Combined effect of operational variables and enzyme activity on aqueous enzymatic extraction of oil and protein from soybean

Multi-immobilization of viscozyme, alcalase and flavourzyme by nanomagnetic combi-CLEAs method for oil and protein hydrolysates extraction from rice bran in aqueous phase

Edible oil isolation from oil seeds by hexane faces pivotal challenges for human health and the environment. The aqueous enzymatic extraction procedure has been remarked as a preferable technique for concurrent oil and protein extraction. A one-pot combined cross-linked enzyme aggregates of Viscozyme, Alcalase and Flavourzyme in nanoscale for coinciding isolation of oil and protein hydrolysates is presented. The ideal parameters for immobilization were 1:1:1 ratio of enzymes in ethanol as aggregator, 0.75:1 ratio of lysine/enzyme mixture, 15 mM glutaraldehyde at temp = 2-3 °C, ultrasonic waves (300 Hz) for 10 min, then holding at 2-3 °C for 2.5 h. The optimum performance of NM-CLEAs was at pH 6.0, temp = 60 °C with particle size 65.5-414 nm, PDI = 0.428, and Ȥ-potential = -41.4 mV, sequentially. The thermo robustness of NM-Combi-CLEAs was approximately 3.6 times elevated than free enzymes at 85 °C in terms of carbohydrase activity and about 2.3 folds in protease performance. The kinetic assessment demonstrated 1.7 folds in Vmax and 2.0 folds increment in catalytic effectiveness (kcat/Km) while 1.1-2.0 folds reduction in Km value. CD and FTIR analyses demonstrated a 9.8 % and 21 % increment in α-helix and random coil configurations, while turn and β-sheet composition diminished by approximately 27.6 % and 12.4 %, sequentially. The oil extraction yield was about 92 % with 86 % protein efficiency after 10 consecutive cycles of CLEAs use. Physicochemical assessment of extracted oil and protein hydrolysates compared to commercial rice bran oil, was represent quality enhancement. Hence, Combi-CLEAs introduces as a biocatalyst with ease of operation, elevated effectiveness, and eco-friendly catalytic approach.

Integrating functional and techno-economic analyses to optimize black bean protein extraction: a holistic framework for process development

This study aimed to develop aqueous (AEP) and enzyme-assisted extraction processes (EAEP) for black bean proteins using an optimization framework that integrates functionality and industrial-scale profitability. A preliminary screening was performed to identify the best pH (AEP) and food-grade enzyme (EAEP) regarding total protein extractability (TPE), solubility, and in vitro protein digestibility. Techno-economic analyses revealed that the AEP at pH 7 and the EAEP with Alkaline Protease (AP) at pH 9 yielded the lowest overall cost of goods sold/kg of soluble and digestible protein. Experimental designs were performed to further guide the selection of solids-to-liquid ratio (SLR), extraction time, and enzyme concentration (EAEP only) to maximize discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFRR). The optimal conditions for the AEP (pH 7, 1:12 SLR, 15 min, 50 °C) and EAEP (pH 9, 1:12 SLR, 30 min, 0.5% AP, 50 °C) achieved TPEs of 66.2% and 80.8%, respectively, with DCFRRs (30-year project lifetime, $16.50/kg protein selling price) of 12.5% (AEP) and 18.2% (EAEP), demonstrating that despite the additional enzyme cost, the EAEP was more profitable. EAEP proteins exhibited significantly higher solubility (54%) in acidic conditions compared to AEP proteins (33%). However, higher enzyme loadings (0.5% AP) led to decreased emulsifying and foaming properties, especially in neutral conditions. This work offers valuable insights into the interconnected impacts of extraction conditions on protein yields, nutritional properties, and functionality, all while considering economic feasibility. Additionally, it underscores the effectiveness of holistic optimization strategies to develop protein extraction methods that are both efficient and commercially viable.

Enhanced Antioxidant, Hyaluronidase, and Collagenase Inhibitory Activities of Glutinous Rice Husk Extract by Aqueous Enzymatic Extraction

In this research, we aimed to compare the biological activities related to cosmeceutical applications of glutinous rice husk extracted by aqueous enzymatic extraction (AEE) and conventional solvent extraction. Cellulase enzymes were used to assist the extraction process. The vanillic and ferulic acid contents of each extract were investigated by high-performance liquid chromatography, and their antioxidant and anti-aging activities were investigated by spectrophotometric methods. The irritation effects of each extract were investigated by the hen’s egg test on chorioallantoic membrane. The rice husk extract from AEE using 0.5% w/w of cellulase (CE0.5) contained the significantly highest content of vanillic and ferulic acid (p < 0.05), which were responsible for its biological activities. CE0.5 was the most potent antioxidant via radical scavenging activities, and possessed the most potent anti-skin wrinkle effect via collagenase inhibition. Aside from the superior biological activities, the rice husk extracts from AEE were safer than those from solvent extraction, even when 95% v/v ethanol was used. Therefore, AEE is suggested as a green extraction method that can be used instead of the traditional solvent extraction technique given its higher yield and high quality of bioactive compounds. Additionally, CE0.5 is proposed as a potential source of natural antioxidants and anti-aging properties for further development of anti-wrinkle products.

Mixed pretreatment based on pectinase and cellulase accelerates the oil droplet coalescence and oil yield from olive paste

Commercial enzymatic pretreatment is being classically used for enhancing the oil extraction yield in the olive oil industry in China. Nevertheless, the mechanism is not yet clearly defined. The aim was to study the action of pectinase and cellulase for improving the oil yield from the aspects of oil droplets coalescence and rheological properties changes of olive paste during malaxation process. From confocal laser scanning microscopy imaging, the bound oil droplets were released and gradually coalesced into larger droplets, eventually formed a continuous oil phase with enzymatic pretreatment. Furthermore, the mixed enzymatic pretreatment effectively decreased viscosity of the olive pastes and promoted the depolymerization and solubilization of pectic polymers involved in the cell-cell adhesion, thus further enhanced the oil extraction yield from 7.15 % to 11.68 % (w/w). Finally, the mixed enzymatic pretreatment improved the droplet release and coalescence, reduced the viscosity of olive paste, and increased the oil yield.

Aqueous Integrated Process for the Recovery of Oil Bodies or Fatty Acid Emulsions from Sunflower Seeds

An aqueous integrated process was developed to obtain several valuable products from sunflower seeds. With a high-shear rate crusher, high-pressure homogenization and centrifugation, it is possible to process 600× g of seeds in 1400× g of water to obtain a concentrated cream phase with a dry matter (dm) content of 46%, consisting of 74 (w/w dm) lipids in the form of an oil-body dispersion (droplet size d(0.5): 2.0 µm) rich in proteins (13% w/w dm, with membranous and extraneous proteins). The inclusion of an enzymatic step mediated by a lipase made possible the total hydrolysis of trigylcerides into fatty acids. The resulting cream had a slightly higher lipid concentration, a ratio lipid/water closer to 1, with a dry matter content of 57% consisting of 69% (w/w) lipids, a more complex structure, as observed on Cryo-SEM, with a droplet size slightly greater (d(0.5): 2.5 µm) than that of native oil bodies and a conserved protein concentration (12% w/w dm) but an almost vanished phospholipid content (17.1 ± 4.4 mg/g lipids compared to 144.6 ± 6 mg/g lipids in the oil-body dispersion and 1811.2 ± 122.2 mg/g lipids in the seed). The aqueous phases and pellets were also characterized, and their mineral, lipid and protein contents provide new possibilities for valorization in food or technical applications.

Stability Issues, Probable Approaches for Stabilization and Associated Patents in the Pharmaceutical Field for Oleosome, A Novel Carrier for Drug Delivery

Oleosomes are oil-containing micro-carriers of natural origin that are comprised of special oleosin proteins embedded with a monolayer of phospholipids having a triacylglycerol core. Due to their unique structure and non-toxicity in the biological system, these oil carriers are becoming very eye-catching for formulation development in the field of pharmacy. Consequently, oleosome offers emoliency, occlusivity, self-emulsification, anti-oxidant, and film-forming properties, which leads to controlled and sustained release of encapsulated bio-actives. It is also feasible to load oil-soluble ingredients, such as fragrance, vitamins (retinol), and lipophilic drug moieties inside the core. Being a natural carrier, it shows some stability issues (leakage of oil from the core, oxidation of the loaded oil, aggregation of oil droplets), which are controllable. In this review, we have focused on the various stability issues, the techniques (coating, surface modification, solvents) and how to overcome those problems, and how to load any lipophilic drug into the oil core, and we have also linked patent research works in the field of formulation development.

Aqueous Extraction of Seed Oil from Mamey Sapote (Pouteria sapota) after Viscozyme L Treatment

In this study, aqueous enzymatic extraction (AEE) was evaluated during the process of obtaining oil from mamey sapote seed (OMSS). Viscozyme L enzyme complex was used at pH 4 and 50 °C during the optimization of the extraction process by central composite design and response surface methodology. Optimal conditions were: 3.5% (w/w) of enzyme (regarding the seed weight), 5.5 h of incubation time, 235 rpm of agitation rate, and 1:3.5 of solid-to-liquid ratio. These conditions enabled us to obtain an OMSS yield of 66%. No statistically significant differences were found in the fatty acid profile and physicochemical properties, such as the acid and iodine values and the percentage of free fatty acids, between the oil obtained by AEE or by the conventional solvent extraction (SE). However, the oxidative stability of the oil obtained by AEE (11 h) was higher than that obtained by SE (9.33 h), therefore, AEE, in addition to being an environmentally friendly method, produces a superior quality oil in terms of oxidative stability. Finally, the high oil content in mamey sapote seed, and the high percentage of oleic acid (around 50% of the total fatty acid) found in this oil, make it a useful edible vegetable oil.

Biodiesel from oil produced in vegetative tissues of biomass - A review

Biodiesel is a green, renewable alternative to petroleum-derived diesel. However, using vegetable oil for biodiesel production significantly challenges the food security. Progress in metabolic engineering, understanding of lipid biosynthesis and storage have enabled engineering of vegetative tissues of plants such as sugarcane, sorghum, and tobacco for lipid production. Such sources could be cultivated on land resources, which are currently not suitable for row crops. Besides achieving significant lipid accumulation, it is imperative to maintain the fatty acid and lipid profile ideal for biodiesel production and engine performance. In this study, genetic modifications used to induce lipid accumulation in transgenic crops and the proposed strategies for efficient recovery of oil from these crops have been presented. This paper highlights that lipids sourced from vegetative biomass in their native form would pose significant challenges in biodiesel production. Therefore, different strategies have been presented for improving feedstock quality to achieve high-quality biodiesel production.

Effects of Pretreatment on the Yield of Peanut Oil and Protein Extracted by Aqueous Enzymatic Extraction and the Characteristics of the Emulsion

Effects of comminution on peanut particle size and yield of peanut oil and protein were analyzed. Additionally, the emulsion properties (surface protein concentration, particle size, and ξ-potential) were compared. Moreover, different demulsification methods were used to investigate the emulsion stability. Results showed that the yield of peanut oil and protein was highest (87.23% and 82.05%, respectively) after dry comminution for 72 s. Upon wet comminution for 120 s, the yields of peanut oil and protein were 89.91% and 84.70%, respectively, which were both significantly higher than that obtained after dry comminution (p < 0.05). The surface protein concentration and ξ-potential of emulsion made by dry comminution (DCE) were 7.02 mg/m² and 12.08 mV, respectively, and those of emulsion made by wet comminution (WCE) were 10.71 mg/m² and 15.25 mV, respectively, which were significantly higher than that of DCE (p < 0.05). The volume average particle size of DCE was 3.41 µm, which was significantly higher than that of WCE (3.18 µm, p < 0.05). Collectively, these results indicated that WCE was more stable than DCE. Further, the demulsification rate of DCE was significantly higher than that of WCE when treated by freeze-thawing, pH, papain, and phospholipase A2 (p < 0.05). Demulsification effect of Alcalase 2.4L was the best among these five demulsification methods treated, and the demulsification rate of DCE reached 92.77%, which was slightly higher than that of WCE (92.67%), further illustrating the higher stability of WCE.

Effects of Processing Conditions on the Simultaneous Extraction and Distribution of Oil and Protein from Almond Flour

The enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction process (EAEP) is an environmentally friendly strategy that simultaneously extracts oil and protein from several food matrices. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of pH (6.5–9.5), temperature (45–55 °C), solids-to-liquid ratio (SLR) (1:12–1:8), and amount of enzyme (0.5–1.0%) on the extraction and separation of oil and protein from almond flour using a fractional factorial design. Oil and protein extraction yields from 61 to 75% and 64 to 79% were achieved, respectively. Experimental conditions resulting in higher extractability were subsequently replicated for validation of the observed effects. Oil and protein extraction yields of 75 and 72% were achieved under optimized extraction conditions (pH 9.0, 50 °C, 1:10 SLR, 0.5% (w/w) of enzyme, 60 min). Although the use of enzyme during the extraction did not lead to significant increase in extraction yields, it did impact the extracted protein functionality. The use of enzyme and alkaline pH (9.0) during the extraction resulted in the production of more soluble peptides at low pH (5.0), highlighting possible uses of the EAEP skim protein in food applications involving acidic pH. The implications of the use of enzyme during the extraction regarding the de-emulsification of the EAEP cream warrant further investigation.

Aqueous and Enzymatic Extraction of Oil and Protein from Almond Cake: A Comparative Study

The almond cake is a protein- and oil-rich by-product of the mechanical expression of almond oil that has the potential to be used as a source of valuable proteins and lipids for food applications. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the individual and combined effects of solids-to-liquid ratio (SLR), reaction time, and enzyme use on oil and protein extraction yields from almond cake. A central composite rotatable design was employed to maximize the overall extractability and distribution of extracted components among the fractions generated by the aqueous (AEP) and enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction process (EAEP). Simultaneous extraction of oil and protein by the AEP was favored by the use of low SLR (1:12.82) and longer reaction times (2 h), where extraction yields of 48.2% and 70% were achieved, respectively. Increased use of enzyme (0.85%) in the EAEP resulted in higher oil (50%) and protein (75%) extraction yields in a shorter reaction time (1 h), compared with the AEP at the same reaction time (41.6% oil and 70% protein extraction). Overall, extraction conditions that favored oil and protein extraction also favored oil yield in the cream and protein yield in the skim. However, increased oil yield in the skim was observed at conditions where higher oil extraction was achieved. In addition to improving oil and protein extractability, the use of enzyme during the extraction resulted in the production of skim fractions with smaller and more soluble peptides at low pH (5.0), highlighting possible uses of the EAEP skim in food applications involving acidic pH. The implications of the use of enzyme during the extraction regarding the de-emulsification of the EAEP cream warrant further investigation.

Molecular Distillation-Induced Deacidification of Soybean Oil Isolated by Enzyme-Assisted Aqueous Extraction: Effect of Distillation Parameters

Soybean oil isolated by enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction (EAE) was subjected to molecular distillation-induced deacidification, and the effects of evaporator temperature, scraper speed, and feed flow rate on oil quality (acid value, color, peroxide value, p-anisidine value, tocopherol content, and fatty acid content) were evaluated to determine the suitable deacidification conditions. Fatty acid content was largely unaffected by evaporator temperature and scraper speed, while an increase of these parameters decreased tocopherol content as well as acid, peroxide, and p-anisidine values and resulted in Lovibond color deepening. The increase of feed flow rate had an opposite effect on the above quality indices. As a result, molecular distillation of EAE-produced soybean oil under suitable conditions (evaporator temperature = 180 °C, scraper speed = 220 rpm, feed flow rate = 4 mL/min) was found to afford a high-quality deacidified product in an environmentally friendly way.

Establishment of an aqueous method for extracting soybean oils assisted by adding free oil

Concern for the environment, safety and costs has promoted the development of the method for extracting soybean oil by an aqueous process. An advanced aqueous extraction of soybean oil assisted by adding free oil was established in this study, which recovered 81% of the oil from soybeans with 20.73% crude oil content and produced a de-oiled residue with 4.7% residual oil. The acid or peroxide value of the recovered oil met the Chinese national standard for first class refined oil, which was lower than that produced by solvent extraction or high temperature pressing. No wastewater was produced during the aqueous extraction of oil. The removal of the oil by the addition of oil and a small amount of water generated a residue (solids) containing all the protein, which represents 2/3 of the revenue in the soybean process. The protein-rich residue can be further processed to produce a protein isolate with high purity (e.g. > 90%) by using a higher amount of water. It can also be used as a nutritious ingredient or raw material for the production of many food products, among other applications.

Action of multi-enzyme complex on protein extraction to obtain a protein concentrate from okara

The objective of this study was to optimize the extraction of protein by applying a multi-enzymatic pretreatment to okara, a byproduct from soymilk processing. The multi-enzyme complex Viscozyme, containing a variety of carbohydrases, was used to hydrolyze the okara cell walls and facilitate extraction of proteins. Enzyme-assisted extraction was carried out under different temperatures (37-53 °C), enzyme concentrations (1.5-4%) and pH values (5.5-6.5) according to a central composite rotatable design. After extraction, the protein was concentrated by isoelectric precipitation. The optimal conditions for maximum protein content and recovery in protein concentrate were 53 °C, pH 6.2 and 4% of enzyme concentration. Under these conditions, protein content of 56% (dry weight basis) and a recovery of 28% were obtained, representing an increase of 17 and 86%, respectively, compared to the sample with no enzymatic pretreatment. The multi-enzyme complex Viscozyme hydrolyzed the structural cell wall polysaccharides, improving extraction and obtaining protein concentrate from the okara. An electrophoretic profile of the protein concentrate showed two distinct bands, corresponding to the acidic and basic subunits of the protein glycinin. There were no limiting amino acids in the protein concentrate, which had a greater content of arginine.

Mutagenesis and characterization of a Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain for Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel oil extraction by aqueous enzymatic method

The purpose of the present study was to increase the proteinase activity of the strain NCU116 by combining ultraviolet irradiation and N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitroso guanidine treatment, in order to enhance the efficiency of Cinnamomum camphora seed kernel oil (CCSKO) extraction by aqueous enzymatic method (AEM). The mutated strain, designated as NCU116-1, was screened out by the ratio of hydrolytic zone diameter to colony diameter on skim milk plate. The proteinase activity (9116.1 U/ml) of NCU116-1 was increased by 31.9% compared with the parental strain. The extracellular enzymes produced by NCU116-1 included proteinase, pectase, glucoamylase, cellulase and amylase. The proteinase had the maximum activity at 50 °C. Its optimum temperature and pH value were approximately 45 °C and 8.0 respectively. Mn²⁺ was an activator of neutral proteinase. The glucoamylase had the maximum activity at 35 °C, and was activated by Cu²⁺, Fe³⁺ and Mn²⁺. Its optimum temperatures and pH value were 35 °C and 8.0 respectively. The pectinase had the maximum activity at 40 °C, and was activated by Ca²⁺ and Mn²⁺. Its optimum temperatures and pH value were 35-40 °C and 6.0 respectively. The optimum conditions of CCSKO extraction by AEM were also investigated. The results suggested that the best amount of enzyme solution and enzymolysis time were 20% (v/v) and 4 h, respectively. The oil extraction rate was 95.2% under these conditions. Thus, a suitable mutated strain was selected for CCSKO extraction by AEM and the optimum extraction conditions were determined.

Enzyme-based processing of soybean carbohydrate: Recent developments and future prospects

Soybean is well known for its high-value oil and protein. Carbohydrate is, however, an underutilized major component, representing almost 26-30% (w/w) of the dried bean. The complex soybean carbohydrate is not easily hydrolyzable and can cause indigestibility when included in food and feed. Enzymes can be used to hydrolyze the carbohydrate for improving soybean processing and value of soybean products. Here the enzyme-based processing developed for the following purposes is reviewed: hydrolysis of different carbohydrate-rich by/products from soybean processing, improvement of soybean oil extraction, and increase of nutritional value of soybean-based food and animal feed. Once hydrolyzed into fermentable sugars, soybean carbohydrate can find more value-added applications and further improve the overall economics of soybean processing.

Biofunctional properties of bioactive peptide fractions from protein isolates of moringa seed (Moringa oleifera)

Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae) is a specie of significant importance because of its multiple nutraceutical properties, that has led to increase in its consumption. The seeds contain a high percentage of protein (37.48%). However, little is known about the bioactive properties of these proteins and peptides, especially those generated by enzymatic hydrolysis. The objective of this study was to evaluate the biofunctional properties of total hydrolysates (TH) and peptide fractions from protein isolates of moringa seeds. Isoelectric protein isolates were prepared and TH were obtained by digestion with trypsin, chymotrypsin and pepsin-trypsin for 2.5 and 5 h. TH were fractioned by ultrafiltration (UF) with a 10 kDa membrane to generate the peptide fractions. In all treatments, the antioxidant capacity was significantly higher in peptide fractions > 10 kDa with 5 h of hydrolysis. The results showed that the fraction > 10 kDa of pepsin-trypsin digested for 5 h presented a better Angiotensin Converting Enzyme inhibition (ACE-I) activity with an IC₅₀ of 0.224 μg/μl. Also, antidiabetic activity was enhanced in pepsin-trypsin treatment with 5 h of hydrolysis showing an IC₅₀ of 0.123 μg/μl. Finally, this study showed that hydrolysates of moringa seed proteins had excellent in vitro nutraceutical potential.

Green solvents and technologies for oil extraction from oilseeds

Oilseeds are crucial for the nutritional security of the global population. The conventional technology used for oil extraction from oilseeds is by solvent extraction. In solvent extraction, n-hexane is used as a solvent for its attributes such as simple recovery, non-polar nature, low latent heat of vaporization (330 kJ/kg) and high selectivity to solvents. However, usage of hexane as a solvent has lead to several repercussions such as air pollution, toxicity and harmfulness that prompted to look for alternative options. To circumvent the problem, green solvents could be a promising approach to replace solvent extraction. In this review, green solvents and technology like aqueous assisted enzyme extraction are better solution for oil extraction from oilseeds. Enzyme mediated extraction is eco-friendly, can obtain higher yields, cost-effective and aids in obtaining co-products without any damage. Enzyme technology has great potential for oil extraction in oilseed industry. Similarly, green solvents such as terpenes and ionic liquids have tremendous solvent properties that enable to extract the oil in eco-friendly manner. These green solvents and technologies are considered green owing to the attributes of energy reduction, eco-friendliness, non-toxicity and non-harmfulness. Hence, the review is mainly focussed on the prospects and challenges of green solvents and technology as the best option to replace the conventional methods without compromising the quality of the extracted products.

Parameters affecting enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction of extruded sunflower meal

Microscopic observation of sunflower meal before and after extraction indicated that extensive cellular disruption was achieved by extrusion, but that unextracted oil remained sequestered as coalesced oil within the void spaces of disrupted cotyledon cells. A full factorial design experiment was defined to develop aqueous extraction processing (AEP) with and without enzymes to improve vegetable oil extraction yields of extruded sunflower meal. This experimental design studied the influence of four parameters, agitation, liquid/solid (L/S) ratio, and cellulase and protease addition, on extraction yield of lipid and protein. Agitation and addition of cellulases increased oil extraction yield, indicating that emulsification of oil and alteration of the geometry of the confining cellular matrix were important mechanisms for improving yields. Protease and liquid-solid ratio of the extraction mixture did not have significant effects, indicating key differences with previously established soy oil extraction mechanisms. Maximum yields attained for oil and protein extraction were 39% and 90%, respectively, with the aid of a surfactant.

Studies on Grinding and Extraction of Oil from Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) Seed

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) seed known for its many medicinal properties is studied for its grinding characteristics in an impact-type hammer mill. The particle size distribution (PSD) data of powder was found to regress very well with well-known mathematical Rosin–Rammler–Bennet model. Several statistical parameters of the PSD such as mass relative span, size guide number, skewness, uniformity index, uniformity coefficient were also estimated. Weight mean diameter for the entire range of grinding was between 395.8 and 620.8 µm. Specific energy consumption (32.4–115.2 kJ/kg) increased linearly with increase in size reduction ratio (4.53–7.10). Fenugreek powder fraction with less than 200 µm resulted in highest oil yield. Oil yield was found increasing with increase in size reduction ratio.