Natural T cells in the human liver: cytotoxic lymphocytes with dual T cell and natural killer cell phenotype and function are phenotypically heterogenous and include Valpha24-JalphaQ and gammadelta T cell receptor bearing cells

Scalable nonparametric clustering with unified marker gene selection for single-cell RNA-seq data

Clustering is commonly used in single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) pipelines to characterize cellular heterogeneity. However, current methods face two main limitations. First, they require user-specified heuristics which add time and complexity to bioinformatic workflows; second, they rely on post-selective differential expression analyses to identify marker genes driving cluster differences, which has been shown to be subject to inflated false discovery rates. We address these challenges by introducing nonparametric clustering of single-cell populations (NCLUSION): an infinite mixture model that leverages Bayesian sparse priors to identify marker genes while simultaneously performing clustering on single-cell expression data. NCLUSION uses a scalable variational inference algorithm to perform these analyses on datasets with up to millions of cells. By analyzing publicly available scRNA-seq studies, we demonstrate that NCLUSION (i) matches the performance of other state-of-the-art clustering techniques with significantly reduced runtime and (ii) provides statistically robust and biologically relevant transcriptomic signatures for each of the clusters it identifies. Overall, NCLUSION represents a reliable hypothesis-generating tool for understanding patterns of expression variation present in single-cell populations.

Etiology of end-stage liver cirrhosis impacts hepatic natural killer cell heterogenicity

The natural killer (NK) cell population is a critical component of the innate immune compartment of the liver, and its functions are deeply affected by the surrounding environment. In the late stage of fibrosis, NK cells become dysfunctional, but the influence of disease etiology on NK cell behavior during cirrhosis remains unclear. Using single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), we characterized the hepatic NK cells from end-stage cirrhotic livers from subjects with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), chronic hepatitis C infection (HCV) and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC). Here, we show that although NK cells shared similar dysfunctions, the disease etiology impacts hepatic NK cell heterogeneity. Therapeutical strategies targeting NK cells for the prevention or treatment of fibrosis should consider liver disease etiology in their design.

Human CD8+ T-Cell Populations That Express Natural Killer Receptors

CD8⁺ T cells are activated by TCRs that recognize specific cognate Ags, while NK-cell activation is regulated by a balance between signals from germline-encoded activating and inhibitory NK receptors. Through these different processes of Ag recognition, CD8⁺ T cells and NK cells play distinct roles as adaptive and innate immune cells, respectively. However, some human CD8⁺ T cells have been found to express activating or inhibitory NK receptors. CD8⁺ T-cell populations expressing NK receptors straddle the innate-adaptive boundary with their innate-like features. Recent breakthrough technical advances in multi-omics analysis have enabled elucidation of the unique immunologic characteristics of these populations. However, studies have not yet fully clarified the heterogeneity and immunological characteristics of each CD8⁺ T-cell population expressing NK receptors. Here we aimed to review the current knowledge of various CD8⁺ T-cell populations expressing NK receptors, and to pave the way for delineating the landscape and identifying the various roles of these T-cell populations.

Natural Killer T-like Cells: Immunobiology and Role in Disease

CD56+ T cells are generally recognized as a distinct population of T cells and are categorized as NKT-like cells. Although our understanding of NKT-like cells is far from satisfactory, it has been shown that aging and a number of disease situations have impacted these cells. To construct an overview of what is currently known, we reviewed the literature on human NKT-like cells. NKT-like cells are highly differentiated T cells with "CD1d-independent" antigen recognition and MHC-unrestricted cell killing. The genesis of NKT-like cells is unclear; however, it is proposed that the acquisition of innate characteristics by T cells could represent a remodeling process leading to successful aging. Additionally, it has been shown that NKT-like cells may play a significant role in several pathological conditions, making it necessary to comprehend whether these cells might function as prognostic markers. The quantification and characterization of these cells might serve as a cutting-edge indicator of individual immune health. Additionally, exploring the mechanisms that can control their killing activity in different contexts may therefore result in innovative therapeutic alternatives in a wide range of disease settings.

Identification of a distinct NK-like hepatic T-cell population activated by NKG2C in a TCR-independent manner

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The liver provides a unique niche of lymphocytes enriched with a large proportion of innate-like T cells. However, the heterogeneity and functional characteristics of the hepatic T-cell population remain to be fully elucidated.

METHODS

We obtained liver sinusoidal mononuclear cells from the liver perfusate of healthy donors and recipients with HBV-associated chronic liver disease (CLD) during liver transplantation. We performed a CITE-seq analysis of liver sinusoidal CD45⁺ cells in combination with T cell receptor (TCR)-seq and flow cytometry to examine the phenotypes and functions of liver sinusoidal CD8⁺ T cells.

RESULTS

We identified a distinct CD56^hiCD161^-CD8⁺ T-cell population characterized by natural killer (NK)-related gene expression and a uniquely restricted TCR repertoire. The frequency of these cells among the liver sinusoidal CD8⁺ T-cell population was significantly increased in patients with HBV-associated CLD. Although CD56^hiCD161^-CD8⁺ T cells exhibit weak responsiveness to TCR stimulation, CD56^hiCD161^-CD8⁺ T cells highly expressed various NK receptors, including CD94, killer immunoglobulin-like receptors, and NKG2C, and exerted NKG2C-mediated NK-like effector functions even in the absence of TCR stimulation. In addition, CD56^hiCD161^-CD8⁺ T cells highly respond to innate cytokines, such as IL-12/18 and IL-15, in the absence of TCR stimulation. We validated the results from liver sinusoidal CD8⁺ T cells using intrahepatic CD8⁺ T cells obtained from liver tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, the current study found a distinct CD56^hiCD161^-CD8⁺ T-cell population characterized by NK-like activation via TCR-independent NKG2C ligation. Further studies are required to elucidate the roles of liver sinusoidal CD56^hiCD161^-CD8⁺ T cells in immune responses to microbial pathogens or liver immunopathology.

LAY SUMMARY

The role of different immune cell populations in the liver is becoming an area of increasing interest. Herein, we identified a distinct T-cell population that had features similar to those of natural killer (NK) cells - a type of innate immune cell. This distinct population was expanded in the livers of patients with chronic liver disease and could thus have pathogenic relevance.

Human Hepatic CD56bright NK Cells Display a Tissue-Resident Transcriptional Profile and Enhanced Ability to Kill Allogenic CD8+ T Cells

Liver-resident CD56^brightCD16^- natural killer (NK) cells are enriched in the human liver and are phenotypically distinct from their blood counterparts. Although these cells are capable of rapid cytotoxic effector activity, their functional role remains unclear. We hypothesise that they may contribute to immune tolerance in the liver during transplantation. RNA sequencing was carried out on FACS sorted NK cell subpopulations from liver perfusates (n=5) and healthy blood controls (n=5). Liver-resident CD56^brightCD16^+/- NK cells upregulate genes associated with tissue residency. They also upregulate expression of CD160 and LY9, both of which encode immune receptors capable of activating NK cells. Co-expression of CD160 and Ly9 on liver-resident NK cells was validated using flow cytometry. Hepatic NK cell cytotoxicity against allogenic T cells was tested using an in vitro co-culture system of liver perfusate-derived NK cells and blood T cells (n=10-13). In co-culture experiments, hepatic NK cells but not blood NK cells induced significant allogenic T cell death (p=0.0306). Allogenic CD8⁺ T cells were more susceptible to hepatic NK cytotoxicity than CD4⁺ T cells (p<0.0001). Stimulation of hepatic CD56^bright NK cells with an anti-CD160 agonist mAb enhanced this cytotoxic response (p=0.0382). Our results highlight a role for donor liver NK cells in regulating allogenic CD8⁺ T cell activation, which may be important in controlling recipient CD8⁺ T cell-mediated rejection post liver-transplant.

NK Cells and Innate-Like T Cells After Autologous Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation in Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system, in which autoreactive T and B cells play important roles. Other lymphocytes such as NK cells and innate-like T cells appear to be involved as well. To name a few examples, CD56^bright NK cells were described as an immunoregulatory NK cell subset in MS while innate-like T cells in MS were described in brain lesions and with proinflammatory signatures. Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (aHSCT) is a procedure used to treat MS. This procedure includes hematopoietic stem/progenitor cell (HSPC) mobilization, then high-dose chemotherapy combined with anti-thymocyte globulin (ATG) and subsequent infusion of the patients own HSPCs to reconstitute a functional immune system. aHSCT inhibits MS disease activity very effectively and for long time, presumably due to elimination of autoreactive T cells. Here, we performed multidimensional flow cytometry experiments in peripheral blood lymphocytes of 27 MS patients before and after aHSCT to address its potential influence on NK and innate-like T cells. After aHSCT, the relative frequency and absolute numbers of CD56^bright NK cells rise above pre-aHSCT levels while all studied innate-like T cell populations decrease. Hence, our data support an enhanced immune regulation by CD56^bright NK cells and the efficient reduction of proinflammatory innate-like T cells by aHSCT in MS. These observations contribute to our current understanding of the immunological effects of aHSCT in MS.

Deep immune phenotyping reveals similarities between aging, Down syndrome, and autoimmunity

[Figure: see text].

The Contribution of Human Herpes Viruses to γδ T Cell Mobilisation in Co-Infections

γδ T cells are activated in viral, bacterial and parasitic infections. Among viruses that promote γδ T cell mobilisation in humans, herpes viruses (HHVs) occupy a particular place since they infect the majority of the human population and persist indefinitely in the organism in a latent state. Thus, other infections should, in most instances, be considered co-infections, and the reactivation of HHV is a serious confounding factor in attributing γδ T cell alterations to a particular pathogen in human diseases. We review here the literature data on γδ T cell mobilisation in HHV infections and co-infections, and discuss the possible contribution of HHVs to γδ alterations observed in various infectious settings. As multiple infections seemingly mobilise overlapping γδ subsets, we also address the concept of possible cross-protection.

PD-1 blockade improves the anti-tumor potency of exhausted CD3+CD56+ NKT-like cells in patients with primary hepatocellular carcinoma

CD3⁺CD56⁺ NKT-like cells play pivotal roles in the anti-tumor immune defense response. However, little is known regarding circulating NKT-like cells in patients with primary hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In the present study, we demonstrate that circulating NKT-like cells in HCC patients are functionally impaired and anti-PD-1 blockade improves their anti-tumor potency. Circulating NKT cells were mainly comprised of CD8+ T cells. The frequencies and absolute counts of circulating NKT-like cells were comparable between HCC patents compared to healthy donors. NKT-like cells in HCC patients were impaired in their production of TNF-α and IFN-γ as well as cytotoxicity. The level of activating receptor NKG2D was significantly decreased on NKT-like cells in HCC patients. In contrast, the expression of inhibitory receptors PD-1, Tim-3, and CTLA-4 were markedly increased on NKT-like cells in HCC patients. Meanwhile, the expression of PD-L1 was also upregulated on NKT-like cells in HCC patients. In detail, PD-1⁺ NKT-like cells expressed lower levels of NKG2D, higher levels of Tim-3, and CTLA-4, and less IFN-γ when compared with PD-1⁻ NKT-like cells. Importantly, PD-1 blocked with anti-PD-1 antibody effectively improved the effector function of NKT-like cells from HCC patients or healthy donors. Our findings unveil the functional characterization of NKT-like cells in HCC patients and provide the potential targets to improve their function, which might benefit the optimization of HCC immunotherapy.

Cross-talk between hepatic stellate cells and T lymphocytes in liver fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Fibrosis results from inflammation and healing following injury. The imbalance between extracellular matrix (ECM) secretion and degradation leads to the ECM accumulation and liver fibrosis. This process is regulated by immune cells. T lymphocytes, including alpha beta (αβ) T cells, which have adaptive immune functions, and gamma delta (γδ) T cells, which have innate immune functions, are considered regulators of liver fibrosis. This review aimed to present the current understanding of the cross-talk between T lymphocytes and hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), which are the key cells in liver fibrosis.

DATA SOURCES

The keywords "liver fibrosis", "immune", and "T cells" were used to retrieve articles published in PubMed database before January 31, 2020.

RESULTS

The ratio of CD8+ (suppressor) T cells to CD4+ (helper) T cells is significantly higher in the liver than in the peripheral blood. T cells secrete a series of cytokines and chemokines to regulate the inflammation in the liver and the activation of HSCs to influence the course of liver fibrosis. In addition, HSCs also regulate the differentiation and proliferation of T cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The cross-talk between T cells and HSCs regulates liver fibrosis progression. The elucidation of this communication process will help us to understand the pathological process of liver fibrosis.

Insights Into Human Intrahepatic NK Cell Function From Single Cell RNA Sequencing Datasets

Diverse populations of natural killer (NK) cells have been identified in circulating peripheral blood and a wide variety of different tissues and organs. These tissue-resident NK cell populations are phenotypically distinct from circulating NK cells, however, functional descriptions of their roles within tissues are lacking. Recent advances in single cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) have enabled detailed transcriptional profiling of tissues at the level of single cells and provide the opportunity to explore NK cell diversity within tissues. This review explores potential novel functions of human liver-resident (lr)NK cells identified in human liver scRNA-seq studies. By comparing these datasets we identified up-regulated and down-regulated genes associated with lrNK cells clusters. These genes encode a number of activating and inhibiting receptors, as well as signal transduction molecules, which highlight potential unique pathways that lrNK cells utilize to respond to stimuli within the human liver. This unique receptor repertoire of lrNK cells may confer the ability to regulate a number of immune cell populations, such as circulating monocytes and T cells, while avoiding activation by liver hepatocytes and Kupffer cells. Validating the expression of these receptors on lrNK cells and the proposed cellular interactions within the human liver will expand our understanding of the liver-specific homeostatic roles of this tissue-resident immune cell population.

Functional responses of resident human T cells in intact liver tissue

The liver contains a rich mix of T cells, including activated T cells, tissue-resident memory T cells and cells undergoing apoptosis. When antigens are presented in this milieu the default result is functional tolerance. T cell tolerance in the liver could be constitutive, or it could be adaptive, in which case liver cells would become unresponsive after encountering antigen in the liver context. To test this model, we evaluated the potential of human liver T cells to respond to T cell receptor ligation in liver tissue slice cultures. These T cells contained an actively motile subset of CD4+ T cells marked by CCR7 and CD62L, and fully functional subsets of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells that synthesized effector cytokines but subsequently assumed an exhausted phenotype. These data favor the model that human liver T cells are not constitutively tolerant but undergo adaptive tolerance after activation.

Deep phenotypical characterization of human CD3+ CD56+ T cells by mass cytometry

CD56⁺ T cells are a group of pro-inflammatory CD3⁺ lymphocytes with characteristics of natural killer cells, being involved in antimicrobial immune defense. Here, we performed deep phenotypic profiling of CD3⁺ CD56⁺ cells in peripheral blood of normal human donors and individuals sensitized to birch-pollen or/and house dust mite by high-dimensional mass cytometry combined with manual and computational data analysis. A co-regulation between major conventional T-cell subsets and their respective CD3⁺ CD56⁺ cell counterparts appeared restricted to CD8⁺ , MAIT, and TCRγδ⁺ T-cell compartments. Interestingly, we find a co-regulation of several CD3⁺ CD56⁺ cell subsets in allergic but not in healthy individuals. Moreover, using FlowSOM, we distinguished a variety of CD56⁺ T-cell phenotypes demonstrating a hitherto underestimated heterogeneity among these cells. The novel CD3⁺ CD56⁺ subset description comprises phenotypes superimposed with naive, memory, type 1, 2, and 17 differentiation stages, in part represented by a phenotypical continuum. Frequencies of two out of 19 CD3⁺ CD56⁺ FlowSOM clusters were significantly diminished in allergic individuals, demonstrating less frequent presence of cells with cytolytic, presumably protective, capacity in these donors consistent with defective expansion or their recruitment to the affected tissue. Our results contribute to defining specific cell populations to be targeted during therapy for allergic conditions.

Immune Cell Trafficking to the Liver

The human liver is an organ with a diverse array of immunologic functions. Its unique anatomic position that leads to it receiving all the mesenteric venous blood, combined with its unique micro anatomy, allows it to serve as a sentinel for the body's immune system. Hepatocytes, biliary epithelial cells, Kupffer cells, stellate cells, and liver sinusoidal endothelial cells express key molecules that recruit and activate innate and adaptive immunity. Additionally, a diverse array of lymphoid and myeloid immune cells resides within and traffics to the liver in specific circumstances. Derangement of these trafficking mechanisms underlies the pathophysiology of autoimmune liver diseases, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, and liver transplantation. Here, we review these pathways and interactions along with potential targets that have been identified to be exploited for therapeutic purposes.

Activation of Invariant Natural Killer T Cells Redirects the Inflammatory Response in Neonatal Sepsis

Sepsis is the third leading cause of death in the neonatal population, due to susceptibility to infection conferred by immaturity of both the innate and adaptive components of the immune system. Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells are specialized adaptive immune cells that possess important innate-like characteristics and have not yet been well-studied in septic neonates. We hypothesized that iNKT cells would play an important role in mediating the neonatal immune response to sepsis. To study this, we subjected 5- to 7-day-old neonatal C57BL/6 mice to sepsis by intraperitoneal (i.p.) cecal slurry (CS) injection. Thirty hours prior to or immediately following sepsis induction, pups received i.p. injection of the iNKT stimulator KRN7000 (KRN, 0.2 µg/g) or vehicle. Ten hours after CS injection, blood and tissues were collected for various analyses. Thirty-hour pretreatment with KRN resulted in better outcomes in inflammation, lung injury, and survival, while immediate treatment with KRN resulted in worse outcomes compared to vehicle treatment. We further analyzed the activation status of neonatal iNKT cells for 30 h after KRN administration, and showed a peak in frequency of CD69 expression on iNKT cells and serum IFN-γ levels at 5 and 10 h, respectively. We then used CD1d knockout neonatal mice to demonstrate that KRN acts through the major histocompatibility complex-like molecule CD1d to improve outcomes in neonatal sepsis. Finally, we identified that KRN pretreatment exerts its protective effect by increasing systemic levels of TGF-β1. These findings support the importance of iNKT cells for prophylactic immunomodulation in neonates susceptible to sepsis.

Altered phenotypic and functional characteristics of CD3+CD56+ NKT-like cells in human gastric cancer

CD3+CD56+ natural killer T (NKT)-like cells are a group of CD3+ T cells sharing characteristics of NK and T cells and constitute a major component of host anti-tumor immune response in human cancer. However, the nature, function and clinical relevance of CD3+CD56+ NKT-like cells in human gastric cancer (GC) remain unclear. In this study, we showed that the frequencies of CD3+CD56+NKT-like cells in GC tumors were significantly decreased and low levels of tumor-infiltrating CD3+CD56+ NKT-like cells were positively correlated with poor survival and disease progression. Most CD3+CD56+NKT-like cells in GC tumors were CD45RA-CD27+/- central/effector-memory cells with decreased activity and lower expression levels of CD69, NKG2D and DNAM-1 than those in non-tumor tissues. We further observed that tumor-infiltrating CD3+CD56+ NKT-like cells had impaired effector function as shown by decreased IFN-γ, TNF-α, granzyme B and Ki-67 expression. Moreover, in vitro studies showed that soluble factors released from GC tumors could induce the functional impairment of CD3+CD56+ NKT-like cells. Collectively, our data indicate that decreased tumor-infiltrating CD3+CD56+ NKT-like cells with impaired effector function are associated with tumor progression and poor survival of GC patients, which may contribute to immune escape of GC.

Characterization of T-cell immune responses in clinical trials of the candidate RTS,S malaria vaccine

The candidate malaria vaccine RTS,S has demonstrated 45.7% efficacy over 18 months against all clinical disease in a phase-III field study of African children. RTS,S targets the circumsporozoite protein (CSP), which is expressed on the Plasmodium sporozoite during the pre-erythrocyte stage of its life-cycle; the stage between mosquito bite and liver infection.

Early in the development of RTS,S, it was recognized that CSP-specific cell-mediated immunity (CMI) was required to complement CSP-specific antibody-mediated immunity. In reviewing RTS,S clinical studies, associations between protection and various types of CMI (CSP-specific CD4⁺ T cells and INF-γ ELISPOTs) have been identified, but not consistently. It is plausible that certain CD4⁺ T cells support antibody responses or co-operate with other immune-cell types to potentially elicit protection. However, the identities of vaccine correlates of protection, implicating either CSP-specific antibodies or T cells remain elusive, suggesting that RTS,S clinical trials may benefit from additional immunogenicity analyses that can be informed by the results of controlled human malaria infection studies.

17β-Estradiol induces proliferation of endometrial NK cells (CD56+) in postmenopausal women

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this report was to evaluate the impact of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) on lymphocytic infiltration of the endometrium in postmenopausal women.

METHOD

This study included 58 Japanese patients who had undergone hysterectomy at the University Hospital of Occupational and Environmental Health, Japan. Before surgery, nine patients had received 17β-estradiol (E2), 0.72 mg transdermally for 2-8 weeks (E2 group); 16 patients had received an Estra-1,3,5(10)-triene-3,16α, 17β-triol (E3) vaginal tablet 0.5 mg per month five times (E3 group); and 19 patients had received 17β-estradiol, 0.62 mg, and norethindrone acetate (P), 2.70 mg for 3-16 weeks (E2 + P group). Fourteen patients received no HRT (control group). We examined uterine tissue specimens immunohistochemically for CD45+, CD3+, CD4+, CD8+, CD20+, CD56+, and Ki67 antigen-positive cells.

RESULTS

The numbers of CD56 + cells were significantly increased in the E2 group compared with all other groups (E2 vs. E3: 7.0 vs. 0.75, p = 0.017; E2 vs. E2 + P: 7.0 vs. 0.58, p = 0.009; E2 vs.

CONTROL

7.0 vs. 0.43, p = 0.010). The numbers of CD3+ cells were significantly increased in the E2 group compared with the control group (149.3 vs. 42.6, p = 0.008).

CONCLUSION

17β-Estradiol induced the proliferation of endometrial uterine natural killer cells (CD56+) in postmenopausal women.

A different representation of natural T cells and natural killer cells between tumor-infiltrating and periphery lymphocytes in human hepatocellular carcinoma

Natural T cells [cluster of differentiation (CD) 3⁺CD56⁺] and natural killer (NK) cells (CD3^-CD56⁺) are particularly abundant in the human liver and serve an important role in immune responses in the liver. The aim of the present study was to extensively determine the phenotypic and functional characteristics of natural T and NK cells in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Tumorous and non-tumorous tissue infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs and NILs, respectively) and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) were obtained to determine the frequency and phenotype of natural T/NK cells by a multicolor fluorescence activated cell sorting analysis. The abundance of natural T cells and NK cells was decreased in TILs vs. NILs (natural T cells, 6.315±1.002 vs. 17.16±1.804; NK cells, 6.324±1.559 vs. 14.52±2.336, respectively). However such results were not observed in PBMCs from HCC patients vs. that of healthy donors. Notably, a substantial fraction of the natural T cells (21.96±5.283) in TILs acquired forkhead box P3 (FOXP3) expression, and the FOXP3⁺ natural T cells lost the expression of interferon-γ and perforin. Conversely, being similar to the conventional FOXP3⁺ regulatory T cells, the FOXP3⁺ natural T cells assumed a specific phenotype that was characteristic of CD25⁺, CD45RO⁺ and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4⁺. Consistent with the phenotypic conversion, the present functional results indicate that FOXP3 expression in natural T cells contributes to the acquisition of a potent immunosuppressive capability. In conclusion, the present study describes a different representation of natural T cells and NK cells in local tumor tissues and in the periphery blood of patients with HCC, and identified a new type of FOXP3-expressing natural T cell spontaneously arising in the TILs of HCC.

The three Rs: Recruitment, Retention and Residence of leukocytes in the liver

The composition of leukocytes in the liver is highly distinct from that of the blood and lymphoid organs. In particular, the liver is highly enriched in non-conventional T cells such as natural killer T (NKT) cells, γδ T cells and mucosal-associated invariant T cells. In addition, there are significant populations of tissue-resident NK cells (or innate lymphoid cells (ILC1)) and memory CD8⁺ T cells. These cells are joined in conditions of inflammation by neutrophils, monocytes and macrophages. In recent years a multitude of studies have generated insights into how these cells arrest, move and remain resident in the liver. This new understanding has largely been due to the use of intra-vital microscopy to track immune cells in the liver, coupled with gene expression profiling and parabiosis techniques. These studies have revealed that leukocyte recruitment in the liver does not correspond to the classical paradigm of the leukocyte adhesion cascade. Rather, both lymphoid and myeloid cells have been found to adhere in the liver sinusoids in a platelet-dependent manner. Leukocytes have also been observed to patrol the hepatic sinusoids using a characteristic crawling motility. Moreover, T cells have been observed surveying hepatocytes for antigen through the unique fenestrated endothelium of the liver sinusoids, potentially negating the need for extravasation. In this review we highlight some of these recent discoveries and examine the different molecular interactions required for the recruitment, retention and—in some cases—residence of diverse leukocyte populations within the liver.

Reconstitution of immune cell in liver and lymph node of adult- and newborn-engrafted humanized mice

BACKGROUND

Humanized mouse models are an increasingly popular preclinical model to study the human immune response in a biological system. There are a variety of protocols to generate these mice, each differing in the strain of the recipient, source of hematopoietic stem cells, and mode of transplantation. Though there is well-documented reconstitution information regarding the spleen, blood, and bone marrow, there is little information regarding reconstitution of the lymph node and liver. In this report, we sought to compare reconstitution levels in a variety of immunological tissues, including the lymph node and liver, between mice engrafted intravenously as adults and intrahepatically in newborns.

RESULTS

CD34+ cells were enriched from cord blood and transplanted intravenously into irradiated adult NOD-Rag1(-/-)IL2rγ(-/-) (NRG) mice or intra-hepatically into irradiated newborn NRG mice. At 9-28 weeks post-engraftment, immunological tissues were processed and analyzed for human lymphoid and myeloid subsets. Adult and newborn engrafted humanized mice were comparable in long-term reconstitution of human CD45 cells and subsequent lymphoid and myeloid subsets in the spleen, bone marrow, thymus, lymph node, and liver. Mice engrafted as newborns had a higher level of T-cells and a lower level of B-cells compared to mice engrafted as adults. We observed significant levels of human immune cell engraftment in both the lymph node and the liver, with a predominant adaptive immune population in both compartments.

CONCLUSIONS

Human immune cells repopulate liver and mesenteric lymph nodes of NRG mice and can be used to study the human immune system in the gastrointestinal tract.

CD3(bright)CD56(+) T cells associate with pegylated interferon-alpha treatment nonresponse in chronic hepatitis B patients

Chronic hepatitis B (CHB) infection is a serious and prevalent health concern worldwide, and the development of effective drugs and strategies to combat this disease is urgently needed. Currently, pegylated interferon-alpha (peg-IFNα) and nucleoside/nucleotide analogues (NA) are the most commonly prescribed treatments. However, sustained response rates in patients remain low, and the reasons are not well understood. Here, we observed that CHB patients preferentially harbored CD3^brightCD56⁺ T cells, a newly identified CD56⁺ T cell population. Patients with this unique T cell population exhibited relatively poor responses to peg-IFNα treatment. CD3^brightCD56⁺ T cells expressed remarkably high levels of the inhibitory molecule NKG2A as well as low levels of CD8. Even if patients were systematically treated with peg-IFNα, CD3^brightCD56⁺ T cells remained in an inhibitory state throughout treatment and exhibited suppressed antiviral function. Furthermore, peg-IFNα treatment rapidly increased inhibitory TIM-3 expression on CD3^brightCD56⁺ T cells, which negatively correlated with IFNγ production and might have led to their dysfunction. This study identified a novel CD3^brightCD56⁺ T cell population preferentially shown in CHB patients, and indicated that the presence of CD3^brightCD56⁺ T cells in CHB patients may be useful as a new indicator associated with poor therapeutic responses to peg-IFNα treatment.

Invariant natural killer T cell deficiency leads to the development of spontaneous liver inflammation dependent on γδT cells in mice

BACKGROUND

Immune tolerance is maintained in the liver, and perturbation of tolerance can lead to immune-mediated liver diseases such as autoimmune hepatitis (AIH). Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells and γδT cells have been shown to maintain immune homeostasis as regulatory cells and to play pathogenic roles in immune-mediated diseases as effector cells. We hypothesized that iNKT cells and γδT cells are involved in the maintenance of hepatic immune tolerance and immune-mediated liver disease.

METHODS

We measured liver inflammation and the cytokine profiles of liver mononuclear cells in BALB/c wild-type (WT) mice and BALB/c Jα18-deficient (KO) mice lacking iNKT cells. We also examined the role of γδT cells in AIH using liver tissue from AIH patients and control subjects.

RESULTS

Spontaneous liver inflammation, hepatocyte damage, and anti-nuclear-antibody production occurred in Jα18 KO mice but not in WT mice. Furthermore, liver mononuclear cells from Jα18 KO mice, but not those from WT mice, produced interleukin-17 (IL-17). γδT cells were the primary producers of the cytokine, and they were more abundant in the livers of Jα18 KO mice than in those of WT mice. In Jα18 KO mice, the administration of anti-γδT-cell-receptor antibody abolished liver inflammation, hepatocyte damage, and IL-17 production. γδT cells accumulated in the livers of AIH patients but not in those of the control subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest a protective role for iNKT cells, a pathologic role for γδT cells, and an association between these cells in the pathogenesis of AIH.

Identification of a FOXP3(+)CD3(+)CD56(+) population with immunosuppressive function in cancer tissues of human hepatocellular carcinoma

The liver resident lymphoid population is featured by the presence of a large number of CD3⁺CD56⁺ cells referred as natural T cells. In human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients, the natural T cells were found to be sharply decreased in tumor (5.871 ± 3.553%) versus non-tumor (14.02 ± 6.151%) tissues. More intriguingly, a substantial fraction of the natural T cells (22.76 ± 18.61%) assumed FOXP3 expression. These FOXP3-expressing CD3⁺CD56⁺ cells lost the expression of IFN-γ and perforin, which are critical for the effector function of natural T cells. On the other hand, they acquired surface expression of CD25 and CTLA-4 typically found in regulatory T (Treg) cells. Consistent with the phenotypic conversion, they imposed an inhibitory effect on anti-CD3-induced proliferation of naive T cells. Further studies demonstrated that transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) could effectively induce FOXP3 expression in CD3⁺CD56⁺ cells and the cells were thus endowed with a potent immunosuppressive capacity. Finally, Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed that the relative abundance of FOXP3-expressing CD3⁺CD56⁺ cells in tumor tissues was significantly correlated with the survival of HCC patients. In conclusion, the present study identified a new type of regulatory immune cells whose emergence in liver cancer tissues may contribute to tumor progression.

NK cell function and receptor diversity in the context of HCV infection

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infects over 170 million people in the world. While a minority of individuals are able to naturally clear this hepatotropic virus using their immune system, most people go on to develop a lifetime chronic infection that can result in severe liver pathology, potentially leading to liver cirrhosis and hepatic cellular carcinoma. Investigations into acute immune responses and spontaneous clearance of the virus are severely hampered by difficulties in identification of relevant patient cohorts. While the role for the adaptive immune response in viral clearance is well established, it is becoming clear that the innate immune system also impacts on HCV outcome. The innate immune response to infection is likely to influence the type of adaptive immune response that develops and will ultimately influence if the virus is cleared or develops into a chronic infection. Natural Killer (NK) cells are lymphocytes that have important anti-viral functions including direct cytotoxicity of infected cells and the production of inflammatory cytokines, e.g., IFN-γ. They are generally considered to be cells of the innate immune system, although there is increasing evidence that NK cells adapt and persist in response to particular viral infections. NK cells are altered in patients with acute and chronic HCV infection. There is increasing evidence from both cellular and genetic studies that NK cells modulate HCV outcome. This review will describe and discuss the current experimental and clinical evidence of a role for NK cells in HCV infection and describe recent discoveries that are likely to play a role in future research.

Immunity, tolerance and autoimmunity in the liver: A comprehensive review

The hepatic immune system is constantly exposed to a massive load of harmless dietary and commensal antigens, to which it must remain tolerant. Immune tolerance in the liver is mediated by a number of specialized antigen-presenting cells, including dendritic cells, Kupffer cells, liver sinusoidal endothelial cells and hepatic stellate cells. These cells are capable of presenting antigens to T cells leading to T cell apoptosis, anergy, or differentiation into regulatory T cells. However, the hepatic immune system must also be able to respond to pathogens and tumours and therefore must be equipped with mechanisms to override immune tolerance. The liver is a site of accumulation of a number of innate lymphocyte populations, including natural killer cells, CD56(+) T cells, natural killer T cells, γδ T cells, and mucosal-associated invariant T cells. Innate lymphocytes recognize conserved metabolites derived from microorganisms and host cells and respond by killing target cells or promoting the differentiation and/or activation of other cells of the immune system. Innate lymphocytes can promote the maturation of antigen-presenting cells from their precursors and thereby contribute to the generation of immunogenic T cell responses. These cells may be responsible for overriding hepatic immune tolerance to autoantigens, resulting in the induction and maintenance of autoreactive T cells that mediate liver injury causing autoimmune liver disease. Some innate lymphocyte populations can also directly mediate liver injury by killing hepatocytes or bile duct cells in murine models of hepatitis, whilst other populations may protect against liver disease. It is likely that innate lymphocyte populations can promote or protect against autoimmune liver disease in humans and that these cells can be targeted therapeutically. Here I review the cellular mechanisms by which hepatic antigen-presenting cells and innate lymphocytes control the balance between immunity, tolerance and autoimmunity in the liver.

Genotype-Associated Differential NKG2D Expression on CD56+CD3+ Lymphocytes Predicts Response to Pegylated-Interferon/Ribavirin Therapy in Chronic Hepatitis C

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 1 infections are significantly more difficult to eradicate with PEG-IFN/ribavirin therapy, compared to HCV genotype 2. The aim of this work is to investigate the difference of immunological impairments underlying this phenomenon. Pre-treatment NKG2D expression on peripheral CD56+CD3+ lymphocytes and CD56+CD3- NK cells from cases of chronic hepatitis C were analyzed and assessed by treatment effect. Two strains of HCV were used to co-incubate with immune cells in vitro. NKG2D expression on peripheral CD56+CD3+ lymphocytes, but not NK cells, was significantly impaired in genotype 1 infection, compared to genotype 2. When peripheral blood mononuclear cells from healthy donors were co-incubated with TNS2J1, a genotype 1b/2a chimera strain, or with JFH1, a genotype 2a strain, genotype-specific decrease of NKG2D on CD56+CD3+ lymphocytes, but not NK cells, was observed.　Pre-treatment NKG2D expression on peripheral CD56+CD3+ lymphocytes significantly correlated with reduction in serum HCV RNA levels from week 0 to week 4, and predicted treatment response. Ex vivo stimulation of peripheral CD56+CD3+ lymphocytes showed NKG2D expression-correlated IFN-γ production. In conclusion, Decreased NKG2D expression on CD56+CD3+ lymphocytes in chronic HCV genotype 1 infection predicts inferior treatment response to PEG-IFN/ribavirin therapy compared to genotype 2.

Gamma Delta T-lymphocytes in Hepatitis C and Chronic Liver Disease

Discovered 30 years ago, gamma delta (γδ) T-lymphocytes remain an intriguing and enigmatic T-cell subset. Although in humans they comprise a small fraction of the total circulating T-lymphocyte pool, they represent an important T-cell subset in tissues such as the liver, with roles bridging the innate and adaptive immune systems. The associations of γδ T-lymphocytes with chronic liver disease have been explored – however, there remain conflicting data as to whether these T-cells are pathogenic or protective. In patients with some forms of liver disease, their expansion in the periphery and especially in the liver may indeed help pathogen clearance, while in other conditions their presence may, in contrast, contribute to disease progression. γδ T-cells can also express CD161, a C-type lectin, and such cells have been found to be involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory disease. CD161+ T-cells of diverse subsets are known to be enriched in the livers of patients with chronic hepatitis C. This article serves to provide a review of the γδ T-cell population and its role in hepatitis C and other chronic liver diseases, and also explores a potential role of the CD161+ γδ T-cells in liver diseases.

T cells but not NK cells are associated with a favourable outcome for resected colorectal liver metastases

Background

The adaptive immune response to colorectal cancer is important for survival. Less is understood about the role of innate lymphocytes, such as Natural Killer (NK) cells, which are abundant in human liver.

Methods

Samples of fresh liver (n = 21) and tumour (n = 11) tissue were obtained from patients undergoing surgical resection of colorectal liver metastases. Flow cytometry was used to analyse the presence and phenotype of NK cells, as compared to T cells, in the tumour and liver tissue. Results were correlated with survival.

Results

NK cells were poorly recruited to the tumours (distant liver tissue 38.3%, peritumoural liver 34.2%, tumour 12.9%, p = 0.0068). Intrahepatic and intratumoural NK cells were KIR (killer immunoglobulin-like receptor)^loNKG2A^hi whereas circulating NK cells were KIR^hiNKG2A^lo. By contrast T cells represented 65.7% of the tumour infiltrating lymphocytes. Overall survival was 43% at 5 years, with the 5-year survival for individuals with a T cell rich infiltrate being 60% (95% CI 17-93%) and for those with a low T cell infiltrate being 0% (95% CI 0-48%). Conversely individuals with higher levels of NK cells in the tumour had an inferior outcome, although there were insufficient numbers to reach significance (median survivals: NK^Hi 1.63 years vs NK^Lo 3.92 years).

Conclusions

T cells, but not NK cells, are preferentially recruited to colorectal liver metastases. NK cells within colorectal metastases have an intrahepatic and potentially tolerogenic, rather than a peripheral, phenotype. Similar to primary tumours, the magnitude of the T cell infiltrate in colorectal metastases is positively associated with survival.

Liver immunology

The liver is the largest organ in the body and is generally regarded by nonimmunologists as having little or no lymphoid function. However, such is far from accurate. This review highlights the importance of the liver as a lymphoid organ. Firstly, we discuss experimental data surrounding the role of liver as a lymphoid organ. The liver facilitates tolerance rather than immunoreactivity, which protects the host from antigenic overload of dietary components and drugs derived from the gut and it is instrumental to fetal immune tolerance. Loss of liver tolerance leads to autoaggressive phenomena, which if not controlled by regulatory lymphoid populations, may lead to the induction of autoimmune liver diseases. Liver-related lymphoid subpopulations also act as critical antigen-presenting cells. The study of the immunological properties of liver and delineation of the microenvironment of the intrahepatic milieu in normal and diseased livers provides a platform to understand the hierarchy of a series of detrimental events that lead to immune-mediated destruction of the liver and the rejection of liver allografts. The majority of emphasis within this review will be on the normal mononuclear cell composition of the liver. However, within this context, we will discuss selected, but not all, immune-mediated liver disease and attempt to place these data in the context of human autoimmunity.

Cross-activating invariant NKT cells and kupffer cells suppress cholestatic liver injury in a mouse model of biliary obstruction

Both Kupffer cells and invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells suppress neutrophil-dependent liver injury in a mouse model of biliary obstruction. We hypothesize that these roles are interdependent and require iNKT cell-Kupffer cell cross-activation. Female, wild-type and iNKT cell-deficient C57Bl/6 mice were injected with magnetic beads 3 days prior to bile duct ligation (BDL) in order to facilitate subsequent Kupffer cell isolation. On day three post-BDL, the animals were euthanized and the livers dissected. Necrosis was scored; Kupffer cells were isolated and cell surface marker expression (flow cytometry), mRNA expression (qtPCR), nitric oxide (NO^.) production (Griess reaction), and protein secretion (cytometric bead-array or ELISAs) were determined. To address the potential role of NO^. in suppressing neutrophil accumulation, a group of WT mice received 1400W, a specific inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) inhibitor, prior to BDL. To clarify the mechanisms underlying Kupffer cell-iNKT cell cross-activation, WT animals were administered anti-IFN-γ or anti-lymphocyte function-associated antigen (LFA)-1 antibody prior to BDL. Compared to their WT counterparts, Kupffer cells obtained from BDL iNKT cell-deficient mice expressed lower iNOS mRNA levels, produced less NO^., and secreted more neutrophil chemoattractants. Both iNOS inhibition and IFN-γ neutralization increased neutrophil accumulation in the livers of BDL WT mice. Anti-LFA-1 pre-treatment reduced iNKT cell accumulation in these same animals. These data indicate that the LFA-1-dependent cross-activation of iNKT cells and Kupffer cells inhibits neutrophil accumulation and cholestatic liver injury.

CD161(+)CD4(+) T cells are enriched in the liver during chronic hepatitis and associated with co-secretion of IL-22 and IFN-γ

Hepatitis C virus infection is a major cause of chronic liver disease. CD4⁺ T cells play a key role in disease outcome. However, the critical functions and associated phenotypes of intrahepatic CD4⁺ T cells are not well defined. We have previously shown that CD8⁺ T cells expressing the C type lectin CD161 are highly enriched in the human liver, especially during chronic hepatitis. These cells are associated with a type 17 differentiation pattern and express cytokines including IL-17A, IL-22, and IFN-γ. We therefore analyzed expression of CD161 on CD4⁺ T cells in blood and liver and addressed the relevant phenotype and functional capacity of these populations. We observed marked enrichment of CD161⁺CD4⁺ T cells in the liver during chronic hepatitis such that they are the dominant subtype (mean 55% of CD4⁺ T cells). IL-22 and IL-17 secreting CD4⁺ T cells were readily found in the livers of HCV⁺ and NASH donors, although not enriched compared to blood. There was, however, specific enrichment of a novel subset of IL-22/IFN-γ dual secretors (p = 0.02) compared to blood, a result reconfirmed with direct ex vivo analyses. These data indicate the dominance of CD161⁺ expressing lymphocyte populations within the hepatic infiltrate, associated with a distinct cytokine profile. Given their documented roles as antiviral and hepatoprotective cytokines respectively, the impact of co-secretion of IFN-γ and IL-22 in the liver may be particularly significant.

Hepatitis C virus-mediated modulation of cellular immunity

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major cause of chronic liver disease globally. A chronic infection can result in liver fibrosis, liver cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma and liver failure in a significant ratio of the patients. About 170 million people are currently infected with HCV. Since 80 % of the infected patients develop a chronic infection, HCV has evolved sophisticated escape strategies to evade both the innate and the adaptive immune system. Thus, chronic hepatitis C is characterized by perturbations in the number, subset composition and/or functionality of natural killer cells, natural killer T cells, dendritic cells, macrophages and T cells. The balance between HCV-induced immune evasion and the antiviral immune response results in chronic liver inflammation and consequent immune-mediated liver injury. This review summarizes our current understanding of the HCV-mediated interference with cellular immunity and of the factors resulting in HCV persistence. A profound knowledge about the intrinsic properties of HCV and its effects on intrahepatic immunity is essential to be able to design effective immunotherapies against HCV such as therapeutic HCV vaccines.

Increased frequency of circulating invariant natural killer T cells in malignant pleural mesothelioma patients

Invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells are a distinct subset of human T cells, which expresses an invariant T cell receptor Vα24 Jα18 and recognizes glycolipid antigens in the context of CD1d molecules. iNKT cells exert pivotal regulatory roles in many immune responses, including antitumor immune responses. Alterations in iNKT cell frequency, phenotype, and activation state have been reported in cancer patients. No data are available on the iNKT cells in malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM), a rare, but very aggressive, malignancy of the pleura with a very poor prognosis. Here, we studied the frequency, phenotype, and cytokine profile of circulating iNKT cells in MPM patients, and correlated results with tumor histological types (epithelioid, sarcomatoid, biphasic) and clinical stages (I-III). We found that the iNKT cell frequency was significantly increased in MPM patients with epithelioid and sarcomatoid types in comparison with healthy volunteers (HV); only three biphasic mesotheliomas were available in this study, thus no conclusions can be drawn for this MPM type. The increased frequency significantly correlates with the clinical stage of tumor with the highest value at the stage III in both epithelioid and sarcomatoid subtypes. According to the histological types, we measured changes in the frequencies of CD4⁺ CD8⁺ (DP) and CD4⁻CD8⁻ (DN), but not in the cytokine profiles (IFN-γ/IL-4 expression). These results demonstrate that the frequency of iNKT cells is increased in MPM patients and that this increase correlates with MPM type and stage.

CD56+ T cells inhibit HIV-1 infection of macrophages

CD56+ T cells, the crucial component of the host innate immune system, play an important role in defense against viral infections. We investigated the noncytolytic anti-HIV-1 activity of primary CD56+ T cells. SNs collected from CD56+ T cell cultures inhibited HIV-1 infection and replication. This CD56+ T SN-mediated anti-HIV-1 activity was broad-spectrum, as CD56+ T SNs could inhibit infections by laboratory-adapted and clinical strains of HIV-1. The antibody to IFN-γ could partially block the CD56+ T SN-mediated anti-HIV effect. Investigation of mechanism(s) of the CD56+ T cell action on HIV-1 showed that although CD56+ T SN had little effect on HIV-1 entry coreceptor CCR5 expression, CD56+ T SN induced the expression of CC-chemokines, the ligands for CCR5. The antibodies to CC-chemokines also significantly blocked CD56+ T SN-mediated anti-HIV activity. Furthermore, CD56+ T SN up-regulated the expression of STAT-1/-2 and enhanced the expression of IRF1, -3, -7, and -9, resulting in the induction of endogenous IFN-α/β expression in macrophages. Moreover, CD56+ T SN up-regulated intracellular expression of APOBEC3G/3F, the recently identified HIV-1 restriction factors. These findings provide compelling evidence that CD56+ T cells may have a critical role in innate immunity against HIV-1 infection.

Role of immune reactions in drug-induced liver injury (DILI)

Although some drugs cause drug-induced liver injury (DILI) through direct damage to hepatocytes or intereference with bile secretion, others cause delayed, often idiosyncratic, DILI with clinical features, such as mild lymphocytic infiltrate, that are reminiscent of allergic reactions involving activation of the adaptive immune system. Even in cases of direct drug-induced hepatotoxicity, infiltration of inflammatory cells into the liver is often observed, suggesting a role for the innate immune system (e.g., neutrophils, macrophages, and so on). Therefore, a variety of hypotheses for the pathogenesis of DILI center around a pathogenic role of drug- (or drug-metabolite-) specific adaptive immune cells, as well as hepatic-injury-induced innate immune responses in the development, progression, and/or resolution of DILI.

Ex vivo purification and characterization of human invariant Natural Killer T cells

Natural Killer T (NKT) cells have gained widespread attention among immunologists because of their distinct ability to regulate anti-tumor responses and to influence the outcome of infections or autoimmunity. Type I (also called invariant) NKT cells (iNKT) are best characterized mainly because of the availability of lipid antigen-loaded CD1d-tetramer detection reagents. Human iNKT cells present important phenotypic differences relative to their murine counterpart, restricting the extrapolation of findings from experimental murine models to human health and disease states. Particularly, the ontogeny and early life phenotype of iNKT cells largely differ between human and mice, indicating divergent functional properties between species. The high therapeutic potential offered by manipulation of iNKT cells in disease warrants a better understanding of human iNKT cell biology. Here, we discuss characteristics of human iNKT cells and present an efficient and rapid method for their ex vivo purification and characterization.

Targeting the diverse immunological functions expressed by hepatic NKT cells

INTRODUCTION

NKT cells comprise approximately 30% of the hepatic lymphoid population in mice (∼ 50% in humans). Most mouse hepatic NKT cells [invariant (i)NKT cells] express T cell receptors, composed of invariant Vα14Jα18 chains. Unlike conventional T cells, iNKT cells recognize glycolipids presented in association with MHC class Ib (CD1d) molecules. Purportedly, iNKT cells serve key functions in several immunological events; the nature of these is often unclear. The consequences of hepatic iNKT cell activation can be beneficial or detrimental. α-Galactosylceramide stimulates the production of IFN-γ and IL-4. The reciprocal suppression exhibited by these cytokines limits the potential therapeutic value of α-galactosylceramide. Efforts are ongoing to develop α-galactosylceramide analogs that modulate iNKT cell activity and selectively promote IFN-γ or IL-4.

AREAS COVERED

An overview of hepatic iNKT cells and their purported role in liver disease. Efforts to develop therapeutic agents that promote their beneficial contributions.

EXPERT OPINION

While a growing body of literature documents the differential effects of α-GalCer analogs on IFN-γ and IL-4 production, the effects of these analogs on other iNKT cell activities remain to be determined. An exhaustive examination of the effects of these analogs on inflammation and liver injury in animal models remains prior to considering their utility in clinical trials.

NKT cell exacerbation of liver metastases arising from melanomas transplanted into either the eyes or spleens of mice

PURPOSE

To explore the role of natural killer T (NKT) cells in the development of liver metastases in mice harboring intraocular melanomas.

METHODS

Cells derived from the cutaneous B16 melanoma cell line (B16LS9) were transplanted either into the vitreous body or under the spleen capsules of wild-type C57BL/6 mice and NKT-cell-deficient Jα18(-/-) and CD1d(-/-) mice. The development of liver metastases was evaluated by histopathology. The effect of NK cells on liver metastases was determined by selective depletion with anti-asialo-GM1 antiserum in vivo and NK-cell-mediated cytolysis of B16LS9 melanoma cells in vitro. The role of IL-10 and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β in the inhibition of liver NK resistance to liver metastases was determined by in vivo and in vitro neutralization with monoclonal antibodies.

RESULTS

Liver NKT cells, especially type I NKT cells, enhanced liver metastases arising from intraocular melanomas. NKT-cell-deficient mice developed significantly fewer liver metastases that were NK-cell dependent. Tumor-induced liver NKT cells, especially type I NKT cells, inhibited liver NK-cell cytotoxicity by an IL-10-dependent process.

CONCLUSIONS

NKT cells exert protective effects in many murine tumor models. However, the present results reveal that NKT cells exacerbate liver metastases arising from intraocular melanomas. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report that liver NKT cells, especially type I NKT cells, inhibit liver NK-cell antimetastatic activity by the production of IL-10. These results suggest that hepatic NKT cell activity can have an important effect in the immune surveillance of liver metastases.

CD161 DEFINES EFFECTOR T CELLS THAT EXPRESS LIGHT AND RESPOND TO TL1A-DR3 SIGNALING

Expression of NK cell markers identifies pro-inflammatory T cell subsets in the liver and intestinal immune compartments. Specifically, CD161 is expressed on Th17 cells which play an important role in the regulation of mucosal inflammation. In this study, we characterized human peripheral blood CD161+ T cells as an effector population partially resembling a gut T cell phenotype. CD161+ CD4+ T cells express the gut-associated TNF family member, LIGHT, and respond to crosslinking of DR3, a receptor to another gut-associated cytokine, TL1A. Robust IFN-γ production in response to DR3 signaling correlated with enhanced expression of surface DR3 on CD161+ T cells and co-stimulation with IL12 and IL18. CD161+ T cell effector function was directly demonstrated by activation of responder monocytes in co-culture leading to CD40 upregulation and CD14 downregulation. CD161+ T cells reciprocally responded to activated monocytes, inducing expression of activation marker, CD69, and production of IL2 and IFN-γ, further demonstrating effective CD161+ T cell cross-talk with monocytes. Finally, CD161 defined a subset of T cells that co-express CD56, a second NK marker. Our findings implicate human CD161+ T cells in gut-associated signaling mechanisms, and suggest a monocyte mediated effector function in mucosal inflammation.

Age-related changes in natural killer cell receptors from childhood through old age

Most studies on natural killer (NK) cells and aging have focused on overall cell numbers and global cytotoxic activity. NK cell functions are controlled by surface receptors belonging to three major families: killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIRs), natural cytotoxicity receptors (NCRs), and C-type lectins. The expression of these receptors was investigated from childhood through old age in T, NKT- and NK cells and also in the CD56(dim) (cytotoxic) and CD56(bright) (responsible for cytokine production) NK cell subsets. A decrease in the expression of activating receptors (NKp30 and NKp46) was observed in NK cells in elderly individuals. KIR expression was increased only in the CD56(bright) subset. Children presented similar results regarding expression of NKp30 and KIR, but not NKp46. NKG2D expression was decreased in T cells of elderly subjects. Analysis of KIR genotype revealed that KIR2DL5 and KIR2DS3 were significantly associated with old age. Cytotoxic activity was preserved from childhood through old age, suggesting that the increase of the absolute number of CD56(dim), observed in elderly, may represent a compensatory mechanism for the receptor expression alterations. This initial study provides the framework for more focused studies of this subject, which are necessary to determine whether the changing balance of NK receptor expression may influence susceptibility to infectious, inflammatory, and neoplastic diseases.