Alpha-lipoic acid protects rat cortical neurons against cell death induced by amyloid and hydrogen peroxide through the Akt signalling pathway

Innovative approaches to Alzheimer's therapy: Harnessing the power of heterocycles, oxidative stress management, and nanomaterial drug delivery system

Alzheimer's disease (AD) presents a complex pathology involving amyloidogenic proteolysis, neuroinflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and cholinergic deficits. Oxidative stress exacerbates AD progression through pathways like macromolecular peroxidation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and metal ion redox potential alteration linked to amyloid-beta (Aβ). Despite limited approved medications, heterocyclic compounds have emerged as promising candidates in AD drug discovery. This review highlights recent advancements in synthetic heterocyclic compounds targeting oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuroinflammation in AD. Additionally, it explores the potential of nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems to overcome challenges in AD treatment. Nanoparticles with heterocyclic scaffolds, like polysorbate 80-coated PLGA and Resveratrol-loaded nano-selenium, show improved brain transport and efficacy. Micellar CAPE and Melatonin-loaded nano-capsules exhibit enhanced antioxidant properties, while a tetra hydroacridine derivative (CHDA) combined with nano-radiogold particles demonstrates promising acetylcholinesterase inhibition without toxicity. This comprehensive review underscores the potential of nanotechnology-driven drug delivery for optimizing the therapeutic outcomes of novel synthetic heterocyclic compounds in AD management. Furthermore, the inclusion of various promising heterocyclic compounds with detailed ADMET (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion, and Toxicity) data provides valuable insights for planning the development of novel drug delivery treatments for AD.

Memory Recovery Effect of a New Bioactive Innovative Combination in Rats with Experimental Dementia

Alzheimer's disease manifests as a complex pathological condition, with neuroinflammation, oxidative stress and cholinergic dysfunction being a few of the many pathological changes. Due to the complexity of the disease, current therapeutic strategies aim at a multitargeted approach, often relying on a combination of substances with versatile and complementary effects. In the present study, a unique combination of α-lipoic acid, citicoline, extracts of leaves from olive tree and green tea, vitamin D3, selenium and an immune-supporting complex was tested in scopolamine-induced dementia in rats. Using behavioral and biochemical methods, we assessed the effects of the combination on learning and memory, and elucidated the mechanisms of these effects. Our results showed that, compared to its components, the experimental combination was most efficient in improving short- and long-term memory as assessed by the step-through method as well as spatial memory as assessed by T-maze and Barnes maze underlined by decreases in AChE activity (p < 0.05) and LPO (p < 0.001), increases in SOD activity in the cortex (p < 0.05) and increases in catalase (p < 0.05) and GPx (p < 0.01) activities and BDNF (p < 0.001) and pCREB (p < 0.05) levels in the hippocampus. No significant histopathological changes or blood parameter changes were detected, making the experimental combination an effective and safe candidate in a multitargeted treatment of AD.

Protective effects of alpha lipoic acid (ALA) are mediated by hormetic mechanisms

The endogenous and dietary agent, alpha lipoic acid (ALA) is evaluated for its capacity to induce a broad spectrum of adaptive responses via hormetic dose responses and their underlying mechanisms. ALA was shown to induce hormetic effects in a wide range of experimental models within in vitro and in vivo experimental settings which included direct exposure and pre- and post-conditioning experimental protocols. The hormetic effects occur in a broad range of organ systems, including the brain, heart, kidney and other tissues, with possible public health and clinical/therapeutic applications linked to reducing the onset and progression of neurogenerative diseases and also in the preservation of sperm health and functionality during cryopreservation. This paper provides the first integrated assessment of ALA-induced hormetic dose responses. Underlying mechanisms that mediated the occurrence of ALA-induced hormetic effects involved the induction of low levels of ROS that activate key cell signaling antioxidant (e.g. Nrf2) pathways.

Nutraceuticals and phytotherapeutics for holistic management of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis" (ALS) is a progressive neuronal disorder that affects sensory neurons in the brain and spinal cord, causing loss of muscle control. Moreover, additional neuronal subgroups as well as glial cells such as microglia, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes are also thought to play a role in the aetiology. The disease affects upper motor neurons and lowers motor neurons and leads to that either lead to muscle weakness and wasting in the arms, legs, trunk and periventricular area. Oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, programmed cell death, altered neurofilament activity, anomalies in neurotransmission, abnormal protein processing and deterioration, increased inflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction may all play a role in the progression of ALS. There are presently hardly FDA-approved drugs used to treat ALS, and they are only beneficial in slowing the progression of the disease and enhancing functions in certain individuals with ALS, not really in curing or preventing the illness. These days, researchers focus on understanding the pathogenesis of the disease by targeting several mechanisms aiming to develop successful treatments for ALS. This review discusses the epidemiology, risk factors, diagnosis, clinical features, pathophysiology, and disease management. The compilation focuses on alternative methods for the management of symptoms of ALS with nutraceuticals and phytotherapeutics.

Cognitive and Mood Effect of Alpha-Lipoic Acid Supplementation in a Nonclinical Elder Sample: An Open-Label Pilot Study

BACKGROUND

Memory disorders are common among elder people, and nonclinical cognitive decline is commonly experienced with age. Preclinical investigations have explored the possible role of alpha-lipoic acid (ALA), a known antioxidant compound abundant in vegetables and animal tissues, in reducing oxidative stress in the aging brain and preventing cognitive decline. However, clinical evidence is limited, and the few existing results are contrasting. In addition, while most of the existing trials have been focused on the effects of ALA administration in Alzheimer's disease (AD) or other types of dementia, studies evaluating its effects on nonclinical elder population are still missing.

METHODS

In the present open-label, pilot study, fifteen elder patients (mean age: 84.5 ± 5.77) received ALA at a daily dose of 600 mg/day for 12 weeks. General cognitive function, executive function, and mood symptom assessment were carried out at baseline and at the endpoint.

RESULTS

Overall, ALA administration was generally well-tolerated (only one dropout due to gastrointestinal side effects). However, no statistically significant effects either on cognitive function, executive function, or mood were found.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite several limitations, our study found no evidence of positive effects on cognition and mood after ALA administration in elder people without the diagnosis of AD or cognitive impairment. Further clinical trials are needed to better investigate ALA effectiveness on cognition and mood in elder subjects.

α-Lipoic Acid, an Organosulfur Biomolecule a Novel Therapeutic Agent for Neurodegenerative Disorders: An Mechanistic Perspective

Lipoic acid (α-LA) (1,2-dithiolane3-pentanoic acid (C₈H₁₄O₂S₂) is also called thioctic acid with an oxidized (disulfide, LA) and a reduced (di-thiol: dihydro-lipoic acid, DHLA) form of LA. α-LA is a potent anti-oxidative agent that has a significant potential to treat neurodegenerative disorders. α-LA is both hydrophilic and hydrophobic in nature. It is widely distributed in plants and animals in cellular membranes and in the cytosol, which is responsible for LA's action in both the cytosol and plasma membrane. A systematic literature review of Bentham, Scopus, PubMed, Medline, and EMBASE (Elsevier) databases was carried out to understand the Nature and mechanistic interventions of the α-Lipoic acid for central nervous system diseases. Moreover, α-LA readily crosses the blood-brain barrier, which is a significant factor for CNS activities. The mechanisms of α-LA reduction are highly tissue-specific. α-LA produces its neuroprotective effect by inhibiting reactive oxygen species formation and neuronal damage, modulating protein levels, and promoting neurotransmitters and anti-oxidant levels. Hence, the execution of α-LA as a therapeutic ingredient in the therapy of neurodegenerative disorders is promising. Finally, based on evidence, it can be concluded that α-LA can prevent diseases related to the nervous system.

The Use of Bioactive Compounds in Hyperglycemia- and Amyloid Fibrils-Induced Toxicity in Type 2 Diabetes and Alzheimer’s Disease

It has become increasingly apparent that defective insulin signaling may increase the risk for developing Alzheimer’s disease (AD), influence neurodegeneration through promotion of amyloid formation or by increasing inflammatory responses to intraneuronal β-amyloid. Recent work has demonstrated that hyperglycemia is linked to cognitive decline, with elevated levels of glucose causing oxidative stress in vulnerable tissues such as the brain. The ability of β-amyloid peptide to form β-sheet-rich aggregates and induce apoptosis has made amyloid fibrils a leading target for the development of novel pharmacotherapies used in managing and treatment of neuropathological conditions such as AD-related cognitive decline. Additionally, deposits of β-sheets folded amylin, a glucose homeostasis regulator, are also present in diabetic patients. Thus, therapeutic compounds capable of reducing intracellular protein aggregation in models of neurodegenerative disorders may prove useful in ameliorating type 2 diabetes mellitus symptoms. Furthermore, both diabetes and neurodegenerative conditions, such as AD, are characterized by chronic inflammatory responses accompanied by the presence of dysregulated inflammatory biomarkers. This review presents current evidence describing the role of various small bioactive molecules known to ameliorate amyloidosis and subsequent effects in prevention and development of diabetes and AD. It also highlights the potential efficacy of peptide–drug conjugates capable of targeting intracellular targets.

α-Lipoic Acid Has the Potential to Normalize Copper Metabolism, Which Is Dysregulated in Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-dependent progressive neurodegenerative disorder and the most common cause of dementia. The treatment and prevention of AD present immense yet unmet needs. One of the hallmarks of AD is the formation of extracellular amyloid plaques in the brain, composed of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides. Besides major amyloid-targeting approach there is the necessity to focus also on alternative therapeutic strategies. One factor contributing to the development of AD is dysregulated copper metabolism, reflected in the intracellular copper deficit and excess of extracellular copper.

OBJECTIVE

In the current study, we follow the widely accepted hypothesis that the normalization of copper metabolism leads to the prevention or slowing of the disease and search for new copper-regulating ligands.

METHODS

We used cell culture, ICP MS, and Drosophila melanogaster models of AD.

RESULTS

We demonstrate that the natural intracellular copper chelator, α-lipoic acid (LA) translocates copper from extracellular to intracellular space in an SH-SY5Y-based neuronal cell model and is thus suitable to alleviate the intracellular copper deficit characteristic of AD neurons. Furthermore, we show that supplementation with LA protects the Drosophila melanogaster models of AD from developing AD phenotype by improving locomotor activity of fruit fly with overexpression of human Aβ with Iowa mutation in the fly brain. In addition, LA slightly weakens copper-induced smooth eye phenotype when amyloid-β protein precursor (AβPP) and beta-site AβPP cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) are overexpressed in eye photoreceptor cells.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, these results provide evidence that LA has the potential to normalize copper metabolism in AD.

Decrypting the potential role of α-lipoic acid in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most prevalent neurodegenerative diseases with motor disturbances, cognitive decline, and behavioral impairment. It is characterized by the extracellular aggregation of amyloid-β plaques and the intracellular accumulation of tau protein. AD patients show a cognitive decline, which has been associated with oxidative stress, as well as mitochondrial dysfunction. Alpha-lipoic acid (α-LA), a natural antioxidant present in food and used as a dietary supplement, has been considered a promising agent for the prevention or treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. Despite multiple preclinical studies indicating beneficial effects of α-LA in memory functioning, and pointing to its neuroprotective effects, to date only a few studies have examined its effects in humans. Studies performed in animal models of memory loss associated with aging and AD have shown that α-LA improves memory in a variety of behavioral paradigms. Furthermore, molecular mechanisms underlying α-LA effects have also been investigated. Accordingly, α-LA shows antioxidant, antiapoptotic, anti-inflammatory, glioprotective, metal chelating properties in both in vivo and in vitro studies. In addition, it has been shown that α-LA reverses age-associated loss of neurotransmitters and their receptors. The review article aimed at summarizing and discussing the main studies investigating the neuroprotective effects of α-LA on cognition as well as its molecular effects, to improve the understanding of the therapeutic potential of α-LA in patients suffering from neurodegenerative disorders, supporting the development of clinical trials with α-LA.

The Cytotoxicity and Clearance of Mutant Huntingtin and Other Misfolded Proteins

Protein misfolding and aggregation are implicated in many neurodegenerative diseases. One of these diseases is Huntington's, which is caused by increased glutamine-encoding trinucleotide repeats within the Huntingtin gene. Like other misfolded proteins, mutated Huntingtin proteins with polyglutamine expansions are prone to aggregation. Misfolded proteins exist as soluble monomers, small aggregates, or as large insoluble inclusion bodies. Misfolded protein aggregates are believed to be cytotoxic by stressing the protein degradation machinery, disrupting membrane structure, or sequestering other proteins. We recently showed that expression of misfolded proteins lowers cellular free ubiquitin levels, which compromises the protein degradation machinery. Therefore, the efficient degradation of misfolded proteins is critical to preserve cell health. Cells employ two major mechanisms to degrade misfolded proteins. The first is the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), which ubiquitinates and degrades misfolded proteins with the assistance of segregase Cdc48/p97. The UPS pathway is mainly responsible for the clearance of misfolded proteins present as monomers or smaller aggregates. The second pathway is macroautophagy/autophagy, in which protein aggregates or inclusion bodies are recruited into an autophagosome before transport to the vacuole/lysosome for degradation. This review is focused on the current understanding of the cytotoxicity of misfolded proteins as well as their clearance pathways, with a particular emphasis on mutant Huntingtin.

Alpha lipoic acid ameliorates detrimental effects of maternal lipopolysaccharides exposure on prefrontal white matter in adult male offspring rats

BACKGROUND

Activation of the maternal immune system by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) increases the production of proinflammatory cytokines, free radicals, and reactive oxygen species (ROS), all of which play a significant role in the pathogenesis of many offspring neurodevelopmental disorders. Alpha Lipoic Acid (ALA) is a natural compound that has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. This study was performed to assess the effect of prenatal exposure to LPS on the prefrontal white matter of rat offspring and evaluate the potential protective effects of ALA co-administration during pregnancy.

METHODS

Pregnant Wistar rats were randomly divided into six groups (n = 6 each group): (1) control, (2) received LPS (100 μg/kg, intraperitoneally (IP) on gestational day 9.5 (GD 9.5), (3) received ALA (20 mg/kg) from GD1 to GD11, (4) LPS+ALA received LPS on GD9.5 and ALA from GD1 to GD11, (5 and 6) received LPS and ALA vehicle respectively. In each group, 21-day old male offspring (2 male pups from each mother) was harvested, and then their prefrontal white matter was separated and prepared for the ultrastructural, stereological, and molecular assays.

RESULTS

In utero exposure to LPS led to a significant decrease in nerve cell counts, ultrastructural alterations in myelinated axons, and abnormal changes in genes expression of Sox10,Olig1,yrf,Wnt in the prefrontal of the rat offspring. Co-administration of ALA resulted in amelioration of those abnormal changes in the LPS rat offspring.

CONCLUSION

The findings of our preclinical study, explore that prenatal ALA treatment efficiently protects the nervous system against LPS induced abnormal changes in the offspring.

Anti-Alzheimer's Materials Isolated from Marine Bio-resources: A Review

The most common type of dementia found in the elderly population is Alzheimer's disease. The disease not only impacts the patients and their families but also the society therefore, the main focus of researchers is to search new bioactive materials for treating AD. The marine environment is a rich source of functional ingredients and to date, we can find sufficient research relating to anti- Alzheimer's compounds isolated from marine environment. Therefore, this review focuses on the anti- Alzheimer's material from marine bio-resources and then expounds on the anti-Alzheimer's compounds from marine seaweed, marine animal and marine microorganisms. Moreover, because of the complexity of the disease, different hypothesizes have been elaborated and active compounds have been isolated to inhibit different stages of pathophysiological mechanisms. Sulfated polysaccharides, glycoprotein, and enzymatic hydrolysates from marine seaweeds, peptides, dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and skeletal polysaccharide from marine animals and secondary metabolites from marine microorganism are summarized in this review under the anti-Alzheimer's compounds from the marine.

Antioxidants entrapment in polycaprolactone microparticles using supercritical assisted injection in a liquid antisolvent

•

The efficient entrapment of antioxidants in PCL microparticles was obtained.

•

Coprecipitates showed slower and controlled dissolution compared to pure compounds.

•

Coprecipitation preserved the scavenging activity of the entrapped antioxidants.

In this work, the entrapment of two antioxidants, α-lipoic acid (ALA) and eugenol (EUG), in polycaprolactone (PCL) microparticles, using the supercritical assisted injection in a liquid antisolvent (SAILA), is proposed.

Using SAILA, spherical and non-aggregated PCL particles, with average sizes between 0.2 and 1.2 μm, were produced. Then, coprecipitation experiments were performed: PCL/EUG and PCL/ALA particles with an average size of 0.99 ± 0.34 μm and 0.99 ± 0.18 μm, respectively, were produced, with entrapment efficiencies up to 90 %, considerably higher than results reported in the literature. EUG and ALA coprecipitates showed complete release kinetics in a maximum time of 2 days respect to dissolution time of about 4 h and 5 h of unprocessed EUG and ALA, respectively. Furthermore, the antioxidant power of the used compounds was preserved in the obtained co-precipitates.

Hormones and oxidative stress: an overview

In aerobes, oxygen is essential for maintenance of life. However, incomplete reduction of oxygen leads to generation of reactive oxygen species. These oxidants oxidise biological macromolecules present in their vicinity and thereby impair cellular functions causing oxidative stress (OS). Aerobes have evolved both enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidant defences to protect themselves from OS. Although hormones as means of biological coordination involve in regulation of physiological activities of tissues by regulating metabolism, any change in their normal titre leads to pathophysiological states. While, hormones such as melatonin, insulin, oestrogen, progesterone display antioxidant features, thyroid hormone, corticosteroids and catecholamines elicit free radical generation and OS, and the role of testosterone in inducing OS is debateable. This review is an attempt to understand the impact of free radical generation and cross talk between the hormones modulating antioxidant defence system under various pathophysiological conditions.

Novel anti-Alzheimer phenol-lipoyl hybrids: Synthesis, physico-chemical characterization, and biological evaluation

To date, drugs that hit a single target are inadequate for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's or Parkinson's diseases. The development of multitarget ligands, able to interact with the different pathways involved in the progession of these disorders, represents a great challenge for medicinal chemists. In this context, we report here the synthesis and biological evaluation of phenol-lipoyl hybrids (SV1-13), obtained via a linking strategy, to take advantage of the synergistic effect due to the antioxidant portions and anti-amyloid properties of the single constituents present in the hybrid molecule. Biological results showed that SV5 and SV10 possessed the best protective activity against Aβ_1-42 induced neurotoxicity in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells. SV9 and SV10 showed remarkable antioxidant properties due to their ability to counteract the damage caused by H₂O₂ in SHSY-5Y-treated cells. Hovewer, SV5, showing moderate antioxidant and good neuroprotective activities, resulted the best candidate for further experiments since it also resulted stable both simulated and plasma fluids.

The Immunomodulatory Effect of Alpha-Lipoic Acid in Autoimmune Diseases

Αlpha-lipoic acid is a naturally occurring antioxidant in human body and has been widely used as an antioxidant clinically. Accumulating evidences suggested that α-lipoic acid might have immunomodulatory effects on both adaptive and innate immune systems. This review focuses on the evidences and potential targets involved in the immunomodulatory effects of α-lipoic acid. It highlights the fact that α-lipoic acid may have beneficial effects in autoimmune diseases once the immunomodulatory effects can be confirmed by further investigation.

α‑lipoic acid can greatly alleviate the toxic effect of AGES on SH‑SY5Y cells

The aim of the study was to explore the influence of α‑lipoic acid (α‑LA) on the cytotoxicity of advanced glycation end‑products (AGEs) against SH‑SY5Y cells. AGE‑bovine serum albumin (BSA) was incubated in vitro using SH‑SY5Y cells as a target model, and the control group was set. Cells were exposed to AGE‑BSA, and α‑LA was selectively added to the cells. Cell growth and death was determined by the MTT assay, which measures cellular metabolic rate, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage rate and cellular axonal length. Immunocytochemistry was employed to detect the expression of β‑amyloid (Aβ) protein in cells, and mRNA expression of amyloid precursor protein (APP) and the receptor for AGE (RAGE) were assayed by PT‑PCR. The metabolism of MTT was clearly increased, the rate of LDH leakage was significantly decreased, and axonal length was significantly increased in cells treated with α‑LA (0.1 g/l) as compared to untreated cells. Furthermore, the expression levels of Aβ protein were also decreased. In addition, α‑LA (0.1 g/l) markedly inhibited the expression of RAGE mRNA, and did not influence APP mRNA expression as compared the control group. α‑LA (0.1 g/l) was effective at dampening the cytotoxicity of AGE‑BSA, a preliminary observation that confirms the ability of α‑LA to significantly alleviate the cytotoxicity of AGEs against SH‑SY5Y cells.

Neuroprotective Effects of Bioactive Compounds and MAPK Pathway Modulation in "Ischemia"-Stressed PC12 Pheochromocytoma Cells

This review surveys the efforts taken to investigate in vitro neuroprotective features of synthetic compounds and cell-released growth factors on PC12 clonal cell line temporarily deprived of oxygen and glucose followed by reoxygenation (OGD/R). These cells have been used previously to mimic some of the properties of in vivo brain ischemia-reperfusion-injury (IRI) and have been instrumental in identifying common mechanisms such as calcium overload, redox potential, lipid peroxidation and MAPKs modulation. In addition, they were useful for establishing the role of certain membrane penetrable cocktails of antioxidants as well as potential growth factors which may act in neuroprotection. Pharmacological mechanisms of neuroprotection addressing modulation of the MAPK cascade and increased redox potential by natural products, drugs and growth factors secreted by stem cells, in either undifferentiated or nerve growth factor-differentiated PC12 cells exposed to ischemic conditions are discussed for future prospects in neuroprotection studies.

Potential Therapeutic Effects of Lipoic Acid on Memory Deficits Related to Aging and Neurodegeneration

The aging process comprises a series of organic alterations, affecting multiple systems, including the nervous system. Aging has been considered the main risk factor for the advance of neurodegenerative diseases, many of which are accompanied by cognitive impairment. Aged individuals show cognitive decline, which has been associated with oxidative stress, as well as mitochondrial, and consequently energetic failure. Lipoic acid (LA), a natural compound present in food and used as a dietary supplement, has been considered a promising agent for the treatment and/or prevention of neurodegenerative disorders. In spite of a number of preclinical studies showing beneficial effects of LA in memory functioning, and pointing to its neuroprotective potential effect, to date only a few studies have examined its effects in humans. Investigations performed in animal models of memory loss associated to aging and neurodegenerative disorders have shown that LA improves memory in a variety of behavioral paradigms. Moreover, cell and molecular mechanisms underlying LA effects have also been investigated. Accordingly, LA displays antioxidant, antiapoptotic, and anti-inflammatory properties in both in vivo and in vitro studies. In addition, it has been shown that LA reverses age-associated loss of neurotransmitters and their receptors, which can underlie its effects on cognitive functions. The present review article aimed at summarizing and discussing the main studies investigating the effects of LA on cognition as well as its cell and molecular effects, in order to improve the understanding of the therapeutic potential of LA on memory loss during aging and in patients suffering from neurodegenerative disorders, supporting the development of clinical trials with LA.

Lipoic acid inhibited desflurane-induced hippocampal neuronal apoptosis through Caspase3 and NF-KappaB dependent pathway

Desfluraneis a widely-used general anesthetics. However, recent reports showed its significant side effect in the nervous system. Desflurane could lead to the neuronal death and affect the working memory. Unfortunately, the mechanism underlying the action of desflurane is still not clear and there is still no potent medicine to prevent the lesion in the central nervous system caused by general anesthetics. In this study, we found α-lipoic acid, an antioxidant exerting protective effect on multiple cells tissues, could resist the neurotoxicity caused by desflurane exposure. Lipoic acid possessed strong anti-apoptotic effect on the desflurane-treated hippocampal neurons, which was mediated by the Caspase-3 dependent pathway and NF-kappaB signaling. Collectively, we found a promising candidate to be clinically applied in intervention against the damage in nervous system by the desflurane.

Efficacy of α-lipoic acid against cadmium toxicity on metal ion and oxidative imbalance, and expression of metallothionein and antioxidant genes in rabbit brain

To explore the protective efficacy of α-lipoic acid (ALA) against Cd-prompted neurotoxicity, young male New Zealand rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) were divided randomly into four groups. Group 1 (control) received demineralized water. Group 2 (Cd) administered cadmium chloride (CdCl₂) 3 mg/kg bwt. Group 3 (ALA) administered ALA 100 mg/kg bwt. Group 4 (Cd + ALA) administered ALA 1 h after Cd. The treatments were administered orally for 30 consecutive days. Cd-induced marked disturbances in neurochemical parameters were indicated by the reduction in micro- and macro-elements (Zn, Fe, Cu, P, and Ca), with the highest reduction in Cd-exposed rabbits, followed by Cd + ALA group and then ALA group. In the brain tissues, Cd has significantly augmented the lipid hydroperoxides (LPO) and reduced the glutathione (GSH) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC), and glutathione peroxidase and glutathione S-transferase enzyme activities but had an insignificant effect on the antioxidant redox enzymes. Administration of ALA effectively restored LPO and sustained GSH and TAC contents. Moreover, Cd downregulated the transcriptional levels of Nrf2, MT3, and SOD1 genes, and upregulated that of Keap1 gene. ALA treatment, shortly following Cd exposure, downregulated Keap1, and upregulated Nrf2 and GPx1, while maintained MT3 and SOD1 mRNA gene expression in the rabbits' brain. These data indicated the ALA effectiveness in protecting against Cd-induced oxidative stress and the depletion of cellular antioxidants in the brain of rabbits perhaps due to its antioxidant, free radical scavenging, and chelating properties.

The effects of lipoic acid on redox status in brain regions and systemic circulation in streptozotocin-induced sporadic Alzheimer's disease model

While the deterioration of insulin-glucose metabolism (IGM), impaired redox homeostasis (IRH), β-amyloid accumulation was reported in Sporadic Alzheimer's Disease (SAD) model, aforementioned factors related to lipoic acid administration and anthropometric indexes (AIs) are not yet studied with integrative approach. β-amyloid accumulation, redox homeostasis biomarkers and AIs are investigated in SAD model. Streptozotocin-induced inhibition of insulin-signaling cascade but not GLUT-2 and GLUT-3 transporters takes a role in β-amyloid accumulation. Inhibition types are related to IRH in cortex, hippocampus and systemic circulation. Lipoic acid (LA) shows both antioxidant and prooxidant effect according to the anatomical location. LA administration also leads to improved AIs during GLUT-2 inhibition and cortical redox status in GLUT-3 inhibited group. Optimal LA action could be possible if its redox behavior is balanced to antioxidant effect. Diagnostic usage of systemic IRH parameters as biomarkers and their possible correlations with deteriorated IGM should be investigated. Graphical abstract ᅟ.

Nutraceuticals against Neurodegeneration: A Mechanistic Insight

The mechanisms underlying neurodegenerative disorders are complex and multifactorial; however, accumulating evidences suggest few common shared pathways. These common pathways include mitochondrial dysfunction, intracellular Ca²⁺ overload, oxidative stress and inflammation. Often multiple pathways co-exist, and therefore limit the benefits of therapeutic interventions. Nutraceuticals have recently gained importance owing to their multifaceted effects. These food-based approaches are believed to target multiple pathways in a slow but more physiological manner without causing severe adverse effects. Available information strongly supports the notion that apart from preventing the onset of neuronal damage, nutraceuticals can potentially attenuate the continued progression of neuronal destruction. In this article, we i) review the common pathways involved in the pathogenesis of the toxicants-induced neurotoxicity and neurodegenerative disorders with special emphasis on Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), Multiple sclerosis (MS) and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and ii) summarize current research advancements on the effects of nutraceuticals against these detrimental pathways.

A review on tacrine-based scaffolds as multi-target drugs (MTDLs) for Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multifactorial neurological disorder among elderly people and combinatorial factors such as genetic, lifestyle, and environmental are involved in onset and disease progression. It has been demonstrated that loss of cholinergic transmission is one of the most significant causes of AD. One strategy currently being investigated for the development of new therapeutics relates to the enhancement of cholinergic system through several ways. At this juncture, anticholinesterase inhibitors have absorbed lots of attention and different marketed drugs such as donepezil, rivastigmine, tacrine, and galantamine have been developed. 9-Amino-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroacridine known as tacrine was introduced in 1945 as an efficient anticholinesterase agent. The mechanism of action of tacrine was proved to inhibit the metabolism of acetylcholine and therefore extending its activity and raising levels in the cerebral cortex. However, extensive use of tacrine was limited since it showed various side effects and toxicity. Thus, lots of efforts were carried out to prepare tacrine analogues to overcome the related adverse effects. This review describes differently synthesized tacrine-based scaffolds as cholinesterase inhibitors to manage Alzheimer's disease (AD).

Novel Synthetic PEGylated Conjugate of α-Lipoic Acid and Tempol Reduces Cell Death in a Neuronal PC12 Clonal Line Subjected to Ischemia

α-Lipoic acid (α-LA), a natural thiol antioxidant, and Tempol, a synthetic free radical scavenger, are known to confer neuroprotection following ischemic insults in both in vivo and in vitro models. The aim of this study was to synthesize and characterize a conjugate of α-LA and Tempol linked by polyethylene glycol (PEG) in order to generate a more efficacious neuroprotectant molecule. AD3 (α-Tempol ester-ω-lipo ester PEG) was synthesized, purified, and characterized by flash chromatography and reverse phase high pressure liquid chromatography and by ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance, infrared spectroscopy, and mass spectrometry. AD3 conferred neuroprotection in a PC12 pheochromocytoma cell line of dopaminergic origin, exposed to oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) insult measured by LDH release. AD3 exhibited EC₅₀ at 10 μM and showed a 2-3-fold higher efficacy compared to the precursor moieties, indicating an intrinsic potent neuroprotective activity. AD3 attenuated by 25% the intracellular redox potential, by 54% lipid peroxidation and prevented phosphorylation of ERK, JNK, and p38 by 57%, 22%, and 21%, respectively. Cumulatively, these findings indicate that AD3 is a novel conjugate that confers neuroprotection by attenuation of MAPK phosphorylation and by modulation of the redox potential of the cells.

Unified theory of Alzheimer's disease (UTAD): implications for prevention and curative therapy

The aim of this review is to propose a Unified Theory of Alzheimer's disease (UTAD) that integrates all key behavioural, genetic and environmental risk factors in a causal chain of etiological and pathogenetic events. It is based on three concepts that emanate from human's evolutionary history: (1) The grandmother-hypothesis (GMH), which explains human longevity due to an evolutionary advantage in reproduction by trans-generational transfer of acquired knowledge. Consequently it is argued that mental health at old-age must be the default pathway of humans' genetic program and not development of AD. (2) Therefore, mechanism like neuronal rejuvenation (NRJ) and adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN) that still function efficiently even at old age provide the required lifelong ability to memorize personal experiences important for survival. Cumulative evidence from a multitude of experimental and epidemiological studies indicate that behavioural and environmental risk factors, which impair productive AHN, result in reduced episodic memory performance and in reduced psychological resilience. This leads to avoidance of novelty, dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis and cortisol hypersecretion, which drives key pathogenic mechanisms of AD like the accumulation and oligomerization of synaptotoxic amyloid beta, chronic neuroinflammation and neuronal insulin resistance. (3) By applying to AHN the law of the minimum (LOM), which defines the basic requirements of biological growth processes, the UTAD explains why and how different lifestyle deficiencies initiate the AD process by impairing AHN and causing dysregulation of the HPA-axis, and how environmental and genetic risk factors such as toxins or ApoE4, respectively, turn into disease accelerators under these unnatural conditions. Consequently, the UTAD provides a rational strategy for the prevention of mental decline and a system-biological approach for the causal treatment of AD, which might even be curative if the systemic intervention is initiated early enough in the disease process. Hence an individualized system-biological treatment of patients with early AD is proposed as a test for the validity of UTAD and outlined in this review.

CMX-2043 Efficacy in a Rat Model of Cardiac Ischemia–Reperfusion Injury

α-Lipoic acid (LA) has been shown to offer protection against ischemia–reperfusion injury (IRI) in multiple organ systems. N-[(R)-1,2-dithiolane-3-pentanoyl]-L-glutamyl-L-alanine (CMX-2043), a novel analogue of LA, was studied as part of a preclinical development program intended to identify safe and efficacious drug candidates for prevention or reduction in myocardial IRI. This study was designed to evaluate the efficacy of CMX-2043 in an animal model of myocardial IRI and to establish effective dosing conditions. CMX-2043 or placebo was administered at different doses, routes, and times in male Sprague-Dawley rats subjected to 30-minute left coronary artery ligation. Fluorescent microsphere injection defined the area at risk (AR). Animals were euthanized 24 hours after reperfusion, and the hearts were excised, sectioned, and stained with triphenyltetrazolium. Cytoprotective effectiveness was determined by comparing the unstained myocardial infarction zone (MI) to the ischemic AR. The reduction in the MI–AR ratio was used as the primary measure of drug efficacy relative to placebo injections. Treatment with CMX-2043 reduced myocardial IRI as measured by the MI–AR ratio and the incidence of arrhythmia. The compound was effective when administered by injection, both before and during the ischemic injury and at reperfusion. The most efficacious dose was that administered 15 minutes prior to the ischemic event and resulted in a 36% ( P < .001) reduction in MI–AR ratio compared to vehicle control.

Mapping the response of human fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) promoter to serum availability and lipoic acid in HepG2 hepatoma cells

The hormone-like polypeptide, fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21), is a major modulator of lipid and glucose metabolism and an exploratory treatment strategy for obesity related metabolic disorders. The costs of recombinant FGF21 and mode of delivery by injection are important constraints to its wide therapeutic use. The stimulation of endogenous FGF21 production through diet is being explored as an alternative approach. To that end, we examined the mechanism(s) by which serum manipulation and lipoic acid (a dietary activator of FGF21) induce FGF21 in human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells. Serum withdrawal markedly induced FGF21 mRNA levels (88 fold) and FGF21 secreted in the media (19 fold). Lipoic acid induced FGF21 mRNA 7 fold above DMSO-treated control cells and FGF21 secretion 3 fold. These effects were several-fold greater than those of PPARα agonist, Wy14643, which failed to induce FGF21 above and beyond the induction seen with serum withdrawal. The use of transcription inhibitor, actinomycin D, revealed that de novo mRNA synthesis drives FGF21 secretion in response to serum starvation. Four previously unrecognized loci in FGF21 promoter were nucleosome depleted and enriched in acetylated histone H3 revealing their role as transcriptional enhancers and putative transcription factor binding sites. FGF21 did not accumulate to a significant degree in induced HepG2 cells, which secreted FGF21 time dependently in media. We conclude that lipoic acid cell signaling connects with the transcriptional upregulation of FGF21 and it may prove to be a safe and affordable means to stimulate FGF21 production.

Lipoic acid protects dopaminergic neurons in LPS-induced Parkinson's disease model

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS), characterized by a loss of dopaminergic neurons, which is thought to be caused by both genetic and environmental factors. Recent findings suggest that neuroinflammation may be a pathogenic factor in the onset and progression of sporadic PD. Here we explore the potential therapeutic effect of lipoic acid (LA) on a lipolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory PD model. Our results for the first time showed that LA administration improved motor dysfunction, protected dopaminergic neurons loss, and decreased α-synuclein accumulation in the substantia nigra (SN) area of brain. Further, LA inhibited the activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and expression of pro-inflammatory molecules in M1 microglia. Taken together, these results suggest that LA may exert a profound neuroprotective effect and is thus a promising anti-neuroinflammatory and anti-oxidative agent for halting the progression of PD. Interventions aimed at either blocking microglia-derived inflammatory mediators or modulating the polarization of microglia may be potentially useful therapies that are worth further investigation.

BACE1 activity impairs neuronal glucose oxidation: rescue by beta-hydroxybutyrate and lipoic acid

Glucose hypometabolism and impaired mitochondrial function in neurons have been suggested to play early and perhaps causative roles in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. Activity of the aspartic acid protease, beta-site amyloid precursor protein (APP) cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1), responsible for beta amyloid peptide generation, has recently been demonstrated to modify glucose metabolism. We therefore examined, using a human neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) cell line, whether increased BACE1 activity is responsible for a reduction in cellular glucose metabolism. Overexpression of active BACE1, but not a protease-dead mutant BACE1, protein in SH-SY5Y cells reduced glucose oxidation and the basal oxygen consumption rate, which was associated with a compensatory increase in glycolysis. Increased BACE1 activity had no effect on the mitochondrial electron transfer process but was found to diminish substrate delivery to the mitochondria by inhibition of key mitochondrial decarboxylation reaction enzymes. This BACE1 activity-dependent deficit in glucose oxidation was alleviated by the presence of beta hydroxybutyrate or α-lipoic acid. Consequently our data indicate that raised cellular BACE1 activity drives reduced glucose oxidation in a human neuronal cell line through impairments in the activity of specific tricarboxylic acid cycle enzymes. Because this bioenergetic deficit is recoverable by neutraceutical compounds we suggest that such agents, perhaps in conjunction with BACE1 inhibitors, may be an effective therapeutic strategy in the early-stage management or treatment of AD.

Ischemia/reperfusion-induced upregulation of TIGAR in brain is mediated by SP1 and modulated by ROS and hormones involved in glucose metabolism

We previously found that TIGAR (TP53-induced glycolysis and apoptosis regulator) was upregulated in response to ischemia/reperfusion insult in a TP53-independent manner. The present study sought to investigate the regulatory mechanisms of TIGAR upregulation in animal and cellular models of stroke. The animal and cellular models of ischemia/reperfusion were produced by transient middle cerebral artery occlusion and reperfusion (tMCAO/R) and oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R), respectively. The expression of TIGAR protein in cortical tissues and hippocampal neuronal cell line HT22 cells or primary neurons was determined. Glucose, hormones and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) were administered to mice via injection into the tail vein or lateral ventricle or directly added into cell culture medium. In mice subjected to tMCAO/R, the blood glucose level rapidly increased, peaking at 0.5 h and then declined. TIGAR protein was also significantly increased and then declined with a delayed time-course. The increase in TIGAR protein was blunted when blood glucose levels were controlled with insulin. However, administering glucose solution to mice or adding glucose to cell culture medium had no effect on TIGAR protein levels. In contrast adrenaline, hydrocortisone, glucagon and H2O2 significantly increased TIGAR protein expression, whereas insulin inhibited TIGAR expression. The transcription factor SP1 was induced by ischemia/reperfusion ahead of TIGAR upregulation. Inhibiting SP1 with mithramycin A or silencing SP1 with siRNA blocked the ischemia-induced TIGAR upregulation. These results suggest that ROS and hormones regulating blood glucose metabolism play a role in ischemia/reperfusion-induced TIGAR upregulation.

Multitarget ligands and theranostics: sharpening the medicinal chemistry sword against prion diseases

Prion diseases (PrDs) are fatal neurodegenerative disorders, for which no effective therapeutic and diagnostic tools exist. The main pathogenic event has been identified as the misfolding of a disease-associated prion protein. Nevertheless, pathogenesis seems to involve an intricate array of concomitant processes. Thus, it may be unlikely that drugs acting on single targets can effectively control PrDs. In addition, diagnosis occurs late in the disease process, by which point it is difficult to determine a successful therapeutic intervention. In this context, multitarget ligands (MTLs) and theranostic ligands (TLs) emerge for their potential to effectively cure and diagnose PrDs. In this review, we discuss the medicinal chemistry challenges of identifying novel MTLs and TLs against PrDs, and envision their impact on prion drug discovery.

Lipoic acid restores age-associated impairment of brain energy metabolism through the modulation of Akt/JNK signaling and PGC1α transcriptional pathway

This study examines the progress of a hypometabolic state inherent in brain aging with an animal model consisting of Fischer 344 rats of young, middle, and old ages. Dynamic microPET scanning demonstrated a significant decline in brain glucose uptake at old ages, which was associated with a decrease in the expression of insulin-sensitive neuronal glucose transporters GLUT3/4 and of microvascular endothelium GLUT1. Brain aging was associated with an imbalance between the PI3K/Akt pathway of insulin signaling and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling and a downregulation of the PGC1α-mediated transcriptional pathway of mitochondrial biogenesis that impinged on multiple aspects of energy homeostasis. R-(+)-lipoic acid treatment increased glucose uptake, restored the balance of Akt/JNK signaling, and enhanced mitochondrial bioenergetics and the PGC1α-driven mitochondrial biogenesis. It may be surmised that impairment of a mitochondria-cytosol-nucleus communication is underlying the progression of the age-related hypometabolic state in brain; the effects of lipoic acid are not organelle-limited, but reside on the functional and effective coordination of this communication that results in improved energy metabolism.

Scavenging of blood glutamate for enhancing brain-to-blood glutamate efflux

The presence of excess glutamate in the brain interstitial fluid characterizes several acute pathological conditions of the brain, including traumatic brain injury and stroke. It has been demonstrated that it is possible to eliminate excess glutamate in the brain by decreasing blood glutamate levels and, accordingly, accelerating the brain-to-blood glutamate efflux. It is feasible to accomplish this process by activating blood resident enzymes in the presence of the respective glutamate cosubstrates. In the present study, several glutamate cosubstrates and cofactors were studied in an attempt to identify the optimal conditions to reduce blood glutamate levels. The administration of a mixture of 1 mM pyruvate and oxaloacetate (Pyr/Oxa) for 1 h decreased blood glutamate levels by ≤50%. The addition of lipoamide to this mixture resulted in a further reduction in blood glutamate levels of >80%. In addition, in vivo experiments showed that lipoamide together with Pyr/Oxa is able to decrease blood glutamate levels to a greater extent than Pyr/Oxa alone, and accordingly, this enhances the glutamate efflux from the brain to the blood. These results may outline a novel neuroprotective strategy with increased effectiveness for the removal of excess brain glutamate in various neurodegenerative conditions.

Reducing mitochondrial decay with mitochondrial nutrients to delay and treat cognitive dysfunction, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease

Mitochondrial decay due to oxidative damage is a contributor to brain aging and age-related neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). One type of mitochondrial decay is oxidative modification of key mitochondrial enzymes. Enzyme dysfunction, that is due to poor binding of substrates and coenzymes may be ameliorated by supplementing adequate levels of substrates or coenzyme precursors. Such supplementation with mitochondrial nutrients (mt-nutrients) may be useful to prevent or delay mitochondrial decay, thus prevent or treat AD and PD. In the present review, we survey the literature to identify mt-nutrients that can (1) protect mitochondrial enzymes and/or stimulate enzyme activity by elevating levels of substrates and cofactors; (2) induce phase-2 enzymes to enhance antioxidant defenses; (3) scavenge free radicals and prevent oxidant production in mitochondria, and (4) repair mitochondrial membrane. Then, we discuss the relationships among mt-nutrient deficiency, mitochondrial decay, and cognitive dysfunction, and summarize available evidence suggesting an effect of mt-nutrient supplementation on AD and PD. It appears that greater effects might be obtained by longer-term administration of combinations of mt-nutrients. Thus, optimal doses of combinations of mt-nutrients to delay and repair mitochondrial decay could be a strategy for preventing and treating cognitive dysfunction, including AD and PD.

Protein folding and aggregation into amyloid: the interference by natural phenolic compounds

Amyloid aggregation is a hallmark of several degenerative diseases affecting the brain or peripheral tissues, whose intermediates (oligomers, protofibrils) and final mature fibrils display different toxicity. Consequently, compounds counteracting amyloid aggregation have been investigated for their ability (i) to stabilize toxic amyloid precursors; (ii) to prevent the growth of toxic oligomers or speed that of fibrils; (iii) to inhibit fibril growth and deposition; (iv) to disassemble preformed fibrils; and (v) to favor amyloid clearance. Natural phenols, a wide panel of plant molecules, are one of the most actively investigated categories of potential amyloid inhibitors. They are considered responsible for the beneficial effects of several traditional diets being present in green tea, extra virgin olive oil, red wine, spices, berries and aromatic herbs. Accordingly, it has been proposed that some natural phenols could be exploited to prevent and to treat amyloid diseases, and recent studies have provided significant information on their ability to inhibit peptide/protein aggregation in various ways and to stimulate cell defenses, leading to identify shared or specific mechanisms. In the first part of this review, we will overview the significance and mechanisms of amyloid aggregation and aggregate toxicity; then, we will summarize the recent achievements on protection against amyloid diseases by many natural phenols.

Design and synthesis of new bifunctional sigma-1 selective ligands with antioxidant activity

Herein we report the synthesis of new bifunctional sigma-1 (σ1)-selective ligands with antioxidant activity. To achieve this goal, we combined the structure of lipoic acid, a universal antioxidant, with an appropriate sigma aminic moiety. Ligands 14 and 26 displayed high affinity and selectivity for σ1 receptors (Kiσ1 = 1.8 and 5.5 nM; Kiσ2/σ1 = 354 and 414, respectively). Compound 26 exhibited in vivo antiopioid effects on kappa opioid (KOP) receptor-mediated analgesia. In rat liver and brain mitochondria (RLM, RBM), this compound significantly reduced the swelling and the oxidation of thiol groups induced by calcium ions. Our results demonstrate that the tested compound has protective effects against oxidative stress.

Rapid cytotoxicity screening platform for amyloid inhibitors using a membrane-potential sensitive fluorescent probe

The growing interest in membrane interactions of amyloidogenic proteins indicates that lipid binding and the regulation of membrane potential are critical to the onset and progression of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's (PD), Alzheimer's (AD), and prion diseases. Advancing the understanding of this field requires the application of varied biophysical and biological techniques designed to probe the characteristics and underlying mechanisms of membrane-peptide interactions. Therefore, the development of a rapid cytotoxicity evaluation system using a membrane potential-sensitive bis-oxonol fluorescent dye, DiBAC4(3) is reported here. The exposure of C-terminal truncated α-synuclein 119 (α-Syn119) and amyloid-β(1-42) (Aβ(1-42)) to U2-OS cell cultures resulted in an immediate, significant, and concentration-dependent increase in fluorescence response of DiBAC4(3). This response was strongly correlated with the cytotoxicity of α-Syn119 and Aβ(1-42) as determined by conventional CC8 and ATP assays. Furthermore, the capacity of well-defined polyphenolic antioxidants (i.e., pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ), baicalein, (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), and myricetin) to mitigate amyloid-induced cytotoxicity was evaluated using the developed biosensing system. We envisage that this work would accelerate the development of a rapid and cost-effective high-throughput screening platform in drug discovery for AD and PD.

Effects of lipoic acid on antiapoptotic genes in control and ethanol-treated fetal rhombencephalic neurons

This laboratory showed that ethanol augments apoptosis in fetal rhombencephalic neurons and co-treatment with alpha-lipoic acid (LA) or one of several other antioxidants prevents ethanol-associated apoptosis. Because ethanol increases oxidative stress, which causes apoptosis, it is likely that some of the neuroprotective effects of LA and other antioxidants involve classical antioxidant actions. Considering the reported link of LA with pro-survival cell signaling, it is also possible that LA's neuroprotective effects involve additional mechanisms. The present study investigated the effects of LA on ethanol-treated fetal rhombencephalic neurons with regard to oxidative stress and up-regulation of the pro-survival genes Xiap and Bcl-2. We included parallel gene expression studies with N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) to determine whether LA's effects on Xiap and Bcl-2 were shared by other antioxidants. We also used enzyme inhibitors to determine which signaling pathway(s) might be involved with the effects of LA. The results of this investigation showed that LA treatment of ethanol-treated neurons exerted several pro-survival effects. LA blocked two pro-apoptotic changes, i.e., the ethanol-associated rise in ROS and caspase-3. LA also up-regulated the expression genes that encode the anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and Xiap by a mechanism that involves NF-κB. NAC also up-regulated Bcl-2 and Xiap. Thus, the neuroprotective effects of LA and NAC could involve up-regulation of pro-survival genes as well as their classical antioxidant actions.