative, necrotising and haemorrhagic pneumonia in most cases. The pathogenesis of S. zooepidemicus infection in dogs is incompletely understood. Bacterial virulence factors as well as host factors may contribute to the severe outcome. S. zooepidemicus occasionally causes zoonotic infections with potentially serious consequences. Canine vaccines for S. zooepidemicus are currently not available and prevention of the disease therefore relies on limiting bacterial spread by implementing stringent control measures in kennels. Further research, particularly sequence analysis of canine strains, is required to gain insights into epidemiology and pathogenesis of this emerging disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Priestnall
- The Royal Veterinary College, Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK
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Friederichs J, Hungerer S, Werle R, Militz M, Bühren V. Human bacterial arthritis caused by Streptococcus zooepidemicus: report of a case. Int J Infect Dis 2009; 14 Suppl 3:e233-5. [PMID: 20004124 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2009.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2009] [Accepted: 08/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Septic arthritis caused by Streptococcus zooepidemicus is a rare event in humans. Of the four cases reported in the literature, only two patients had direct animal contact, and the portal of entry remained unclear in all cases. We report herein the case of a patient who suffered a purulent arthritis of the left shoulder caused by S. zooepidemicus, successfully treated in our department. A diagnostic FDG-PET-CT scan ruled out other foci of infection, but detected a hyperkeratotic plantar chronic soft tissue lesion of the left foot, acquired in a paragliding accident 10 years earlier. The fact that the patient habitually took care of his horses barefoot in boots, identifies the cutaneous portal of entry as most likely. To our knowledge this is the first report of a septic arthritis caused by S. zooepidemicus where a cutaneous entry route is described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Friederichs
- Trauma Center Murnau, Prof.-Kuentscher-Strasse 8, Murnau, Germany.
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Holden MTG, Heather Z, Paillot R, Steward KF, Webb K, Ainslie F, Jourdan T, Bason NC, Holroyd NE, Mungall K, Quail MA, Sanders M, Simmonds M, Willey D, Brooks K, Aanensen DM, Spratt BG, Jolley KA, Maiden MCJ, Kehoe M, Chanter N, Bentley SD, Robinson C, Maskell DJ, Parkhill J, Waller AS. Genomic evidence for the evolution of Streptococcus equi: host restriction, increased virulence, and genetic exchange with human pathogens. PLoS Pathog 2009; 5:e1000346. [PMID: 19325880 PMCID: PMC2654543 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2008] [Accepted: 02/24/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The continued evolution of bacterial pathogens has major implications for both human and animal disease, but the exchange of genetic material between host-restricted pathogens is rarely considered. Streptococcus equi subspecies equi (S. equi) is a host-restricted pathogen of horses that has evolved from the zoonotic pathogen Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus (S. zooepidemicus). These pathogens share approximately 80% genome sequence identity with the important human pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes. We sequenced and compared the genomes of S. equi 4047 and S. zooepidemicus H70 and screened S. equi and S. zooepidemicus strains from around the world to uncover evidence of the genetic events that have shaped the evolution of the S. equi genome and led to its emergence as a host-restricted pathogen. Our analysis provides evidence of functional loss due to mutation and deletion, coupled with pathogenic specialization through the acquisition of bacteriophage encoding a phospholipase A2 toxin, and four superantigens, and an integrative conjugative element carrying a novel iron acquisition system with similarity to the high pathogenicity island of Yersinia pestis. We also highlight that S. equi, S. zooepidemicus, and S. pyogenes share a common phage pool that enhances cross-species pathogen evolution. We conclude that the complex interplay of functional loss, pathogenic specialization, and genetic exchange between S. equi, S. zooepidemicus, and S. pyogenes continues to influence the evolution of these important streptococci. Streptococci colonize a diverse range of animals and tissues, and this association is normally harmless. Occasionally some strains of streptococci have an increased ability to cause disease that is often associated with a reduction in the ability to colonize and the acquisition of new genes, which enable the strain to inhabit a new niche. S. equi is the causative agent of strangles, one of the most frequently diagnosed and feared infectious diseases of horses, which is believed to have evolved from the closely related and usually harmless S. zooepidemicus. We aim to understand the mechanisms by which S. equi causes disease by studying and comparing the genomes of these different strains. Here we identify specific genes that have been lost and gained by S. equi, which may have directed its transition from colonizer to invader. Several of the novel genes acquired by S. equi have also been identified in strains of the closely related bacterium S. pyogenes that are associated with increased morbidity and mortality in humans. Our research highlights the role of genetic exchange in cross-species bacterial evolution and argues that the evolution of human pathogens cannot be considered in isolation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew T. G. Holden
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Zoe Heather
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, United Kingdom
| | - Romain Paillot
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, United Kingdom
| | - Karen F. Steward
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, United Kingdom
| | - Katy Webb
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, United Kingdom
| | - Fern Ainslie
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, United Kingdom
| | - Thibaud Jourdan
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, United Kingdom
| | - Nathalie C. Bason
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Nancy E. Holroyd
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Karen Mungall
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Michael A. Quail
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Mandy Sanders
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Simmonds
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - David Willey
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Karen Brooks
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - David M. Aanensen
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, St. Mary's Hospital Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - Brian G. Spratt
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Imperial College London, St. Mary's Hospital Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - Keith A. Jolley
- The Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research and Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Martin C. J. Maiden
- The Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research and Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Kehoe
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, The Medical School, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Neil Chanter
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen D. Bentley
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Carl Robinson
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, United Kingdom
| | - Duncan J. Maskell
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Julian Parkhill
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew S. Waller
- Centre for Preventive Medicine, Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Pisoni G, Zadoks RN, Vimercati C, Locatelli C, Zanoni MG, Moroni P. Epidemiological investigation of Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus involved in clinical mastitis in dairy goats. J Dairy Sci 2009; 92:943-51. [PMID: 19233787 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2008-1548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
An outbreak of clinical mastitis was observed in dairy goats due to the zoonotic pathogen Streptococcus equi ssp. zooepidemicus. Affected goats were culled to prevent transmission of infection to other animals or humans. The objective of the study was to determine whether horses on the same farm were the source of the pathogen. Streptococcus equi ssp. zooepidemicus was obtained from milk of 10% of goats in the herd and from feces of 3 of 7 healthy horses that shared pasture and housing with the goats. Isolates of caprine and equine origin had identical biochemical profiles, including the ability to ferment sorbitol and lactose, which distinguishes S. equi ssp. zooepidemicus from S. equi ssp. equi. Sequencing of the 16S-23S intergenic spacer region and results from sodA-seeI multiplex PCR supported identification of isolates as S. equi ssp. zooepidemicus. Based on random amplified polymorphic DNA typing and rpoB and sodA sequencing, caprine isolates were indistinguishable from each other, but distinct from equine isolates. Further analysis of equine fecal samples showed that multiple strains of S. equi ssp. zooepidemicus can be present in a single sample or in sequential samples obtained from a single horse. Failure to detect the mastitis-causing strain in equine feces may indicate that horses were not the source of the mastitis outbreak in goats. Alternatively, the outbreak may be due to presence of multiple S. equi ssp. zooepidemicus strains in equine feces and a failure to detect all strains when analyzing a limited number of isolates per sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Pisoni
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Hygiene and Public Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
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37
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Poulin MF, Boivin G. A case of disseminated infection caused by Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus. THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES & MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY = JOURNAL CANADIEN DES MALADIES INFECTIEUSES ET DE LA MICROBIOLOGIE MEDICALE 2009; 20:59-61. [PMID: 20514161 PMCID: PMC2706407 DOI: 10.1155/2009/538967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2008] [Accepted: 12/11/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Human infections with Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus, a group C streptococcus, are very rare and are generally associated with contact with horses, and consumption of unpasteurized milk products, goat cheese or pork. In most cases S zooepidemicus leads to fulminant infections. The case of a middle-aged woman who had sporadic contact with horses is described in the present report. She developed a bacteremia with severe and extensive complications that included meningitis, mitral endocarditis and blindness due to bilateral endophthalmitis. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first reported case of an endophthalmitis due to S zooepidemicus. Because of a penicillin allergy, the patient was treated with ceftriaxone and rifampin over six weeks and survived. The present case report highlights the severe complications associated with S zooepidemicus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Guy Boivin
- CHUQ-CHUL; Holder of the Canada Research Chair on Emerging Viruses and Antiviral Resistance, Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec
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Barroso V, Rohde M, Dinkla K, Chhatwal GS. Evaluation of the potential of animal streptococcal isolates belonging to serogroups C and G to elicit acute rheumatic fever. Am J Vet Res 2008; 69:1183-7. [DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.69.9.1183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Beres SB, Sesso R, Pinto SWL, Hoe NP, Porcella SF, DeLeo FR, Musser JM. Genome sequence of a Lancefield group C Streptococcus zooepidemicus strain causing epidemic nephritis: new information about an old disease. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3026. [PMID: 18716664 PMCID: PMC2516327 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2008] [Accepted: 07/29/2008] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Outbreaks of disease attributable to human error or natural causes can provide unique opportunities to gain new information about host-pathogen interactions and new leads for pathogenesis research. Poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis (PSGN), a sequela of infection with pathogenic streptococci, is a common cause of preventable kidney disease worldwide. Although PSGN usually occurs after infection with group A streptococci, organisms of Lancefield group C and G also can be responsible. Despite decades of study, the molecular pathogenesis of PSGN is poorly understood. As a first step toward gaining new information about PSGN pathogenesis, we sequenced the genome of Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus strain MGCS10565, a group C organism that caused a very large and unusually severe epidemic of nephritis in Brazil. The genome is a circular chromosome of 2,024,171 bp. The genome shares extensive gene content, including many virulence factors, with genetically related group A streptococci, but unexpectedly lacks prophages. The genome contains many apparently foreign genes interspersed around the chromosome, consistent with the presence of a full array of genes required for natural competence. An inordinately large family of genes encodes secreted extracellular collagen-like proteins with multiple integrin-binding motifs. The absence of a gene related to speB rules out the long-held belief that streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B or antibodies reacting with it singularly cause PSGN. Many proteins previously implicated in GAS PSGN, such as streptokinase, are either highly divergent in strain MGCS10565 or are not more closely related between these species than to orthologs present in other streptococci that do not commonly cause PSGN. Our analysis provides a comparative genomics framework for renewed appraisal of molecular events underlying APSGN pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen B. Beres
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute and Department of Pathology, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Ricardo Sesso
- Division of Nephrology, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Nancy P. Hoe
- Division of Occupational Health and Safety, Office of Research Services, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
| | - Stephen F. Porcella
- Laboratory of Human Bacterial Pathogenesis, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
| | - Frank R. DeLeo
- Laboratory of Human Bacterial Pathogenesis, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, Montana, United States of America
| | - James M. Musser
- Center for Molecular and Translational Human Infectious Diseases Research, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute and Department of Pathology, Houston, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Rodriguez-Iturbe B, Musser JM. The current state of poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis. J Am Soc Nephrol 2008; 19:1855-64. [PMID: 18667731 DOI: 10.1681/asn.2008010092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis is one of the oldest recognized renal diseases. In the past three decades, significant changes have occurred in its epidemiology, in new insight gained in the nephritogenic characteristics of streptococcal antigens, and in the natural history of the disease. The disease is now rare in industrialized nations, but in the underprivileged world, the burden of poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis ranges between 9.5 and 28.5 new cases per 100,000 individuals per year. Prophylactic antibiotic treatment is advisable in epidemic conditions and to household contacts of index cases in communities where the prevalence of the disease is high. The long-term prognosis is variable; in general, prognosis is excellent in children but significantly worse when it occurs in elderly individuals and in populations that present other risk factors of chronic kidney disease. Contemporary large-scale research strategies such as genome-wide sequencing may uncover new information about pathogenic factors contributing to disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernardo Rodriguez-Iturbe
- Renal Department, Hospital Universitario, Universidad del Zulia and Centro de Investigaciones Biomé dicas, IVIC-Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela.
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Rodríguez-Iturbe B, Batsford S. Pathogenesis of poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis a century after Clemens von Pirquet. Kidney Int 2007; 71:1094-104. [PMID: 17342179 DOI: 10.1038/sj.ki.5002169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Considerable insight has been gained into the etiopathogenesis of poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis since the landmark theoretical construct of Clemens von Pirquet postulated that disease-causing immune complexes were responsible for the nephritis that followed scarlet fever. Over the years, molecular mimicry between streptococcal products and renal components, autoimmune reactivity and several streptococcal antigens have been extensively studied. Recent investigations assign a critical role to both in situ formation and deposition of circulating immune complexes that would trigger a variety of effector mechanisms. Glomerular plasmin-binding activity of streptococcal glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate-dehydrogenase may play a role in nephritogenicity and streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B and its zymogen precursor may be the long-sought nephritogenic antigen.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Rodríguez-Iturbe
- Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC-Zulia), Hospital Universitario de Maracaibo, Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Maracaibo, Venezuela.
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Thorley AM, Campbell D, Moghal NE, Hudson S. Post streptococcal acute glomerulonephritis secondary to sporadic Streptococcus equi infection. Pediatr Nephrol 2007; 22:597-9. [PMID: 17109135 DOI: 10.1007/s00467-006-0364-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2006] [Revised: 09/14/2006] [Accepted: 10/11/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus infection is rare in humans, but a well-known cause of pyogenic disease in cows and horses. S. zooepidemicus uncommonly causes post-strep glomerulonephritis (PSGN) in humans via epidemic outbreaks. We present a sporadic case of post S. zooepidemicus glomerulonephritis in a child most probably contracted from a horse. The 14-year-old girl presented with the typical signs of PSGN, with S. equi zooepidemicus isolated from a blood culture, together with a low C3 and raised anti-DNAse B. This is the first known report of a sporadic case of PSGN in a child caused by this organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna M Thorley
- Department of Paediatrics, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Sheriff Hill, NE9 6SX, Gateshead, Tyne and Wear, UK.
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Contreras A, Sierra D, Sánchez A, Corrales J, Marco J, Paape M, Gonzalo C. Mastitis in small ruminants. Small Rumin Res 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.smallrumres.2006.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Causey RC, Weber JA, Emmans EE, Stephenson LA, Homola AD, Knapp KR, Crowley IF, Pelletier DC, Wooley NA. The equine immune response to Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus during uterine infection. Vet J 2006; 172:248-57. [PMID: 15950504 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2005.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to describe strain-specific immune responses to Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus (S. zooepidemicus) during uterine infection in horses. Five isolates of S. zooepidemicus were differentiated into four strains antigenically by bactericidal testing in blood of 12 horses, and genetically by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Eight healthy mares were then divided into two groups, each inoculated with one strain intrauterinely on three successive oestrous cycles followed by a second strain for three successive cycles, first and second strains being reversed for each group. Immune responses to both strains were assessed by bactericidal testing and immunoblotting over eight cycles. Both techniques indicated that immune responses to each strain arose at different times. Immunoblots showed greater binding to the first inoculated strain than to the second (P < 0.05). These data confirm that immune responses to S. zooepidemicus during uterine infection are partly strain-specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert C Causey
- Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences and the Maine Agriculture and Forestry Experiment Station, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469-5735, USA.
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Bordes-Benítez A, Sánchez-Oñoro M, Suárez-Bordón P, García-Rojas AJ, Saéz-Nieto JA, González-García A, Alamo-Antúnez I, Sánchez-Maroto A, Bolaños-Rivero M. Outbreak of Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus infections on the island of Gran Canaria associated with the consumption of inadequately pasteurized cheese. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2006; 25:242-6. [PMID: 16550347 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-006-0119-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus infections are infrequent in humans. A clinical and epidemiological study of a milk-borne outbreak caused by this organism is described. Fifteen patients (5 females, 10 males) with a median age of 70 years (range 47-86) were infected. Twelve (80%) had underlying diseases. Infection with S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus presented as primary bacteremia in six cases, as bacteremia associated with aortic aneurism in four cases, as septic arthritis in two cases, as pneumonia in two cases, and as meningitis in one case. Five (33.3%) patients died. A case-control study proved that consumption of inadequately pasteurized cheese of a specific brand was associated with S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus disease (OR=4.5; 95% CI 1.57-19.27; p<0.001). This outbreak serves as a reminder that S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus causes serious infections that are usually zoonoses. Identification of beta-hemolytic streptococci to the species level to detect contaminated foods of animal origin is important for preventing new food-borne outbreaks. For a precise characterization of the isolates, the application of molecular markers is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Bordes-Benítez
- Laboratorio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario de Gran Canaria Dr. Negrín, Bco. de la Ballena s/n, 35020, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain.
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Kuusi M, Lahti E, Virolainen A, Hatakka M, Vuento R, Rantala L, Vuopio-Varkila J, Seuna E, Karppelin M, Hakkinen M, Takkinen J, Gindonis V, Siponen K, Huotari K. An outbreak of Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus associated with consumption of fresh goat cheese. BMC Infect Dis 2006; 6:36. [PMID: 16504158 PMCID: PMC1413536 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-6-36] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2005] [Accepted: 02/27/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus is a rare infection in humans associated with contact with horses or consumption of unpasteurized milk products. On October 23, 2003, the National Public Health Institute was alerted that within one week three persons had been admitted to Tampere University Central Hospital (TaYS) because of S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus septicaemia. All had consumed fresh goat cheese produced in a small-scale dairy located on a farm. We conducted an investigation to determine the source and the extent of the outbreak. Methods Cases were identified from the National Infectious Disease Register. Cases were persons with S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus isolated from a normally sterile site who had illness onset 15.9-31.10.2003. All cases were telephone interviewed by using a standard questionnaire and clinical information was extracted from patient charts. Environmental and food specimens included throat swabs from two persons working in the dairy, milk from goats and raw milk tank, cheeses made of unpasteurized milk, vaginal samples of goats, and borehole well water. The isolates were characterized by ribotyping and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Results Seven persons met the case definition; six had septicaemia and one had purulent arthritis. Five were women; the median age was 70 years (range 54–93). None of the cases were immunocompromized and none died. Six cases were identified in TaYS, and one in another university hospital in southern Finland. All had eaten goat cheese produced on the implicated farm. S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus was isolated from throat swabs, fresh goat cheese, milk tank, and vaginal samples of one goat. All human and environmental strains were indistinguishable by ribotyping and PFGE. Conclusion The outbreak was caused by goat cheese produced from unpasteurized milk. Outbreaks caused by S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus may not be detected if streptococcal strains are only typed to the group level. S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus may be a re-emerging disease if unpasteurized milk is increasingly used for food production. Facilities using unpasteurized milk should be carefully monitored to prevent this type of outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markku Kuusi
- National Public Health Institute (KTL), Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Elina Lahti
- National Veterinary and Food Research Institute (EELA), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Anni Virolainen
- National Public Health Institute (KTL), Department of Microbiology, Helsinki, Finland
| | | | - Risto Vuento
- Tampere University Central Hospital, Centre for Laboratory Medicine, Tampere, Finland
| | - Leila Rantala
- National Veterinary and Food Research Institute (EELA), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jaana Vuopio-Varkila
- National Public Health Institute (KTL), Department of Microbiology, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Eija Seuna
- National Veterinary and Food Research Institute (EELA), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Matti Karppelin
- Tampere University Central Hospital, Department of Medicine, Tampere, Finland
| | - Marjaana Hakkinen
- National Veterinary and Food Research Institute (EELA), Helsinki, Finland
| | - Johanna Takkinen
- National Public Health Institute (KTL), Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Veera Gindonis
- National Veterinary and Food Research Institute (EELA), Helsinki, Finland
| | | | - Kaisa Huotari
- National Public Health Institute (KTL), Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Helsinki, Finland
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Sesso R, Wyton S, Pinto L. Epidemic glomerulonephritis due to Streptococcus zooepidemicus in Nova Serrana, Brazil. Kidney Int 2005:S132-6. [PMID: 16014091 DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.09722.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In 1998, there was a large outbreak of acute glomerulonephritis in Nova Serrana, Brazil, caused by group C Streptococcus zooepidemicus. This article reviews the characteristics of the outbreak and some aspects of the patients' follow-up. METHODS We describe clinical characteristics of patients with acute nephritis. Using case-control studies, we identified the source of infection. Cultures of oropharyngeal swabs from patients were performed. Of 135 patients identified in 1998, available patients were reexamined in a prospective study after 2 and 5 years. RESULTS Lancefield group C S. zooepidemicus was identified as the causative organism and linked to the consumption of cheese produced from unpasteurized milk. Of the original group of 134 patients, 4 died in the acute phase and 5 (3.7%) required chronic dialysis. After 2 years, of the 69 cases reevaluated, 94% were adults (mean +/- standard error age: 39 +/- 2 years); we found arterial hypertension in 42% (N= 27/64) of the patients, reduced creatinine clearance (<80 mL/min/1.73 m(2)) in 30% (N= 20/67), and increased microalbuminuria (>20 microg/min) in 34% (N= 22/65). Preliminary data at 5-year follow-up suggest that the percentage of patients with creatinine clearance lower than 60 mL/min increased from 9% to 15%. CONCLUSION This article highlights the dangers of consuming unpasteurized dairy products. Follow-up of patients with epidemic poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis due to S. zooepidemicus show that a considerable proportion present hypertension, reduced renal function, and increased microalbuminuria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Sesso
- Division of Nephrology, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Botucatu 740, São Paulo, SP 04023-900, Brazil.
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Sesso R, Pinto SWL. Five-year follow-up of patients with epidemic glomerulonephritis due to Streptococcus zooepidemicus. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2005; 20:1808-12. [PMID: 15919694 DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfh904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In 1998 there was a large outbreak of acute glomerulonephritis in Nova Serrana, Brazil, caused by group C Streptococcus zooepidemicus. This study describes the follow-up of these patients, after a mean time of 5.4 years of the acute episode. METHODS Of 135 cases identified in 1998, 56 were re-examined in a prospective study and had measurements of blood pressure, creatinine clearance (estimated by the Cockcroft and Gault formula), microalbuminuria (radioimmunoassay), urine sediment analysis and a protein dipstick test. RESULTS Of the original group of 135 subjects, 3 died in the acute phase and 5 (3.7%) required chronic dialysis. Of the 56 cases re-evaluated, 54 (96%) were adults (mean+/-SD age, 43+/-17 years) and 36 (64%) females. At the follow-up examination, we found arterial hypertension in 30% (n = 17/56) of the subjects, reduced creatinine clearance (<80 ml/min) in 49% (n = 26/53) and increased microalbuminuria (>20 microg/min) in 22% (n = 11/51). Compared to the evaluation carried out 3 years before, the number of cases with creatinine clearance lower than 80 ml/min increased from 20 to 26 (of 53 cases). Increased microalbuminuria and/or reduced creatinine clearance were detected in 57% (n = 32/56) of the subjects. Patients with reduced creatinine clearance were older than those without reduced renal function (54+/-15 vs 34+/-12 years, P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS After a mean time of 5.4 years, a relatively high proportion of patients with epidemic poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis due to S.zooepidemicus present hypertension, reduced renal function and increased microalbuminuria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Sesso
- Division of Nephrology, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Unifesp, Rua Botucatu 740, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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Lee AS, Dyer JR. Severe Streptococcus zooepidemicus infection in a gardener. Med J Aust 2004; 180:366. [PMID: 15059061 DOI: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.2004.tb05979.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2004] [Accepted: 02/05/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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50
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Chalker VJ, Brooks HW, Brownlie J. The association of Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus with canine infectious respiratory disease. Vet Microbiol 2003; 95:149-56. [PMID: 12860084 PMCID: PMC7117392 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-1135(03)00155-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Canine infectious respiratory disease (CIRD) is a multi-factorial infection that affects many kennelled dogs despite the wide use of vaccination. Current vaccines aim to protect against viral agents and a single bacterial agent, Bordetella bronchiseptica. We sought to examine the role of streptococcal species in CIRD. The isolation and identification of streptococci in the lower respiratory tract of clinically healthy dogs and those with CIRD were used to correlate the presence of specific streptococcal species with respiratory disease. In this study we report that the presence of S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus is associated with increasing severity of disease in a population of kennelled dogs with endemic CIRD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria J Chalker
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, UK.
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