N-methylated beta-carbolines protect PC12 cells from cytotoxic effect of MPP+ by attenuation of mitochondrial membrane permeability change

Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors in Toxic Models of Parkinsonism

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors are widely used for the symptomatic treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD). They demonstrate antiparkinsonian activity in different toxin-based models induced by 6-hydroxydopamine, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), and pesticides (rotenone and paraquat). In some models, such as MPTP-induced PD, MAO inhibitors prevent the formation of the neurotoxin MPP+ from the protoxin MPTP. Regardless of the toxin's nature, potent MAO inhibitors prevent dopamine loss reduction, the formation of hydrogen peroxide, hydrogen peroxide signaling, and the accumulation of hydrogen peroxide-derived reactive oxygen species responsible for the development of oxidative stress. It becomes increasingly clear that some metabolites of MAO inhibitors (e.g., the rasagiline metabolite 1-R-aminoindan) possess their own bio-pharmacological activities unrelated to the parent compound. In addition, various MAO inhibitors exhibit multitarget action, in which MAO-independent effects prevail. This opens new prospects in the development of novel therapeutics based on simultaneous actions on several prospective targets for the therapy of PD.

Neurotrophic Natural Products

Neurotrophins (NGF, BDNF, NT3, NT4) can decrease cell death, induce differentiation, as well as sustain the structure and function of neurons, which make them promising therapeutic agents for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. However, neurotrophins have not been very effective in clinical trials mostly because they cannot pass through the blood-brain barrier owing to being high-molecular-weight proteins. Thus, neurotrophin-mimic small molecules, which stimulate the synthesis of endogenous neurotrophins or enhance neurotrophic actions, may serve as promising alternatives to neurotrophins. Small-molecular-weight natural products, which have been used in dietary functional foods or in traditional medicines over the course of human history, have a great potential for the development of new therapeutic agents against neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. In this contribution, a variety of natural products possessing neurotrophic properties such as neurogenesis, neurite outgrowth promotion (neuritogenesis), and neuroprotection are described, and a focus is made on the chemistry and biology of several neurotrophic natural products.

Potential of Naturally Derived Alkaloids as Multi-Targeted Therapeutic Agents for Neurodegenerative Diseases

Alkaloids are a class of secondary metabolites that can be derived from plants, fungi and marine sponges. They are widely known as a continuous source of medicine for the management of chronic disease including cancer, diabetes and neurodegenerative diseases. For example, galanthamine and huperzine A are alkaloid derivatives currently being used for the symptomatic management of neurodegenerative disease. The etiology of neurodegenerative diseases is polygenic and multifactorial including but not limited to inflammation, oxidative stress and protein aggregation. Therefore, natural-product-based alkaloids with polypharmacology modulation properties are potentially useful for further drug development or, to a lesser extent, as nutraceuticals to manage neurodegeneration. This review aims to discuss and summarise recent developments in relation to naturally derived alkaloids for neurodegenerative diseases.

Neuropharmacological potentials of β-carboline alkaloids for neuropsychiatric disorders

Neuropsychiatric disorders are diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) which are characterised by complex pathomechanisms that including homeostatic failure, malfunction, atrophy, pathology remodelling and reactivity anomaly of the neuronal system where treatment options remain challenging. β-Carboline (βC) alkaloids are scaffolds of structurally diverse tricyclic pyrido[3,4-b]indole alkaloid with vast occurrence in nature. Their unique structural features which favour interactions with enzymes and protein receptor targets account for their potent neuropharmacological properties. However, our current understanding of their biological mechanisms for these beneficial effects, especially for neuropsychiatric disorders is sparse. Therefore, we present a comprehensive review of the scientific progress in the last two decades on the prospective pharmacology and physiology of the βC alkaloids in the treatment of some neuropsychiatric conditions such as depression, anxiety, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, brain tumour, essential tremor, epilepsy and seizure, licking behaviour, dystonia, agnosia, spasm, positive ingestive response as demonstrated in non-clinical models. The current evidence supports that βC alkaloids offer potential therapeutic agents against most of these disorders and amenable for further drug design.

Pharmacokinetics of 2,3,5,4'-tetrahydroxystilbene-2-O-β-D-glucoside in rat using ultra-performance LC-quadrupole TOF-MS

2,3,5,4'-Tetrahydroxystilbene-2-O-β-D-glucoside (THSG) from Polygoni multiflori has been demonstrated to possess a variety of pharmacological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective activities. Ultra-performance LC-quadrupole TOF-MS with MS Elevated Energy data collection technique and rapid resolution LC with diode array detection and ESI multistage MS(n) methods were developed for the pharmacokinetics, tissue distribution, metabolism, and excretion studies of THSG in rats following a single intravenous or oral dose. The three metabolites were identified by rapid resolution LC-MS(n). The concentrations of the THSG in rat plasma, bile, urine, feces, or tissue samples were determined by ultra-performance LC-MS. The results showed that THSG was rapidly distributed and eliminated from rat plasma. After the intravenous administration, THSG was mainly distributing in the liver, heart, and lung. For the rat, the major distribution tissues after oral administration were heart, kidney, liver, and lung. There was no long-term storage of THSG in rat tissues. Total recoveries of THSG within 24 h were low (0.1% in bile, 0.007% in urine, and 0.063% in feces) and THSG was excreted mainly in the forms of metabolites, which may resulted from biotransformation in the liver.

d-β-Hydroxybutyrate inhibited the apoptosis of PC12 cells induced by H2O2 via inhibiting oxidative stress

Oxidative stress has an important role in neurodegenerative diseases and cerebral ischemic injury. It is reported that d-β-hydroxybutyrate (DβHB), the major component of ketone bodies, is neuroprotective in recent studies. Therefore, in the present work the neuroprotective effects of DβHB on H2O2-induced apoptosis mediated by oxidative stress was investigated. PC12 cells were exposed to H2O2 with different concentrations of H2O2 for different times after DβHB pretreatment. MTT assay, apoptotic rates, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, GSH content, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and caspase-3 activity were determined. The results showed that DβHB inhibited the decrease of cell viability induced by H2O2 in PC12 cells. DβHB decreased the apoptotic rates induced by H2O2. The changes of intracellular ROS, GSH, MMP and caspase-3 activity due to H2O2 exposure were partially reversed in PC12 cells. So DβHB inhibited the apoptosis of PC12 cells induced by H2O2 via inhibiting oxidative stress.

Urate and its transgenic depletion modulate neuronal vulnerability in a cellular model of Parkinson's disease

Urate is a major antioxidant as well as the enzymatic end product of purine metabolism in humans. Higher levels correlate with a reduced risk of developing Parkinson's disease (PD) and with a slower rate of PD progression. In this study we investigated the effects of modulating intracellular urate concentration on 1-methyl-4-phenyl-pyridinium (MPP⁺)-induced degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in cultures of mouse ventral mesencephalon prepared to contain low (neuron-enriched cultures) or high (neuron-glial cultures) percentage of astrocytes. Urate, added to the cultures 24 hours before and during treatment with MPP⁺, attenuated the loss of dopaminergic neurons in neuron-enriched cultures and fully prevented their loss and atrophy in neuron-astrocyte cultures. Exogenous urate was found to increase intracellular urate content in cortical neuronal cultures. To assess the effect of reducing cellular urate content on MPP⁺-induced toxicity, mesencephalic neurons were prepared from mice over-expressing urate oxidase (UOx). Transgenic UOx expression decreased endogenous urate content both in neurons and astrocytes. Dopaminergic neurons expressing UOx were more susceptible to MPP⁺ in mesencephalic neuron-enriched cultures and to a greater extent in mesencephalic neuron-astrocyte cultures. Our findings correlate intracellular urate content in dopaminergic neurons with their toxin resistance in a cellular model of PD and suggest a facilitative role for astrocytes in the neuroprotective effect of urate.

Administration of harmine and imipramine alters creatine kinase and mitochondrial respiratory chain activities in the rat brain

The present study evaluated mitochondrial respiratory chain and creatine kinase activities after administration of harmine (5, 10, and 15 mg/kg) and imipramine (10, 20, and 30 mg/kg) in rat brain. After acute treatment occurred an increase of creatine kinase in the prefrontal with imipramine (20 and 30 mg/kg) and harmine in all doses, in the striatum with imipramine (20 and 30 mg/kg) and harmine (5 and 10 mg/kg); harmine (15 mg/kg) decreased creatine kinase. In the chronic treatment occurred an increase of creatine kinase with imipramine (20 mg/kg), harmine (5 mg/kg) in the prefrontal with imipramine (20 and 30 mg/kg) and harmine (5 and 10 mg/kg) in the striatum. In the acute treatment, the complex I increased in the prefrontal with harmine (15 mg/kg) and in the striatum with harmine (10 mg/kg); the complex II decreased with imipramine (20 and 30 mg/kg) in the striatum; the complex IV increased with imipramine (30 mg/kg) in the striatum. In the chronic treatment, the complex I increased with harmine (5 mg/kg) in the prefrontal; the complex II increased with imipramine (20 mg/kg) in the prefrontal; the complex IV increased with harmine (5 mg/kg) in the striatum. Finally, these findings further support the hypothesis that harmine and imipramine could be involved in mitochondrial function.

Tetrahydroxystilbene glucoside attenuates MPP+-induced apoptosis in PC12 cells by inhibiting ROS generation and modulating JNK activation

It is known that oxidative stress plays a major role in the progression of Parkinson's disease (PD). Previous studies have suggested that 2,3,5,4'-tetrahydroxystilbene-2-O-beta-D-glucoside (TSG), an active component extracted from a traditional Chinese herb Polygonum multiflorum Thunb., has significant antioxidant and free radical-scavenging activities. This is the first study that investigated the protective effects of TSG against MPP(+)-induced apoptosis in PC12 cells and determined the underlying mechanism. The results showed that incubation of PC12 cells with TSG before exposing them to MPP(+) could significantly decrease cell viability loss and reverse cell apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner. The anti-apoptotic effects of TSG were probably mediated via the inhibition of ROS generation and modulation of JNK activation because TSG blocked ROS increase and JNK phosphorylation induced by MPP(+). Taken together, these results indicated that TSG may provide a useful therapeutic strategy for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as PD.

Ghrelin antagonized 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP(+))-induced apoptosis in MES23.5 cells

Ghrelin is an endogenous ligand for the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R) acting to stimulate growth hormone release. In the previous study, we have observed the neuroprotective effects of ghrelin on dopaminergic neurons in vivo in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine -treated Parkinson's disease mice. In order to illustrate the underlying mechanisms, in the present study, we conducted our experiment in vitro in 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP(+))-treated MES23.5 cells that could express GHS-R1a. Ten- to 1,000-micromol/L MPP(+) treatment caused decreased cell viability, with increased lactate dehydrogenase leakage. A 200-micromol/L MPP(+) treatment was chosen to do the further experiments. MES23.5 cells treated with 200 micromol/L MPP(+) showed decreased mitochondrial transmembrane potential, an elevated level of reactive oxidative species production and activation of caspase-3. Additionally, these cells also showed apoptotic morphological changes. Pretreatment with different doses of ghrelin (10(-12)-10(-7) mol/L) could abolish the MPP(+)-induced apoptotic changes in a dose-dependent manner. These results suggested that ghrelin could antagonize MPP(+)-induced apoptosis in MES23.5 cells. The protective effects of ghrelin involved the restoration of mitochondria function.

A possible mechanism for the beneficial effect of ethanol in essential tremor

BACKGROUND

Essential tremor is one of the most common movement disorders in elderly people. The hypothesis of a disregulation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) pathways has been suggested. It was shown experimentally that infusion of NMDA in cerebellar nuclei down-regulates glutamate release.

METHODS

We assessed the effects of intranuclear administration of harmaline on the NMDA-mediated regulation of glutamate in rats using reverse dialysis. We hypothesized that ethanol, which improves essential tremor in the clinic, antagonizes the effect of harmaline upon glutamatergic transmission. We tested the interaction of ethanol and harmaline upon glycerol (a marker of membrane turn-over), lactate, and pyruvate concentrations.

RESULTS

Harmaline increased the concentrations of glutamate and impaired the NMDA-mediated regulation of glutamate. Ethanol decreased the concentrations of glutamate during NMDA stimulation in case of pre-administration with harmaline. Concentrations of glycerol rose with harmaline. Glycerol levels markedly decreased during NMDA infusion when inhibitors of nitric oxide synthase, alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionate antagonists or NMDA antagonists were administered. Harmaline increased lactate/pyruvate ratios during NMDA infusion but these ratios returned to normal values in presence of ethanol.

DISCUSSION

We provide a possible mechanism for the beneficial effect of ethanol on essential tremor. The concept of glutamatergic disregulation underlying essential tremor is highlighted. Consequences for our understanding of essential tremor are discussed.

The endogenous alkaloid harmane: acidifying and activity-reducing effects on hippocampal neurons in vitro

RATIONALE

The endogenous alkaloid harmane is enriched in plasma of patients with neurodegenerative or addictive disorders. As harmane affects neuronal activity and viability and because both parameters are strongly influenced by intracellular pH (pH(i)), we tested whether effects of harmane are correlated with altered pH(i) regulation.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Pyramidal neurons in the CA3 field of hippocampal slices were investigated under bicarbonate-buffered conditions. Harmane (50 and 100 microM) reversibly decreased spontaneous firing of action potentials and caffeine-induced bursting of CA3 neurons. In parallel experiments, 50 and 100 microM harmane evoked a neuronal acidification of 0.12+/-0.08 and 0.18+/-0.07 pH units, respectively. Recovery from intracellular acidification subsequent to an ammonium prepulse was also impaired, suggesting an inhibition of transmembrane acid extrusion by harmane.

CONCLUSION

Harmane may modulate neuronal functions via altered pH(i)-regulation. Implications of these findings for neuronal survival are discussed.

Antioxidant properties of -carboline alkaloids are related to their antimutagenic and antigenotoxic activities

The beta-carboline alkaloids found in medical plants and in a variety of foods, beverages and cigarette smoke have a range of action in various biological systems. In vitro studies have demonstrated that these alkaloids can act as scavengers of reactive oxygen species. In this paper, we report the in vivo antioxidative properties of the aromatic (harmane, harmine, harmol) and dihydro-beta-carbolines (harmaline and harmalol) studied by using Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains proficient and deficient in antioxidant defenses. Their antimutagenic activity was also assayed in S. cerevisiae and the antigenotoxicity was tested by the comet assay in V79 cell line, when both eukaryotic systems were exposed to H(2)O(2). We show that the alkaloids have a significant protective effect against H(2)O(2) and paraquat oxidative agents in yeast cells, and that their ability to scavenge hydroxyl radicals contributes to their antimutagenic and antigenotoxic effects.

Mitochondrial membrane permeabilization in cell death

Irrespective of the morphological features of end-stage cell death (that may be apoptotic, necrotic, autophagic, or mitotic), mitochondrial membrane permeabilization (MMP) is frequently the decisive event that delimits the frontier between survival and death. Thus mitochondrial membranes constitute the battleground on which opposing signals combat to seal the cell's fate. Local players that determine the propensity to MMP include the pro- and antiapoptotic members of the Bcl-2 family, proteins from the mitochondrialpermeability transition pore complex, as well as a plethora of interacting partners including mitochondrial lipids. Intermediate metabolites, redox processes, sphingolipids, ion gradients, transcription factors, as well as kinases and phosphatases link lethal and vital signals emanating from distinct subcellular compartments to mitochondria. Thus mitochondria integrate a variety of proapoptotic signals. Once MMP has been induced, it causes the release of catabolic hydrolases and activators of such enzymes (including those of caspases) from mitochondria. These catabolic enzymes as well as the cessation of the bioenergetic and redox functions of mitochondria finally lead to cell death, meaning that mitochondria coordinate the late stage of cellular demise. Pathological cell death induced by ischemia/reperfusion, intoxication with xenobiotics, neurodegenerative diseases, or viral infection also relies on MMP as a critical event. The inhibition of MMP constitutes an important strategy for the pharmaceutical prevention of unwarranted cell death. Conversely, induction of MMP in tumor cells constitutes the goal of anticancer chemotherapy.

Quercetin-Induced PC12 Cell Death Accompanied by Caspase-Mediated DNA Fragmentation

Flavonoids have been reported to be potent antioxidants and beneficial in oxidative stress related diseases. Quercetin, a major flavonoid in food, deserves much attention because of its antioxidative activity. However, the actions of flavonoids including quercetin are complex and paradoxical. Quercetin caused apoptosis and/or cell death in various cells including cancer cells and normal cells. In this study, we investigated the effects of quercetin with or without hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) on cell death of PC12 cells, a neuronal cell line. We showed that quercetin at 10-30 microM alone caused cell death accompanied by caspase-mediated DNA fragmentation in undifferentiated PC12 cells. Quercetin did not inhibit and rather enhanced 0.1 mM H2O2-induced cell death. The toxic effect of quercetin was not inhibited by antioxidants such as N-acetylcysteine and GSH, although H2O2-induced cell death was inhibited by the antioxidants. Quercetin-induced cell death was reduced by 2 h treatment with nerve growth factor and serum. In addition, quercetin caused cell death in differentiated PC12 cells that were cultured with nerve growth factor for 6 d. Genistein, a soy isoflavone that has the pro-apoptotic activity, also caused cell death with DNA fragmentation. Further evaluation of the potential of dietary flavonoids as neuroprotective reagents is needed.

An in vitro model of human dopaminergic neurons derived from embryonic stem cells: MPP+ toxicity and GDNF neuroprotection

Human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) can proliferate indefinitely yet also differentiate in vitro, allowing normal human neurons to be generated in unlimited numbers. Here, we describe the development of an in vitro neurotoxicity assay using human dopaminergic neurons derived from hESCs. We showed that the dopaminergic neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP(+)), which produces features of Parkinson's disease in humans, was toxic for hESC-derived dopaminergic neurons. Treatment with glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor protected tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons against MPP(+)-induced apoptotic cell death and loss of neuronal processes as well as against the formation of intracellular reactive oxygen species. The availability of human dopaminergic neurons, derived from hESCs, therefore allows for the possibility of directly examining the unique features of human dopaminergic neurons with respect to their responses to pharmacological agents as well as environmental and chemical toxins.

Neuroprotective effects of the stable nitroxide compound Tempol on 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion-induced neurotoxicity in the Nerve Growth Factor-differentiated model of pheochromocytoma PC12 cells

Nerve growth factor (NGF) differentiated pheochromocytoma PC12 cells exposed to 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+) toxin were used as an in vitro pharmacological model of Parkinson's disease to examine the neuroprotective effects of 4-hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethyl piperidine-n-oxyl (Tempol), a free radical scavenger and a superoxide dismutase-mimetic compound. MPP+-induced PC12 cell death was measured 72 h after exposure to 1.5 mM MPP+ by the release of lactate dehydrogenease, caspase-3 activation and stimulation of survival and stress mitogen-activated protein kinases. Exposure of PC12 cells to MPP+ activated ERK1 and ERK2 (forty-fold over control after 72 h), JNK1 and JNK2 (fourfold after 48 h) and p-38alpha (tenfold after 24 h). Pretreatment of PC12 cells with 500 microM Tempol, 1 h before induction of the MPP+ insult, reduced by 70% the release of LDH into the medium, inhibited caspase-3 activity by 30% and improved by 33% mitochondrial function, effects correlated with a 70% reduction in ERK1 and ERK2 phosphorylation activity. These findings support the neuroprotective effect of Tempol in the MPP+-induced PC12 cell death model and its use as a potential drug for treatment of Parkinson's disease.

Effects of β-carboline alkaloids on the object recognition task in mice

beta-carboline alkaloids are found in several medicinal plants and display a variety of actions on the central nervous, muscular and cardiovascular systems. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of systemic administration of beta-carboline alkaloids on object recognition in mice. Adult Swiss mice received an intra-peritoneal injection (i.p.) of alkaloids (1.0, 2.5 or 5.0 mg/kg) 30 min before training in an object recognition task. The fully aromatic beta-carbolines, harmine and harmol, induced an enhancement of short-term memory (STM) at all doses tested when compared to controls. Harmaline, a dihydro beta-carboline and inverse agonist of the MK-801 binding site on the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, also induced an enhancement of both short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). These results demonstrate that systemic administration of beta-carboline alkaloids can improve object recognition memory in mice.

Differential Involvement of Mitochondrial Permeability Transition in Cytotoxicity of 1-Methyl-4-Phenylpyridinium and 6-Hydroxydopamine

Defects in mitochondrial function have been shown to participate in the induction of neuronal cell injury. The aim of the present study was to assess the influence of the mitochondrial membrane permeability transition inhibition against the toxicity of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP(+)) and 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) in relation to the mitochondria-mediated cell death process and role of oxidative stress. Both MPP(+) and 6-OHDA induced the nuclear damage, the changes in the mitochondrial membrane permeability, leading to the cytochrome c release and caspase-3 activation, the formation of reactive oxygen species and the depletion of GSH in differentiated PC12 cells. Cyclosporin A (CsA), trifluoperazine and aristolochic acid, inhibitors of mitochondrial permeability transition, significantly attenuated the MPP(+)-induced mitochondrial damage leading to caspase-3 activation, increased oxidative stress and cell death. In contrast to MPP(+), the cytotoxicity of 6-OHDA was not reduced by the addition of the mitochondrial permeability transition inhibitors. The results show that the cytotoxicity of MPP(+) may be mediated by the mitochondrial permeability transition formation, which is associated with formation of reactive oxygen species and the depletion of GSH. In contrast, the 6-OHDA-induced cell injury appears to be mediated by increased oxidative stress without intervention of the mitochondrial membrane permeability transition.

Reactive oxygen species and p38 phosphorylation regulate the protective effect of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the apoptotic response to NMDA

NMDA causes oxidative stress in neurons, and produces cell death involving elements of both necrosis and apoptosis. To examine the neuroprotective mechanism of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in NMDA-induced death of AF5 cells, we measured reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation after exposure to NMDA. ROS generation was increased by NMDA, and NMDA-induced ROS generation was significantly decreased by THC. Western blotting revealed an increase in phosphorylated p38 MAPK after NMDA treatment, which was also blocked by pretreatment with THC. The time course of ROS generation and activation of MAPK signaling pathways were similar. SB203580, a p38 inhibitor, partially blocked glutamate excitotoxicity in AF5 cells. The present data suggest that THC protects against NMDA-induced apoptosis in AF5 cells by blocking ROS generation and inhibiting the activation of p38-MAPK.

Selective alterations of transcription factors in MPP+-induced neurotoxicity in PC12 cells

MPP(+) (1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium; the active metabolite of the neurotoxin MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridine)) depletes dopamine (DA) content and elicits cell death in PC12 cells. However, the mechanism of MPP(+)-induced neurotoxicity is still unclear. In this study, the dose response and time-course of MPP(+)-induced DA depletion and decreased cell viability were determined in nerve growth factor (NGF)-differentiated PC12 cells. The alteration of transcription factors (TFs) induced by MPP(+) from a selected dose level and time point was then evaluated using protein/DNA-binding arrays. K-means clustering analysis identified four patterns of protein/DNA-binding changes. Three of the 28 TFs identified in PC12 cells increased by 100% (p53, PRE, Smad SBE) and 2 decreased by 50% (HSE, RXR(DR1)) of control with MPP(+) treatment. In addition, three TFs decreased within the range of 33-50% (TFIID, E2F1, CREB) and two TFs increased within the range of 50-100% (PAX-5, Stat4). An electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) was used to confirm the changes of p53 and HSE. The observed changes in TFs correlated with the alterations of DA and cell viability. The data indicates that selective transcription factors are involved in MPP(+)-induced neurotoxicity and it provides mechanistic information that may be applicable to animal studies with MPTP and clinical studies of Parkinson's disease.

Toxicological aspects of the South American herbs cat's claw (Uncaria tomentosa) and Maca (Lepidium meyenii) : a critical synopsis

Recent exceptional growth in human exposure to natural products known to originate from traditional medicine has lead to a resurgence of scientific interest in their biological effects. As a strategy for improvement of the assessment of their pharmacological and toxicological profile, scientific evidence-based approaches are being employed to appropriately evaluate composition, quality, potential medicinal activity and safety of these natural products. Using this approach, we comprehensively reviewed existing scientific evidence for known composition, medicinal uses (past and present), and documented biological effects with emphasis on clinical pharmacology and toxicology of two commonly used medicinal plants from South America with substantial human exposure from historical and current global use: Uncaria tomentosa (common name: cat's claw, and Spanish: uña de gato), and Lepidium meyenii (common name: maca). Despite the geographic sourcing from remote regions of the tropical Amazon and high altitude Andean mountains, cat's claw and maca are widely available commercially in industrialised countries. Analytical characterisations of their active constituents have identified a variety of classes of compounds of toxicological, pharmacological and even nutritional interest including oxindole and indole alkaloids, flavonoids, glucosinolates, sterols, polyunsaturated fatty acids, carbolines and other compounds. The oxindole alkaloids from the root bark of cat's claw are thought to invoke its most widely sought-after medicinal effects as a herbal remedy against inflammation. We find the scientific evidence supporting this claim is not conclusive and although there exists a base of information addressing this medicinal use, it is limited in scope with some evidence accumulated from in vitro studies towards understanding possible mechanisms of action by specific oxindole alkaloids through inhibition of nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB activation. Although controlled clinical studies have demonstrated reduction in pain associated with cat's claw intake in patients with various chronic inflammatory disorders, there is insufficient clinical data overall to draw a firm conclusion for its anti-inflammatory effects. An important observation was that experimental results were often dependent upon the nature of the preparation used. It appears that the presence of unknown substances has an important role in the overall effects of cat's claw extracts is an important factor for consideration. The available animal toxicological studies did not indicate severe toxicity from oral intake of cat's claw preparations but rather were suggestive of a low potential for acute and subacute oral toxicity, and a lack of evidence to demonstrate genotoxic potential and mutagenic activity. Maca is a clear example of a herb with substantial medicinal use in traditional herbal medicine by indigenous cultures in South America since the first recorded knowledge of it in the seventeenth century. The hypocotyls of maca are the edible part of the plant used for nutritional and proposed fertility-enhancing properties. Maca has been described to possess many other medicinal properties in traditional herbal medicine but only a few of them have been well studied scientifically. Published clinical studies of maca seem to be related to its property as a nutrient, for male fertility and for energy. There are inadequate data regarding the precise mechanism of action of maca. Some studies suggest that secondary metabolites found in maca extracts are important constituents responsible for its physiological effects. Maca has been reported in the scientific literature to have a low degree of acute oral toxicity in animals and low cellular toxicity in vitro. An important finding unveiled by this review is the importance of standardisation in quality and additional basic and clinical research to scientifically validate and understand composition, biological activity, safety and risk. Development of a comprehensive pharmacological and toxicological profile through critical evaluation of existing and future experimental data, especially carefully conducted clinical studies would facilitate the scientific evidence-based approach to understanding potential biological effects of these major traditionally based herbals in current global use.

Fraxetin prevents rotenone-induced apoptosis by induction of endogenous glutathione in human neuroblastoma cells

Fraxetin belongs to an extensive group of natural phenolic anti-oxidants. In the present study, using a human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells, we have investigated the protective effects of this compound on modifications in endogenous reduced glutathione (GSH), intracellular oxygen species (ROS) and apoptotic death on rotenone-mediated cytoxicity. Incubation of cells with the fraxetin led to a significant elevation dose-dependent of cellular GSH and this was accompanied by a marked protection against rotenone-mediated toxicity, which was also significantly reversed in the cells with buthionine sulfoximine (BSO) co-treatment. Taken together, this study suggested that intracellular GSH appeared to be an important factor in fraxetin-mediated cytoprotection against rotenone-toxicity in SH-SY5Y cells. Fraxetin at 10-100 muM inhibited the formation of ROS, cytochrome c release, activation of caspase-3 and 9, and suppressed the up-regulation of Bax, whereas no significant change occurred in Bcl-2 levels. Our results indicated that the anti-oxidative and anti-apoptotic properties render this natural compound potentially protective against rotenone-induced cytotoxicity.

Olanzapine and quetiapine protect PC12 cells from β-amyloid peptide25-35-induced oxidative stress and the ensuing apoptosis

We previously found that the atypical antipsychotic drugs (APDs) clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine, and risperidone reduce PC12 cell death induced by hydrogen peroxide, N-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium ion, or beta-amyloid peptide (Abeta(25-35)). Such neurotoxic substances have in common the capability of causing oxidative stress. Atypical APDs have been used in treating schizophrenia and in treating psychotic symptoms of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), in which Abeta is involved by causing oxidative stress. Therefore, we hypothesized that atypical APDs might alleviate oxidative stress in PC12 cells, thus protecting them from apoptosis. PC12 cells were seeded in plates or chambers for 24 hr and cultured for another 24 hr with olanzapine or quetiapine in the medium, and then the cells were cultured in the new medium containing Abeta(25-35) and/or olanzapine, quetiapine, but not serum, for various periods. It was shown that cultures treated with olanzapine + Abeta(25-35), or quetiapine + Abeta(25-35), had significantly higher cell viabilities and lower rates of apoptosis compared with the cultures exposed only to Abeta(25-35). In addition, the drugs blocked the activation of caspase-3 caused by Abeta(25-35). Furthermore, olanzapine and quetiapine prevented Abeta(25-35)-induced overproduction of intracellular reactive oxygen species, Abeta(25-35)-induced decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential, and Abeta(25-35)-induced changes in activities of the key antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase. In consideration of the wealth of evidence linking oxidative stress to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and AD, these findings give us a new insight into the therapeutic actions of atypical antipsychotics in patients with the disorders.

Antitumor and neurotoxic effects of novel harmine derivatives and structure-activity relationship analysis

Beta-carboline alkaloids such as harmine are present in medicinal plants such as Peganum harmala that have been used as folk medicine in anticancer therapy. In our study, 9 harmine derivatives (including harmine) were investigated for their antitumor effects and acute toxicities in mice, and the structure-activity relationship (SAR) was also analyzed. Administration of these compounds resulted in tumor inhibition rates of 15.3-49.5% in mice bearing Lewis Lung Cancer, sarcoma180 or HepA tumor, with the highest value of 49.5% from compound 6. Acute toxicity studies showed that all these compounds except compounds 2 and 5 caused remarkable acute neurotoxicities manifested by tremble, twitch and jumping. SAR analysis indicated that the formate substitution at R3 of the tricyclic skeleton reduced their neurotoxicity, while the short alkyl or aryl substitution at R9 increased the antitumor activity. The harmine and its derivatives resulted in in vitro cytotoxicity (IC50) values of 0.011-0.021 micromol/ml in HepG2 cells, with compound 8 being the most potent among all agents tested. Compounds 1, 6, 7 and 8 induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells, with the highest apoptotic rate (55.34%) from compound 6. Western blotting analysis demonstrated that compound 6 completely inhibited the expression of Bcl-2 gene, and compounds 1 and 8 produced a significant inhibition by 40 and 60%, respectively, compared to the control, while compound 7 did not alter the level of Bcl-2. Compounds 1, 6, 7 and 8 upregulated the expression of death receptor Fas by approximately 50-120%. All these findings indicate that compounds with both substitutions at R3 and R9 (such as compound 5) have high antitumor activity and low toxicity, which might be chosen as lead molecules for further development. Further studies on the effects of harmine derivatives on key regulators for tumor cell apoptosis are needed.