Cycloheximide and 4-OH-TEMPO suppress chloramphenicol-induced apoptosis in RL-34 cells via the suppression of the formation of megamitochondria

Effect of Low Concentration of Nitroxides on SH-SY5Y Cells Transfected with the Tau Protein

Nitroxides, stable synthetic free radicals, are promising antioxidants, showing many beneficial effects both at the cellular level and in animal studies. However, the cells are usually treated with high millimolar concentrations of nitroxides which are not relevant to the concentrations that could be attained in vivo. This paper aimed to examine the effects of low (≤10 μM) concentrations of three nitroxides, 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-oxyl (TEMPO), 4-hydroxy-TEMPO (TEMPOL) and 4-amino-TEMPO (TEMPAMINE), in pure chemical systems and on SH-SY5Y cells transfected with the human tau protein (TAU cells), a model of chronic cellular oxidative stress, and transfected with the empty plasmid (EP cells). All nitroxides were active in antioxidant-activity tests except for the 2,2'-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzthiazolin-6-sulfonate) radical (ABTS•) decolorization assay and reduced Fe3+, inhibited autoxidation of adrenalin and pyrogallol and oxidation of dihydrorhodamine123 by 3-morpholino-sydnonimine SIN-1. TEMPO protected against fluorescein bleaching from hypochlorite, but TEMPAMINE enhanced the bleaching. Nitroxides showed no cytotoxicity and were reduced by the cells to non-paramagnetic derivatives. They decreased the level of reactive oxygen species, depleted glutathione, and increased mitochondrial-membrane potential in both types of cells, and increased lipid peroxidation in TAU cells. These results demonstrate that even at low micromolar concentrations nitroxides can affect the cellular redox equilibrium and other biochemical parameters.

Metabolomic Profile of Primary Turkey and Rat Hepatocytes and Two Cell Lines after Chloramphenicol Exposure

The purpose of this study was to assess the formation of chloramphenicol metabolites in primary turkey and rat hepatocyte cultures and human hepatoma (HepG2) cells and nonhepatic, Balb/c 3T3 fibroblasts. Additionally, the cytotoxicity of the drug was assessed through three biochemical endpoints: mitochondrial and lysosomal activity and cellular membrane integrity after 24 and 48 h exposure. The two metabolites of the drug, chloramphenicol glucuronide and nitroso-chloramphenicol, were detected to the greatest extent in both primary hepatocyte cultures by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Toxic nitroso-chloramphenicol was the main metabolite in the primary turkey hepatocyte cultures, but it was not in the primary rat hepatocyte cultures. The most affected endpoint in turkey and rat hepatocyte cultures was the disintegration of the cellular membrane, but in the cell lines, mitochondrial and lysosomal activities underwent the greatest change. The primary hepatocyte cultures represent valuable tools with which to study the species differences in the biotransformation and toxicity of drugs. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of differences in chloramphenicol metabolism in primary turkey and rat hepatocyte cultures.

Deoxynivalenol and its metabolite deepoxy-deoxynivalenol: multi-parameter analysis for the evaluation of cytotoxicity and cellular effects

The mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) contaminates agricultural commodities worldwide, posing health threats to humans and animals. Associated with DON are derivatives, such as deepoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1), produced by enzymatic transformation of certain intestinal bacteria, which are naturally occurring or applied as feed additives. Using differentiated porcine intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2), we provide the first multi-parameter comparative cytotoxicity analysis of DON and DOM-1, based on the parallel evaluation of lysosomal activity, total protein content, membrane integrity, mitochondrial metabolism and ATP synthesis. The study investigated the ability of DON and—for the first time of its metabolite DOM-1—to induce apoptosis, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling, oxidative events and alterations of mitochondrial structure in porcine intestinal epithelial cells (IECs). The degree of DON toxicity strongly varied, depending on the cytotoxicity parameter evaluated. DON compromised viability according to the parameters of lysosomal activity, total protein content and membrane integrity, but increased viability according to assays based on mitochondrial metabolism and ATP synthesis. DON induced expression of cleaved caspase-3 (maximum induction 3.9-fold) and MAPK p38 and p42/p44 (maximum induction 2.51- and 2.30-fold, respectively). DON altered mitochondrial morphology, but did not increase intracellular ROS. DOM-1-treated IPEC-J2 remained unaffected at equimolar concentrations in all assays, thereby confirming the safety of feed additives using DON- to DOM-1-transforming bacteria. The study additionally highlights that an extensive multi-parameter analysis significantly contributes to the quality of in vitro data.

Autophagy is induced through the ROS-TP53-DRAM1 pathway in response to mitochondrial protein synthesis inhibition

Mitoribosome in mammalian cells is responsible for synthesis of 13 mtDNA-encoded proteins, which are integral parts of four mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes (I, III, IV and V). ERAL1 is a nuclear-encoded GTPase important for the formation of the 28S small mitoribosomal subunit. Here, we demonstrate that knockdown of ERAL1 by RNA interference inhibits mitochondrial protein synthesis and promotes reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, leading to autophagic vacuolization in HeLa cells. Cells that lack ERAL1 expression showed a significant conversion of LC3-I to LC3-II and an enhanced accumulation of autophagic vacuoles carrying the LC3 marker, all of which were blocked by the autophagy inhibitor 3-MA as well as by the ROS scavenger NAC. Inhibition of mitochondrial protein synthesis either by ERAL1 siRNA or chloramphenicol (CAP), a specific inhibitor of mitoribosomes, induced autophagy in HTC-116 TP53 (+/+) cells, but not in HTC-116 TP53 (-/-) cells, indicating that tumor protein 53 (TP53) is essential for the autophagy induction. The ROS elevation resulting from mitochondrial protein synthesis inhibition induced TP53 expression at transcriptional levels by enhancing TP53 promoter activity, and increased TP53 protein stability by suppressing TP53 ubiquitination through MAPK14/p38 MAPK-mediated TP53 phosphorylation. Upregulation of TP53 and its downstream target gene DRAM1, but not CDKN1A/p21, was required for the autophagy induction in ERAL1 siRNA or CAP-treated cells. Altogether, these data indicate that autophagy is induced through the ROS-TP53-DRAM1 pathway in response to mitochondrial protein synthesis inhibition.

The role of EPR spectroscopy in studies of the oxidative status of biological systems and the antioxidative properties of various compounds

In this era of intense study of free radicals and antioxidants, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) is arguably the best-suited technique for such research, particularly when considering biochemical and biological systems. No attempt was made to cover all the topics of EPR application but instead attention was restricted to two areas that are both novel and received less attention in previous reviews. In the first section, the application of EPR in assessing the oxidative status of various biological systems, using endogenous stabile paramagnetic species, such as the ascorbyl radical, semiquinone, melanin, and oxidized pigments, is addressed. The second section covers the use of EPR in the emerging field of antioxidant development, using EPR spin-trapping and spin-probing techniques. In both sections, in addition to giving an overview of the available literature, examples (mostly from the authors? recent work) are also presented in sufficient detail to illustrate how to explore the full potential of EPR. This review aims at encouraging biologists, chemists and pharmacologists interested in the redox metabolism of living systems, free radical chemistry or antioxidative properties of new drugs and natural products to take advantage of this technique for their investigations.

Resveratrol ameliorates lung injury via inhibition of apoptosis in rats with severe acute pancreatitis

The objective of this study was to evaluate the protective effects of resveratrol on lung injury in rats with severe acute pancreatitis. Ninety-six male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly classified into 4 equal groups (n = 24): control, model, resveratrol-treated, and dexamethasone-treated. The rats were evaluated at 3, 6, and 12 hours after induction of pancreatitis. The following were assessed: P(a)O(2)by arterial blood gas analysis; pancreatic and lung injury by histology; and ultrastructure of lung tissue by transmission electron microscopy. The authors investigated mitochondrial cytochrome c release and evaluated the Bax, Bcl-2, and caspase-3 expression levels in lung tissue over the time course of apoptosis. Changes in lung cell mitochondrial membrane potential were evaluated by confocal laser scanning microscopy. In the model group, lung congestion, edema, inflammatory-cell infiltration, mitochondrial swelling, and cell apoptosis were apparent. In the resveratrol and dexamethasone groups, the morphological changes of the lungs were alleviated. The expression level of Bcl-2 was significantly higher and those of Bax, caspase-3, and cytochrome c were significantly lesser in the resveratrol group than in the model group. Apoptosis is involved in lung injury associated with severe acute pancreatitis, and resveratrol can ameliorate this injury, thus protecting lung function in rats with severe acute pancreatitis.

Protective role of fructose in the metabolism of astroglial C6 cells exposed to hydrogen peroxide

Astroglial cells represent the main line of defence against oxidative damage related to neurodegeneration. Therefore, protection of astroglia from an excess of reactive oxygen species could represent an important target of the treatment of such conditions. The aim of our study was to compare the abilities of glucose and fructose, the two monosaccharides used in diet and infusion, to protect C6 cells from hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2))-mediated oxidative stress. It was observed using confocal microscopy with fluorescent labels and the MTT test that fructose prevents changes of oxidative status of the cells exposed to H(2)O(2) and preserves their viability. Even more pronounced protective effects were observed for fructose 1,6-bis(phosphate). We propose that fructose and its intracellular forms prevent H(2)O(2) from participating in the Fenton reaction via iron sequestration. As fructose and fructose 1,6-bis(phosphate) are able to pass the blood-brain barrier, they could provide antioxidative protection of nervous tissue in vivo. So, in contrast to the well-known negative effects of frequent consumption of fructose under physiological conditions, acute infusion or ingestion of fructose or fructose 1,6-bis(phosphate) could be of benefit in the cytoprotective therapy of neurodegenerative disorders related to oxidative stress.

Chloramphenicol influence on antioxidant enzymes with preliminary approach on microsomal CYP1A immunopositive-protein in Chamelea gallina

Chloramphenicol (CA) is a largely used antibiotic and it is an inhibitor of protein synthesis that also induces ROS production. In this work there were investigated activities and expressions in the Adriatic bivalve Chamelea gallina of some antioxidant and detoxification proteins like superoxide dismutase (Mn-SOD, Cu/Zn-SOD), catalase (CAT) and Cytochrome P450 (CYP1A). Clams exposed to 5mgl(-1) of chloramphenicol were sampled 2, 4 and 8 days after treatment (CA2, CA4 and CA8). SODs, CAT, and CYP1A activity and/or expression were detected in pooled digestive glands by Western blotting and by spectrophotometrical analysis. Enzymes activities increase during the entire antibiotic exposure. With respect to the control Cu/Zn-SOD expression increases, while Mn-SOD expression decreases significantly after 4 days. Two CYP1A immunopositive-proteins (57.7 and 59.8kDa) were detected. The lower band significantly decreases in CA8, the upper one also in CA4 condition. High levels of Mn-SOD, CAT activity and Cu/Zn-SOD expression, indicate intense ROS production while Mn-SOD expression inhibition might be ascribable to mitochondrial alterations due to CA and indirectly to ROS. CYP1A1 action determines H2O2 production that would contribute to a CYP1A1 gene promoter down regulation, a response to oxidative stress with the antioxidant enzymes activation as a final result. This study highlights the close association, in C. gallina, in presence of chloramphenicol, between SOD/CAT and CYP system, and it appear particularly interesting to the lack of similar researches on mollusc species.

A possible role of oxidative stress in the switch mechanism of the cell death mode from apoptosis to necrosis--studies on rho0 cells

Apoptosis is induced not only during morphogenesis and embryogenesis but also under various pathological conditions, especially related to oxidative stress. Apoptotic cells are phagocytized by neighboring cells while necrotic cells cause local and general reactions sometimes lethal to our bodies. Data have been accumulated to demonstrate that the switch of the cell death mode from apoptosis to necrosis does occur. However, detailed mechanisms involved in the switch mechanism remain unsolved although decreases in the intracellular level of ATP and a burst in the cellular level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been proposed. Recently, we have shown that the population of apoptotic cells reaches maximum in human osteosarcoma 143B cells treated for 6h with menadione (MEN) while necrotic cells become predominant at 9h of the treatment. In the present study we have attempted to clarify the role of cellular ATP in the switch mechanism using rho(0) cells derived from human osteosarcoma rho+ cells. Results are summarized as follows: (1) Apoptotic and necrotic changes in rho(0) cells are much faster than rho+ cells after the treatment with MEN. (2) Cellular level of ATP in rho(0) cells remains essentially in the same level before and after the MEN-treatment while intracellular levels of superoxide continuously increase after the MEN-treatment. (3) rho+ cells treated with MEN in the presence of antimycin A plus oligomycin show similar changes to those of MEN-treated rho(0) cells. (4) MEN-induced increases in the cellular level of superoxide are distinctly suppressed by inhibitors of NADPH oxidase. These results suggest that the intracellular level of superoxide may be a key factor directly related to the switch mechanism from apoptosis to necrosis, and that decreases in cellular level of ATP accelerate both apoptotic and necrotic changes of the cells.

Chloramphenicol induces in vitro growth arrest and apoptosis of human keratinocytes

Chloramphenicol (CAP) is a broad-spectrum antibacterial drug that is widely used for topical application in ophthalmology and dermatology. In the present study we investigated the influence of CAP on human keratinocyte proliferation and apoptosis in vitro. CAP significantly inhibited proliferation and induced apoptosis of cultivated human keratinocytes, as revealed by incorporation of radioactive thymidine and flow cytometry analysis of intracellular esterase activity in fluorescein diacetate-stained cells, respectively. CAP-induced keratinocyte apoptosis was associated with activation of caspases and increased production of reactive oxygen species. The pro-apoptotic action of CAP was antagonized by the antioxidant agent N-acetylcysteine, the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide, and PD98059, a selective inhibitor of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation. Taken together, these data indicate that CAP inhibits keratinocyte proliferation through induction of oxidative stress and ERK-mediated caspase-dependent apoptosis.

Role of apoptosis controlled by cytochrome c released from mitochondria for luteal function in human granulosa cells

PROBLEM

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between apoptosis by the mitochondrial pathway and luteal function in human granulosa cells.

METHOD OF STUDY

Granulosa cells were obtained by ultrasound-guided follicular aspiration from patients undergoing in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer. After the addition of RU486, cells were stained with a mitochondria-specific fluorescent dye, MitoTracker Red CM x Ros. Using flow cytometry and National Institute of Health image, the mitochondrial fluorescent area was measured. After staining with Hoechst 33258 dye, the number of apoptotic bodies per 1000 cells were counted at random on photomicrographs. Homogenates were used for sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and Western blot analysis using antibodies against cytochrome c or caspase-3.

RESULTS

The incidence of apoptotic bodies increased and the mitochondrial membrane potential decreased time dependently. The opposite effect was observed dose dependently with RU486 treatment. Western blot analysis showed increased cytochrome c expression, after treatment with 1-2 microg/mL of RU486 which then decreased with 5-10 microg/mL of RU486. Caspase-3 expression increased dose dependently with RU486.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that the activation of caspase-3 caused by cytochrome c released from mitochondria plays an important role in apoptosis-related luteal function in human granulosa cells.

Chloramphenicol-induced mitochondrial stress increases p21 expression and prevents cell apoptosis through a p21-dependent pathway

Pretreatment of HepG2 and H1299 cells with chloramphenicol rendered the cells resistant to mitomycin-induced apoptosis. Both mitomycin-induced caspase 3 activity and PARP activation were also inhibited. The mitochondrial DNA-encoded Cox I protein, but not nuclear-encoded proteins, was down-regulated in chloramphenicol-treated cells. Cellular levels of the p21(waf1/cip1) protein and p21(waf1/cip1) mRNA were increased through a p53-independent pathway, possibly because of the stabilization of p21(waf1/cip1) mRNA in chloramphenicol-treated cells. The p21(waf1/cip1) was redistributed from the perinuclear region to the cytoplasm and co-localized with mitochondrial marker protein. Several morphological changes and activation of the senescence-associated biomarker, SA beta-galactosidase, were observed in these cells. Both p21(waf1/cip1) antisense and small interfering RNA could restore apoptotic-associated caspase 3 activity, PARP activation, and sensitivity to mitomycin-induced apoptosis. Similar effects were seen with other antibiotics that inhibit mitochondrial translation, including minocycline, doxycycline, and clindamycin. These findings suggested that mitochondrial stress causes resistance to apoptosis through a p21-dependent pathway.

The switch mechanism of the cell death mode from apoptosis to necrosis in menadione-treated human osteosarcoma cell line 143B cells

Time-dependent changes in the cell death mode from apoptosis to necrosis were studied in cultured 143B cells treated with menadione, an anti-cancerous drug, excluding a possible involvement of "secondary necrosis." The population of apoptotic cells judged by FITC-Annexin V and propidium iodide (PI) double staining reached its maximum at 6 hours after 100 microM menadione treatment followed by an abrupt decrease thereafter, while that of necrotic cells continuously increased reaching 90% at 24 hours. Electron microscopically, cells attached to the culture dish at 6 hours after the treatment consisted of two different types of cells: cells with typical apoptotic features occupying the major population and those with condensed nuclei and swollen cytoplasm. Cells attached to the culture dish at 8 hours after the treatment consisted exclusively of those with condensed nuclei and swollen cytoplasm. Mitochondria in these cells showed various structural changes: those swollen to various degrees with deposition of flocculent densities, or those with highly condensed matrix. Distinct decreases both in intracellular levels of ATP and caspase-3-like activities and remarkable elevations of intracellular levels of superoxide, which were partly suppressed by NAD(P)H oxidase inhibitors, occurred at 6 hours after the treatment. These results may suggest that distinct increases of the intracellular level of superoxide derived from plasma membrane NAD(P)H oxidase besides that from mitochondria have triggered the transition of cell death mode from apoptosis to necrosis. Transition of highly condensed mitochondria to extremely swollen ones may reflect necrotic processes in menadione-treated cells. The present study strongly suggests that time-dependent study is essential using the electron microscopic technique to analyze detailed processes in the changes of the cell death mode.

Reversible formation of giant and normal-sized mitochondria in gastric parietal cells of guinea pigs

Mitochondria occasionally increase in size in response to metabolic injury. Numerous studies have reported giant mitochondria in patients with various diseases and animals with metabolic injuries, and there are few reports on giant mitochondria in normal cells under physiological conditions. Here, we report a reversible formation of giant and normal-sized mitochondria in gastric parietal cells of guinea pigs. We morphometrically analyzed the frequency distribution of mitochondrial area on ultrathin sections of parietal cells in guinea pigs fed freely (control group), starved for 60-72 hr (starvation group), and starved and then injected with histamine (histamine group). The distribution was significantly different between the control and starvation group and between the starvation and histamine group: the histogram of the starvation group significantly shifted toward large mitochondria compared with that of the control or histamine group; the frequency of mitochondria more than 2 microm2 in size was significantly higher in the starvation group than that in the control or histamine group. This is the first report that clearly demonstrated the presence of giant mitochondria in gastric parietal cells under the starved condition and a mitochondrial recovery in a normal size after the administration of histamine. Because gastric parietal cells change their membrane system according to the state of gastric acid secretion, the present data may offer new insight into the morphological changes in gastric parietal cells.

Mechanism of leflunomide-induced proliferation of mitochondria in mammalian cells

Leflunomide (LFM) is an inhibitor of mitochondrial enzyme dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH) that catalyzes the conversion of dihydroorotate to orotate coupled with the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) from mitochondria. We demonstrate here that LFM causes an unrestrained proliferation of mitochondria both in human osteosarcoma cell line 143B cells and rat liver derived RL-34 cells. Increases in the total mass of mitochondria per cell in LFM-treated cells were evidenced by the application of Green FM or 10-n-nonyl acridine orange to flow cytometry, an enhanced replication of mtDNA and electron microscopy. Externally added uridine improved the disturbance in cell cycle progression in LFM-treated cells, but failed to suppress such unrestrained mitochondrial proliferation. On the contrary, lapacol and 5-fluoroorotate, inhibitors of DHODH besides LFM, suppressed the biogenesis of mitochondria during the cell cycle progression. LFM, but not lapacol or 5-fluoroorotate, caused increases of the intracellular level of acetylated alpha-tubulin. These data suggest that the inhibition of DHODH may not be at least primarily related to the LFM-induced abnormal proliferation of mitochondria, and support our recent published observation that changes in the physicochemical properties of microtubules may be in someway concerned with the biogenesis of mitochondria.

Megamitochondria formation - physiology and pathology

Mitochondria undergo structural changes simultaneously with their functional changes in both physiological and pathological conditions. These structural changes of mitochondria are classified into two categories: simple swelling and the formation of megamitochondria (MG). Data have been accumulated to indicate that free radicals play a crucial role in the mechanism of the MG formation induced by various experimental conditions which are apparently various. These include ethanol-, chloramphenicol- and hydrazine-induced MG formation. Involvement of free radicals in the mechanism of MG formation is showed by the fact that MG formation is successfully suppressed by free radical scavengers such as alpha-tocopherol, coenzyme Q(10), and 4-OH-TEMPO. Detailed mechanisms and pathophysiological meanings of MG formation still remain to be investigated. However, a body of evidence strongly suggests that enormous changes in physicochemical and biochemical properties of the mitochondrial membranes during MG formation take place and these changes are favorable for membrane fusion. A recent report showed that continous exposure of cells with MG to free radicals induces apoptosis, finding which suggests that MG formation is an adaptative process to unfavorable environments at the level of intracellular organelles. Mitochondria try to decrease intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels by decreasing the consume of oxygen via MG formation. If mitochondria succeed to suppress intracellular ROS levels, MG return to normal both structurally and functionally, and they restore the ability to actively synthesize ATP. If cells are additionally exposed to excess amounts of free radicals, MG become swollen, membrane potential of mitochondria (DeltaPsim) decreases, cytochrome c is released from mitochondria, leading to activation of caspases and apoptosis is induced.

Inhibition of mitochondrial protein synthesis results in increased endothelial cell susceptibility to nitric oxide-induced apoptosis

Mutations in mitochondrial DNA, affecting the activity of respiratory complexes, have been implicated in many chronic degenerative diseases. Mitochondrial proteins coded for by both the mitochondrial and nuclear genes are known to have important signaling roles in apoptosis. However, the impact of the inhibition of mitochondrial protein synthesis on apoptosis is largely unknown. This inhibition is particularly important in NO-dependent cytotoxicity, which is believed to have a significant mitochondrial component and depend on other factors such as glycolysis. In this study we have examined whether the inhibition of mitochondrial protein synthesis by chloramphenicol increases the susceptibility of endothelial cells to undergo NO-dependent apoptosis in glucose-free media. Bovine aortic endothelial cells were treated with chloramphenicol, which resulted in a decreased ratio of mitochondrial complex IV to cytochrome c and increased oxidant production in the cell. Inhibition of mitochondrial protein synthesis was associated with a greater susceptibility of the cells to apoptosis induced by NO in glucose-free medium.

Determination of electrophoretic mobility distributions through the analysis of individual mitochondrial events by capillary electrophoresis with laser-induced fluorescence detection

Here we report on the analysis of mitochondrial preparations by capillary electrophoresis with postcolumn laser-induced fluorescence detection. Individual mitochondria are detected by fluorescent labeling with the mitochondrion-selective probe, 10-nonyl acridine orange. Interactions between the organelles and the capillary walls are controlled by derivatization of the capillaries with poly(acryloylaminopropanol). As expected from the presence of charged groups in their outer membranes, isolated mitochondria have intrinsic electrophoretic mobilities. This property may be influenced by variations in size, morphology, membrane composition, and damage caused during the isolation procedure. The mobility distributions of mitochondria isolated from NS1 and CHO cells ranged from -1.2 x 10(-4) to -4.3 x 10(-4) cm2 V(-1) s(-1) and -0.8 x 10(-4) to -4.2 x 10(-4) cm2 V(-1) s(-1), respectively. Furthermore, there seems to be no correlation between the density of the mitochondrial fraction and the resultant electrophoretic mobility distribution. These results suggest a new method for characterization of organelle fractions and for counting individual organelles.

Abrin triggers cell death by inactivating a thiol-specific antioxidant protein

Abrin A-chain (ABRA) inhibits protein synthesis by its N-glycosidase activity as well as induces apoptosis, but the molecular mechanism of ABRA-induced cell death has been obscure. Using an ABRA mutant that lacks N-glycosidase activity as bait in a yeast two-hybrid system, a 30-kDa antioxidant protein-1 (AOP-1) was found to be an ABRA(E164Q)-interacting protein. The interaction was further confirmed in vitro by a glutathione S-transferase pull-down assay. The colocalization of endogenous AOP-1 and exogenous ABR proteins in the cell was demonstrated by confocal immunofluorescence. We also demonstrated that ABRA attenuates AOP-1 antioxidant activity in a dose-dependent manner and the intracellular level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) increases in ABR-treated cells. Moreover, ROS scavengers N-acetylcysteine and 4-hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl delayed programmed cell death. This indicates that ROS are important mediators of ABR-induced apoptosis. When ectopically expressed, AOP-1 blocked the release of cytochrome c and prevented apoptosis in ABR-treated cells. These findings suggest that the binding of ABRA to AOP-1 promotes apoptosis by inhibiting the mitochondrial antioxidant protein AOP-1, resulting in the increase of intracellular ROS and the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria to the cytosol, which activates caspase-9 and caspase-3.

Antioxidant status and hepatic lipid peroxidation in chloramphenicol-treated rats

The present study reports the enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant status and hepatic microsomal lipid peroxidation in chloramphenicol treated rats. Chloramphenicol at a dose of 28 mg/kg body weight orally administered to rats increased the activity of cytosolic superoxide dismutase by 63% while the activities of glutathione peroxidase and catalase were decreased by 57% and 44%, respectively. In vitro, chloramphenicol altered the activities of these enzymes though not as pronounced as the effect of the drug on the enzymes in vivo. The levels of serum vitamins A, C and beta-carotene were significantly decreased following chloramphenicol treatment. Microsomal lipid peroxidation was markedly and significantly increased by chloramphenicol treatment. The drug elicited 69% and 71% increases in the levels of malondialdehyde and lipid hydroperoxide respectively. Glutathione level and glutathione S-transferase activity were decreased by 42% and 58%, respectively, compared to untreated controls. Overall, the results of the present investigation indicate alteration of enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidant status and induction of lipid peroxidation by chloramphenicol. The clinical implications in the detoxification of toxic metabolites of lipid peroxidation caused by chloramphenicol warrant co-administration with antioxidant vitamins in chloramphenicol treatment regimen.

Opposite effects of microtubule-stabilizing and microtubule-destabilizing drugs on biogenesis of mitochondria in mammalian cells

Distribution of mitochondria as well as other intracellular organelles in mammalian cells is regulated by interphase microtubules. Here, we demonstrate a role of microtubules in the mitochondrial biogenesis using various microtubule-active drugs and human osteosarcoma cell line 143B cells and rat liver-derived RL-34 cells. Depolymerization of microtubules by nocodazole or colchicine, as well as 2-methoxyestradiol, a natural estrogen metabolite, arrested asynchronously cultured cells in G(2)/M phase of cell cycle and at the same time inhibited the mitochondrial mass increase and mtDNA replication. These drugs also inhibited the mitochondrial mass increase in the cells that were synchronized in cell cycle, which should occur during G(1) to G(2) phase progression in normal conditions. However, stabilization of microtubules by taxol did not affect the proliferation of mitochondria during the cell cycle, yet a prolonged incubation of cells with taxol induced an abnormal accumulation of mitochondria in cells arrested in G(2)/M phase of cell cycle. Taxol-induced accumulation of mitochondria was not only demonstrated by mitochondria-specific fluorescent dyes but also evidenced by the examination of cells transfected with yellow fluorescent protein fused with mitochondrial targeting sequence from subunit VIII of human cytochrome c oxidase (pEYFP) and by enhanced mtDNA replication. Two subpopulations of mitochondria were detected in taxol-treated cells: mitochondria with high Delta(psi)(m), detectable either by Mito Tracker Red CMXRos or by Green FM, and those with low Delta(psi)(m), detectable only by Green FM. However, taxol-induced increases in the mitochondrial mass and in the level of acetylated (alpha)-tubulin were abrogated by a co-treatment with taxol and nocodazole or taxol and colchicine. These data strongly suggest that interphase microtubules may be essential for the regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis in mammalian cells.

MitoTracker labeling in primary neuronal and astrocytic cultures: influence of mitochondrial membrane potential and oxidants

MitoTracker dyes are fluorescent mitochondrial markers that covalently bind free sulfhydryls. The impact of alterations in mitochondrial membrane potential (Delta Psi(m)) and oxidant stress on MitoTracker staining in mitochondria in cultured neurons and astrocytes has been investigated. p-(Trifluoromethoxy) phenyl-hydrazone (FCCP) significantly decreased MitoTracker loading, except with MitoTracker Green in neurons and MitoTracker Red in astrocytes. Treatment with FCCP after loading increased fluorescence intensity and caused a relocalization of the dyes. The magnitude of these effects was contingent on which MitoTracker, cell type and dye concentration were used. H(2)O(2) pretreatment led to a consistent increase in neuronal MitoTracker Orange and Red and astrocytic MitoTracker Green and Orange fluorescence intensity. H(2)O(2) exposure following loading increased MitoTracker Red fluorescence in astrocytes. In rat brain mitochondria, high concentrations of MitoTracker dyes uncoupled respiration in state 4 and inhibited maximal respiration. Thus, loading and mitochondrial localization of the MitoTracker dyes can be influenced by loss of Delta Psi(m) and increased oxidant burden. These dyes can also directly inhibit respiration. Care must be taken in interpreting data collected using MitoTrackers dyes as these dyes have several potential limitations. Although MitoTrackers may have some value in identifying the location of mitochondria within cultured neurons and astrocytes, their sensitivity to Delta Psi(m) and oxidation negates their use as markers of mitochondrial dynamics in healthy cultures.

Mitochondrial DNA depletion causes morphological changes in the mitochondrial reticulum of cultured human cells

Depletion of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) causes defects in respiratory activity and energy production. Recent studies have shown mitochondria to exist primarily as reticular networks, having tubular cristae. Using fluorescence microscopy and transmission electron microscopy, we have examined mitochondrial morphology and interior structure in wildtype and mtDNA-depleted rho0 human fibroblasts and 143B osteosarcoma cell lines. MtDNA depletion results in compromise of the mitochondrial continuum and causes a reduction in amount of cristal membranes, often prompting the remaining cristae to adopt a circular appearance in the mitochondrial interior. These changes emphasize the tight relationship between mitochondrial structure and function.

Swelling of free-radical-induced megamitochondria causes apoptosis

Recently, we have found that cultured cells from various sources exposed to free radicals become apoptotic in the presence of megamitochondria (MG). The purpose of the present study is to answer the following two questions: (1) Do functions obtained from the "MG fraction" isolated from normal mitochondria by a routine procedure represent the functions of MG since the fraction consists of enlarged and normal-size mitochondria? (2) What is the correlation between MG formation and apoptotic changes of the cell? In the present study the heavy fraction rich in mitochondria enlarged to varying degrees and the light fraction consisting mainly of normal-size mitochondria were isolated independently from the livers of rats treated with hydrazine for 4 days (4H animals) and 8 days (8H animals), and some functions related to apoptosis were compared. Results were as follows: (1) Mitochondria in both fractions obtained from 8H animals swelled far less in various media than those obtained from the controls, suggesting that the permeability transition pores had been opened before they were exposed to swelling media. (2) The membrane potential of mitochondria in both fractions obtained from 8H animals was distinctly decreased. (3) The rates of reactive oxygen species generation from mitochondria of both fractions in 4H animals were equally elevated, while those in 8H animals were equally decreased compared to those of controls. These results, together with morphological data obtained in the present study, suggest that enlarged and normal-size mitochondria are a part of MG and that the secondary swelling of MG causes the apoptotic changes in the cell.

Functional aspects of megamitochondria isolated from hydrazine- and ethanol-treated rat livers

It is essential to analyze functions of megamitochondria (MG) to elucidate the mechanism of the formation of MG induced under various pathological conditions. The MG fraction obtained by a routine isolation procedure for normal mitochondria always consists of a mixed population of mitochondria enlarged to various degrees and also normal-sized ones. The purpose of the present study is to answer the question of whether or not data obtained from the MG fraction consisting of such a heterogeneous population of mitochondria with respect to their sizes really reflect functions of MG. In the present study mitochondria were obtained from the livers of rats treated with a 1% hydrazine diet for 8 days and those given 32% ethanol in drinking water for up to 2 months using various isolation procedures. Results obtained are summarized as follows: (i) mitochondria enlarged to various degrees and normal-sized ones are sometimes connected with each other by a narrow stalk in the hepatocyte of hydrazine-treated animals, and such connections are maintained to some extent when mitochondria are isolated; and (ii) mitochondria obtained from experimental animals by a routine isolation procedure for mitochondria ((700-7000)gR2"') and those obtained by alternative isolation procedure yielding the heavy ((500-2000)gR2"') and light ((2000-7000)gR2"') fractions show some functional similarities: decreases in the content of cytochrome a + a3; decreases in oxygen consumptions and phosphorylating abilities; decreases in monoamine oxidase and cytochrome c oxidase activities; lowered membrane potential of mitochondria; decreases in the rate of the generation of reactive oxygen species. These results may suggest that mitochondria enlarged to various degrees and normal-sized ones are functionally similar to each other and that the MG fraction obtained by a routine isolation procedure for normal mitochondria can be applied to the study of the function of MG.