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Federici S, Goggi G, Quinton R, Giovanelli L, Persani L, Cangiano B, Bonomi M. New and Consolidated Therapeutic Options for Pubertal Induction in Hypogonadism: In-depth Review of the Literature. Endocr Rev 2022; 43:824-851. [PMID: 34864951 DOI: 10.1210/endrev/bnab043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Delayed puberty (DP) defines a retardation of onset/progression of sexual maturation beyond the expected age from either a lack/delay of the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis activation or a gonadal failure. DP usually gives rise to concern and uncertainty in patients and their families, potentially affecting their immediate psychosocial well-being and also creating longer term psychosexual sequelae. The most frequent form of DP in younger teenagers is self-limiting and may not need any intervention. Conversely, DP from hypogonadism requires prompt and specific treatment that we summarize in this review. Hormone therapy primarily targets genital maturation, development of secondary sexual characteristics, and the achievement of target height in line with genetic potential, but other key standards of care include body composition and bone mass. Finally, pubertal induction should promote psychosexual development and mitigate both short- and long-term impairments comprising low self-esteem, social withdrawal, depression, and psychosexual difficulties. Different therapeutic options for pubertal induction have been described for both males and females, but we lack the necessary larger randomized trials to define the best approaches for both sexes. We provide an in-depth and updated literature review regarding therapeutic options for inducing puberty in males and females, particularly focusing on recent therapeutic refinements that better encompass the heterogeneity of this population, and underlining key differences in therapeutic timing and goals. We also highlight persistent shortcomings in clinical practice, wherein strategies directed at "the child with delayed puberty of uncertain etiology" risk being misapplied to older adolescents likely to have permanent hypogonadism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Federici
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20100 Milan, Italy.,Department of Endocrine and Metabolic Medicine, IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, 20100 Milan, Italy
| | - Giovanni Goggi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20100 Milan, Italy.,Department of Endocrine and Metabolic Medicine, IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, 20100 Milan, Italy
| | - Richard Quinton
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, Newcastle-upon-Tyne Hospitals, Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE1 4LP, UK.,Translational & Clinical Research Institute, University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE1 4EP, UK
| | - Luca Giovanelli
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20100 Milan, Italy.,Department of Endocrine and Metabolic Medicine, IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, 20100 Milan, Italy
| | - Luca Persani
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20100 Milan, Italy.,Department of Endocrine and Metabolic Medicine, IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, 20100 Milan, Italy
| | - Biagio Cangiano
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20100 Milan, Italy.,Department of Endocrine and Metabolic Medicine, IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, 20100 Milan, Italy
| | - Marco Bonomi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20100 Milan, Italy.,Department of Endocrine and Metabolic Medicine, IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, 20100 Milan, Italy
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Shin W, Kim SE, Lee JY, Seo JW, Hyun HS, Suh JH, Choi D, Yoon BK. The Effects of Menopausal Hormone Therapy on Serum Level of C-reactive Protein in Postmenopausal Korean Women. J Menopausal Med 2019; 25:49-54. [PMID: 31080789 PMCID: PMC6487285 DOI: 10.6118/jmm.2019.25.1.49] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives Inflammation is a major mechanism underlying coronary heart disease (CHD) and C-reactive protein (CRP) is a marker of inflammation. When administered soon after menopause, menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) prevents CHD. This study was conducted to examine the impact of estrogen by administration route on CRP in postmenopausal Korean women using micronized progesterone (MP4) for endometrial protection. Methods This retrospective cohort study included 129 healthy women without CHD risk factors. Eighty-nine women took oral estrogen (conjugated equine estrogen, 0.625 mg/day or equivalent), and 40 women applied a 1.5-mg/day 0.1% percutaneous estradiol gel. MP4 was added in 82 women with an intact uterus. The CRP level was measured at baseline and three and six months after initiation of MHT. Results The baseline characteristics were comparable between the MHT groups except current age and age at menopause. After controlling for age, menopausal age, body mass index, and basal CRP, no significant change in CRP was observed in the oral estrogen group (n = 29). Follow-up CRP levels were also similar to the baseline in the percutaneous estrogen group (n = 18). However, three-month CRP was significantly lower than six-month CRP, and there was a significant time trend within the percutaneous estrogen group. However, the group difference did not reach statistical significance. CRP also did not differ by addition of MP4 in either group. Conclusions In postmenopausal Korean women, no change in CRP was observed with oral estrogen, while percutaneous estrogen might decrease CRP. The estrogenic impacts were not influenced by adding MP4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Whan Shin
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Women's Health, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sung Eun Kim
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Women's Health, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jee-Yeon Lee
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Women's Health, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jong-Wook Seo
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Women's Health, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hye Sun Hyun
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Women's Health, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ji Hyun Suh
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Women's Health, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - DooSeok Choi
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Women's Health, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Byung-Koo Yoon
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Women's Health, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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Shin KA, Ahn J, Yoon JH, Park Y, Kim YJ. Effect of ultramarathon race on liver and skeletal muscle biomarkers in recovery period. GAZZETTA MEDICA ITALIANA ARCHIVIO PER LE SCIENZE MEDICHE 2019. [DOI: 10.23736/s0393-3660.17.03707-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Shah S, Forghani N, Durham E, Neely EK. A randomized trial of transdermal and oral estrogen therapy in adolescent girls with hypogonadism. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PEDIATRIC ENDOCRINOLOGY 2014; 2014:12. [PMID: 24982681 PMCID: PMC4074834 DOI: 10.1186/1687-9856-2014-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2013] [Accepted: 06/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Background Adolescent females with ovarian failure require estrogen therapy for induction of puberty and other important physiologic effects. Currently, health care providers have varying practices without evidence-based standards, thus investigating potential differences between oral and transdermal preparations is essential. The purpose of this study was to compare the differential effects of treatment with oral conjugated equine estrogen (OCEE), oral 17β estradiol (OBE), or transdermal 17β estradiol (TBE) on biochemical profiles and feminization in girls with ovarian failure. Study design 20 prepubertal adolescent females with ovarian failure, ages 12–18 years, were randomized to OCEE (n = 8), OBE (n = 7), or TBE (n = 5) for 24 months. Estrogen replacement was initiated at a low dose (0.15 mg OCEE, 0.25 mg OBE, or 0.0125 mg TBE) and doubled every 6 months to a maximum dose of 0.625 mg/d OCEE, 1 mg/d OBE, or 0.05 mg/d TBE. At 18 months, micronized progesterone was added to induce menstrual cycles. Biochemical markers including sex hormones, inflammatory markers, liver enzymes, coagulation factors, and lipids were obtained at baseline and 6 month intervals. Differences in levels of treatment parameters between the groups were evaluated with one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The effect of progesterone on biochemical markers was evaluated with the paired t-test. Results Mean (±SE) estradiol levels at maximum estrogen dose (18 months) were higher in the TBE group (53 ± 19 pg/mL) compared to OCEE (14 ± 5 pg/mL) and OBE (12 ± 5 pg/mL) (p ≤ 0.01). The TBE and OBE groups had more effective feminization (100% Tanner 3 breast stage at 18 months). There were no statistical differences in other biochemical markers between treatment groups at 18 months or after the introduction of progesterone. Conclusions Treatment with transdermal 17β estradiol resulted in higher estradiol levels and more effective feminization compared to oral conjugated equine estrogen but did not result in an otherwise different biochemical profile in this limited number of heterogeneous patients. OBE and TBE provide safe and effective alternatives to OCEE to induce puberty in girls, but larger prospective randomized trials are required. Trial registration Clinical Trials Identifier:
NCT01023178.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sejal Shah
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes, Stanford University, Stanford CA (S.S., E. D., E.N.), 300 Pasteur Drive, G-313, 94305 Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Nikta Forghani
- Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes, Children's Hospital of Orange County, Orange CA (N.F.), 1201 W La Veta, 92868 Orange, CA, USA
| | - Eileen Durham
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes, Stanford University, Stanford CA (S.S., E. D., E.N.), 300 Pasteur Drive, G-313, 94305 Stanford, CA, USA
| | - E Kirk Neely
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes, Stanford University, Stanford CA (S.S., E. D., E.N.), 300 Pasteur Drive, G-313, 94305 Stanford, CA, USA
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Ushiroyama T, Yoshida S, Tadaki K, Ikeda A, Ueki M. Clinical Efficacy of EH0202, a Kampo Formula, on the Health of Middle-Aged Women. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE 2012; 32:755-70. [PMID: 15633810 DOI: 10.1142/s0192415x04002314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
To investigate the clinical effects of EH0202, a Japanese herbal supplement, on the menopausal symptoms and physical status of peri- and post-menopausal women. Thirty-two post-menopausal women (53.0±5.1 years) presented with menopausal complaints were enrolled in the clinical study. Patients were administered an herbal supplement, EH0202 (6 g/day for 6 months), and were assessed for improvement of their overall symptoms using the Greene Climacteric Scale and the Visual Analog Scale (VAS). Blood pressure, skin surface blood flow and plasma lipid profiles were measured before and 1, 3 and 6 months after EH0202 administration. There was a significant decrease in the climacteric scale score (P<0.001) and VAS (P<0.0001) after 6 months of EH0202 treatment. There was a significant decrease in systolic (P<0.001) and diastolic (P<0.05) blood pressure, and a significant decrease in facial skin surface blood flow (P<0.05) after 3 months of EH0202 administration. We observed a significant decrease in plasma TG and LDL-cholesterol concentrations after 3 months of EH0202 administration (P<0.05). EH0202 (MACH) reduced blood pressure, excess facial skin blood flow (flushing) and abnormal lipid levels, as well as clinically improved menopausal symptoms in post-menopausal women. In post-menopausal women, this product appears to help maintain normal biological function and improves quality of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahisa Ushiroyama
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Osaka Medical College Takatsuki, Osaka 569-8686, Japan.
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Taboada M, Santen R, Lima J, Hossain J, Singh R, Klein KO, Mauras N. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of oral and transdermal 17β estradiol in girls with Turner syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96:3502-10. [PMID: 21880799 PMCID: PMC3205885 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2011-1449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT The type, dose, and route of 17β-estradiol (E(2)) used to feminize girls with Turner syndrome (TS) is not well established. OBJECTIVE The objective of the study was to characterize pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of oral vs. transdermal E(2). SETTING The study was conducted at a clinical research center. SUBJECTS Ten girls with TS, mean age 17.7 ± 0.4 (se) yr and 20 normally menstruating controls (aged 16.8 ± 0.4 yr) participated in the study. INTERVENTIONS TS subjects were randomized 2 wk each to: low-dose daily oral (0.5 mg) and biweekly transdermal E(2) (0.0375 mg) with 2 wk washout in between or high-dose oral (2.0 mg) and transdermal (0.075 mg), studied for 24 h each. Tandem mass spectrometry E(2) and estrone (E(1)) assays and a recombinant cell bioassay were used. RESULTS Controls consisted of the following: E(2), 96 ± 11 pg/ml (se), E(1), 70 ± 7 (mean follicular/luteal). TS consisted of the following: E(2), average concentration on low-dose oral, 18 ± 2.1 pg/ml, low-dose transdermal, 38 ± 13, high-dose oral, 46 ± 15, high-dose transdermal, 114 ± 31 pg/ml. E(1) concentrations were much higher on oral E(2) (low or high dose) than transdermal in TS and higher than controls. Bioestrogen was closest to normal in the high-dose transdermal group. LH and FSH decreased more in transdermal than oral low-dose routes and similarly in the high-dose oral and transdermal groups. IGF-I concentrations were variable (P = NS) among groups, and low-density lipoprotein/high-density lipoprotein cholesterol responses were variable. CONCLUSIONS Transdermal E(2) results in E(2), E(1), and bioestrogen concentrations closer to normal and achieves greater suppression of LH/FSH in lower doses compared with normal. Whether the long-term metabolic effects of estrogen differ using the same form of E(2), depending on route, awaits further study in TS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martha Taboada
- Nemours Children's Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida 32207, USA
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Goodman MP. Are all estrogens created equal? A review of oral vs. transdermal therapy. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2011; 21:161-9. [PMID: 22011208 DOI: 10.1089/jwh.2011.2839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To compare oral and transdermal delivery systems in domains of lipid effects; cardiovascular, inflammatory, and thrombotic effects; effect on insulin-like growth factor, insulin resistance, and metabolic syndrome; sexual effects; metabolic effects including weight; and effects on target organs bone, breast, and uterus. METHODS Review of the literature 1990-2010. Studies selected on basis of applicability, quality of data, and relationship to topic. RESULTS Data applicable to the comparisons of oral versus transdermal delivery systems for postmenopausal estrogen therapy were utilized to perform a review and formulate conclusions. CONCLUSIONS Significant differences appear to exist between oral and transdermal estrogens in terms of hormonal bioavailability and metabolism, with implications for clinical efficacy, potential side effects, and risk profile of different hormone therapy options, but neither results nor study designs are uniform. Bypassing hepatic metabolism appears to result in more stable serum estradiol levels without supraphysiologic concentrations in the liver. By avoiding first-pass metabolism, transdermal hormone therapy may have less pronounced effects on hepatic protein synthesis, such as inflammatory markers, markers of coagulation and fibrinolysis, and steroid binding proteins, while oral hormone therapy has more pronounced hyper-coagulant effects and increases synthesis of C-reactive protein and fibrinolytic markers. Both oral and transdermal delivery systems have beneficial effects on high-density lipoprotein cholesterol to low-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratios (oral>transdermal), while the transdermal system has more favorable effects on triglycerides. Incidence of metabolic syndrome and weight gain appears to be slightly lower with a transdermal delivery system. Oral estrogen's significant increase in hepatic sex hormone binding globulin production lowers testosterone availability compared with transdermal delivery, with clinically relevant effects on sexual vigor.
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Bingol B, Gunenc Z, Yilmaz M, Biri A, Tiras B, Güner H. Effects of hormone replacement therapy on glucose and lipid profiles and on cardiovascular risk parameters in postmenopausal women. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2009; 281:857-64. [DOI: 10.1007/s00404-009-1169-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2009] [Accepted: 06/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Reyna-Villasmil E, Mejía J, Reyna-Villasmil N, Torres D, Peña E, Colmenares M, Delgado O, Santos J. Efecto de diosgenina sobre la proteína C reactiva y homocisteína en pacientes menopáusicas. CLINICA E INVESTIGACION EN GINECOLOGIA Y OBSTETRICIA 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/s0210-573x(08)73060-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Gourdy P, Calippe B, Laurell H, Trémollières F, Douin-Echinard V, Lenfant F, Bayard F, Guery JC, Arnal JF. ROLE OF INFLAMMATORY CYTOKINES IN THE EFFECT OF ESTRADIOL ON ATHEROMA. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2008; 35:396-401. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2008.04885.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Mauras N, Shulman D, Hsiang HY, Balagopal P, Welch S. Metabolic effects of oral versus transdermal estrogen in growth hormone-treated girls with turner syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92:4154-60. [PMID: 17711924 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2007-0671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Transdermal (TD) estrogen is often preferred over the oral route in postmenopausal and GH-deficient women taking estrogen, but this has not been studied in detail in girls. OBJECTIVE Our objective was to study the metabolic effects of oral vs. TD estrogen in GH-treated girls with Turner syndrome. DESIGN AND METHODS Eleven girls with Turner syndrome, mean age 13.4 +/- 0.5 (se) yr, on GH for at least 6 months were recruited. Studies included [(13)C]leucine and d5-glycerol infusions, indirect calorimetry, dual-emission x-ray absorptiometry, and hormone and substrate measurements. They received, in random order, 17beta-estradiol orally (0.5, 1, and 2 mg for 2 wk each) and TD (0.025, 0.0375, and 0.05 mg for 2 wk each), and studies were repeated after each 6-wk course with 4 wk washout in between. RESULTS Rates of whole-body protein turnover, oxidation and synthesis, lipolysis, lipid and carbohydrate oxidation, and resting energy expenditure were unaffected by either form of estrogen; nor were lipids, insulin, and fibrinogen concentrations affected. Plasma IGF-I concentrations did not change clinically significantly with either form of estrogen, despite higher estrogen concentrations after oral estrogen. Estradiol concentrations did not correlate with any variables measured. CONCLUSIONS In GH-treated girls with Turner syndrome, neither oral nor TD estrogen adversely affected rates of protein turnover, lipolysis, and lipid oxidation rates or plasma lipids, fibrinogen, or fasting insulin concentrations. There was no clinically significant change in IGF-I concentrations after either form of estrogen. In aggregate, these data suggest that the route of delivery of estrogen does not adversely affect these metabolic effects of GH in young girls with Turner syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nelly Mauras
- Nemours Children's Clinic, 807 Childrens Way, Jacksonville, Florida 32207, USA.
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Arnal JF, Scarabin PY, Trémollières F, Laurell H, Gourdy P. Estrogens in vascular biology and disease: where do we stand today? Curr Opin Lipidol 2007; 18:554-60. [PMID: 17885427 DOI: 10.1097/mol.0b013e3282ef3bca] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Whereas hormone therapy may increase the risk of coronary heart disease and stroke in menopausal women, epidemiological studies (protection in premenopausal women) suggest and experimental studies (prevention of fatty streak development in animals) demonstrate a major atheroprotective action of estradiol. There is also evidence for a thrombogenic effect of oral estrogens. An understanding of the deleterious and beneficial effects of estrogens is thus required. RECENT FINDINGS The immuno-inflammatory system plays a key role in the development of fatty streak deposit as well as in the rupture of the atherosclerotic plaque. Whereas estradiol favors an anti-inflammatory effect in vitro (cultured cells), it rather elicits a pro-inflammatory response in vivo involving several subpopulations of the immuno-inflammatory system, which could contribute to plaque destabilization. Endothelium is another important target for estrogens, since estradiol potentiates endothelial nitric oxide and prostacyclin production. The respective actions of estrogens on these cell populations may be influenced by the timing of hormonal therapy initiation, hormone regimens, status of the vessel wall and expression of isoforms of estrogen receptors alpha and beta. SUMMARY A better understanding of the balance between the deleterious and beneficial effects of estrogens is required and should help to improve hormonal therapy safety and to optimize the prevention of cardiovascular disease after menopause.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-François Arnal
- Department of Vascular Biology and Atherothrombosis, INSERM U858-I2MR, CHU Toulouse-Rangueil, Toulouse, France.
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Albert MA, Glynn RJ, Buring JE, Ridker PM. Relation between soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1, homocysteine, and fibrinogen levels and race/ethnicity in women without cardiovascular disease. Am J Cardiol 2007; 99:1246-51. [PMID: 17478152 PMCID: PMC1939813 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2006.12.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2006] [Revised: 12/07/2006] [Accepted: 12/07/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Although certain markers of inflammation and hemostasis are elevated in persons at risk of future cardiovascular events, data assessing the relation between inflammatory and hemostatic markers of vascular risk and race/ethnicity are limited. Thus, in a cross-sectional analysis of the Women's Health Study (WHS), baseline soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), homocysteine, and fibrinogen were measured in 23,687 women without a history of cardiovascular disease. In 22,677 white, 242 Hispanic, 428 black, and 340 Asian women, the distribution of median ICAM-1 levels was significantly lower in black (311.9 ng/ml, interquartile range [IQR] 220.1 to 380.0) and Asian (312.7 ng/ml, IQR 267.3 to 362.3) women than white (343.1 ng/ml, IQR 301.9 to 394.9) and Hispanic (351.9 ng/ml, IQR 305.9 to 404.2) women (p <0.001). Although homocysteine was marginally lower in Asian women (p = 0.05), fibrinogen was higher in black women than their counterparts. After controlling for body mass index, hypertension, diabetes, smoking, alcohol use, family history of myocardial infarction, education, hormone use, and lipids, ICAM-1 remained significantly lower in black and Asian women. Meanwhile, homocysteine was lower in Asian women and fibrinogen remained higher in black women than their counterparts. In conclusion, this cross-sectional analysis shows that baseline fibrinogen, ICAM-1, and homocysteine vary by self-reported race/ethnicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle A Albert
- Division of Cardiovascular Diseases, Donald W. Reynolds Center for Cardiovascular Disease Research, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Arnal JF, Douin-Echinard V, Brouchet L, Tremollières F, Laurell H, Lenfant F, Gadeau AP, Guery JC, Gourdy P. Understanding the oestrogen action in experimental and clinical atherosclerosis. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2007; 20:539-48. [PMID: 17109647 DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-8206.2006.00445.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Whereas hormone replacement/menopause therapy (HRT) in postmenopausal women increases the coronary artery risk, epidemiological studies (protection in premenopaused women) suggest and experimental studies (prevention of the development of fatty streaks in animals) demonstrate a major atheroprotective action of oestradiol (E2). The understanding of the deleterious and beneficial effects of oestrogens is thus required. The immuno-inflammatory system plays a key role in the development of fatty streak deposit as well as in the rupture of the atherosclerotic plaque. Whereas E2 favours an anti-inflammatory effect in vitro (cultured cells), it rather elicits in vivo a proinflammation at the level of several subpopulations of the immuno-inflammatory system, which could contribute to plaque destabilization. Endothelium is another important target for E2, as it potentiates endothelial NO and prostacyclin production, thus promoting the beneficial effects as vasorelaxation and inhibition of platelet aggregation. Prostacyclin, but not NO, appears to be involved in the atheroprotective effect of E2. E2 also accelerates endothelial regrowth, thus favouring vascular healing. Finally, most of these effects of E2 are mediated by oestrogen receptor alpha, and are independent of oestrogen receptor beta. In summary, a better understanding of the mechanisms of oestrogen action not only on the normal and atheromatous arteries, but also on innate and adaptive immune responses is required and should help to optimize the prevention of cardiovascular disease after menopause. These mouse models should help to screen existing and future selective oestrogen receptor modulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- J F Arnal
- INSERM U589, IFR 31, CHU Toulouse-Rangueil, BP 84225, 31432 Toulouse Cedex 4, France.
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Hanson LN, Engelman HM, Alekel DL, Schalinske KL, Kohut ML, Reddy MB. Effects of soy isoflavones and phytate on homocysteine, C-reactive protein, and iron status in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 2006; 84:774-80. [PMID: 17023703 DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/84.4.774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Soy protein or its components may protect against the atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors total homocysteine (tHcy), C-reactive protein (CRP), and excess body iron, which generally increase with menopause. OBJECTIVE The primary objective of this study was to determine the independent effect of the soy protein components isoflavones and phytate on CVD risk factors in postmenopausal women. The secondary objective was to identify factors [blood lipids, oxidative stress indexes, serum ferritin, plasma folate, plasma vitamin B-12, and body mass index (BMI)] contributing to tHcy and CRP concentrations. DESIGN In a double-blind, 6-wk study, 55 postmenopausal women aged 47-72 y were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 soy protein (40 g/d) isolate treatments: native phytate and native isoflavone (n = 14), native phytate and low isoflavone (n = 13), low phytate and native isoflavone (n = 14), or low phytate and low isoflavone (n = 14). We measured iron indexes, tHcy, CRP, and BMI. RESULTS Soy protein with native phytate significantly reduced tHcy (P = 0.017), transferrin saturation (P = 0.027), and ferritin (P = 0.029), whereas soy protein with native isoflavones had no effect on any variables. At baseline, BMI was highly correlated with tHcy (r = 0.39, P = 0.003) and CRP (r = 0.55, P < 0.0001), whereas HDL cholesterol was correlated with CRP (r = -0.30, P = 0.02). Multiple regression analysis showed that LDL cholesterol and BMI contributed significantly (R2= 19.9%, P = 0.003) to the overall variance in tHcy. CONCLUSION Consuming phytate-rich foods and maintaining a healthy weight may reduce atherosclerotic CVD risk factors in postmenopausal women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura N Hanson
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
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16
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Rachoń D, Suchecka-Rachoń K, Hak Ł, Myśliwska J. Effects of intranasal 17β-estradiol administration on serum bioactive interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein levels in healthy postmenopausal women. Menopause 2006; 13:840-5. [PMID: 16894332 DOI: 10.1097/01.gme.0000227400.60816.52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Oral estrogen increases the levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), which is an independent risk factor for coronary heart disease in healthy individuals. The aim of our study was to investigate the effects of intranasal 17beta-estradiol (E2) on serum CRP and its most potent stimulant, interleukin-6 in healthy postmenopausal women. DESIGN Thirty-six healthy postmenopausal women (45-54 y) were enrolled. According to their individual preferences, they were assigned to intranasal (n = 10), transdermal (n = 14), or oral (n = 12) continuous E2 treatment with a sequential progestin (10-14 d in a 28-d cycle). Blood samples were drawn at baseline and after 3, 6, and 12 months during the estrogen-only phase to adjust for the progestin effect. RESULTS In women taking intranasal or transdermal E2, there were no significant changes in median serum CRP levels during the 12-month treatment period. In women taking oral E2 preparations, serum median CRP levels were significantly higher compared to baseline after 6 and 12 months of the therapy (P < 0.05). Conversely, serum median bioactive interleukin-6 levels were significantly lower after 6 and 12 months in women taking E2 intranasally or orally and after 12 months in women taking E2 transdermally (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS The results of our study show that intranasal, similarly to transdermal, E2 administration does not increase serum CRP levels in postmenopausal women. They also support the hypothesis that CRP increase during oral estrogen treatment is not mediated by the enhancement of interleukin-6 production by the immune cells but is rather caused by the hepatic first-pass metabolism effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Rachoń
- Department of Immunology, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland.
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17
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Gericke B, Koebnick C, Reimann M, Forterre S, Franz Zunft HJ, Schweigert FJ. Influence of hormone replacement therapy on proteomic pattern in serum of postmenopausal women. Maturitas 2006; 51:334-42. [PMID: 16039405 DOI: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2004.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2004] [Revised: 08/25/2004] [Accepted: 08/30/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Proteomics approaches to cardiovascular biology and disease hold the promise of identifying specific proteins and peptides or modification thereof to assist in the identification of novel biomarkers. METHOD By using surface-enhanced laser desorption and ionization time of flight mass spectroscopy (SELDI-TOF-MS) serum peptide and protein patterns were detected enabling to discriminate between postmenopausal women with and without hormone replacement therapy (HRT). RESULTS Serum of 13 HRT and 27 control subjects was analyzed and 42 peptides and proteins could be tentatively identified based on their molecular weight and binding characteristics on the chip surface. By using decision tree-based Biomarker Patternstrade mark Software classification and regression analysis a discriminatory function was developed allowing to distinguish between HRT women and controls correctly and, thus, yielding a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 100%. The results show that peptide and protein patterns have the potential to deliver novel biomarkers as well as pinpointing targets for improved treatment. The biomarkers obtained represent a promising tool to discriminate between HRT users and non-users. CONCLUSION According to a tentative identification of the markers by their molecular weight and binding characteristics, most of them appear to be part of the inflammation induced acute-phase response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beate Gericke
- Institute of Nutritional Science, University Potsdam, Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 114-116, D 14558 Nuthetal, Germany.
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18
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Kalela A, Jokela H, Lehtimäki T, Uppa H, Kunnas T, Teisala K, Punnonen R, Nikkari ST. Effect of the cessation of long-term hormone replacement therapy on plasma plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and fibrinogen. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2006; 125:217-20. [PMID: 16337074 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2005.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2005] [Revised: 08/30/2005] [Accepted: 10/12/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) has generally been documented to reduce plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) and fibrinogen levels in plasma of postmenopausal women. We used a wash out protocol to study whether stopping long-term HRT with estrogen alone or a combination of estrogen-progestin have different effects on these markers of hemostasis. STUDY DESIGN Thirty healthy postmenopausal women on HRT participated. Fifteen had estradiol valerate, and 15 had estradiol valerate and levonorgestrel. Each was studied after long-term HRT (period 1), four weeks after cessation of the treatment (period 2, wash out), and three weeks after reintroducing the therapy (period 3). RESULTS In the estrogen group, PAI-1 increased by 18% during the wash out period (P=0.013) and decreased by 22% after reintroduction of therapy (P=0.001). In the combined therapy group, there was a trend of PAI-1 to increase by 18% when therapy was discontinued (P=0.17), and it decreased by 25% after reintroduction of hormone replacement therapy (P=0.036). Fibrinogen was initially lower in the estrogen group compared with the combined therapy group (p=0.014), and did not change during wash out. CONCLUSION This wash out study shows that cessation of long-term HRT unfavorably increases PAI-1, but appears to have no adverse effect on fibrinogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Kalela
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Tampere Medical School, FIN-33014, Tampere, Finland
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19
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Carr BR, Khan N, Adams-Huet B, Kakarla N, Havelock JC, Gell J. Effect of vitamin E supplementation with and without hormone therapy on circulatory inflammatory markers in postmenopausal women. Fertil Steril 2006; 85:667-73. [PMID: 16500336 DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2005.08.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2005] [Revised: 08/29/2005] [Accepted: 08/29/2005] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the effect of vitamin E with and without estrogen replacement therapy or hormone therapy (HT) on inflammatory markers in postmenopausal women. DESIGN Prospective, observational study, followed by a randomized, prospective, double-blind study. SETTING Healthy volunteers in an academic medical referral center in Dallas, Texas. PATIENT(S) Seventy-five postmenopausal healthy women, ages 40 to 65 years, with follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels greater > or =30 mIU/mL and a serum estradiol level < or =30 pg/mL. INTERVENTION(S) After enrollment, all women were studied at baseline and received vitamin E for 4 weeks. They were then randomized from week 4 to week 12 to receive vitamin E in conjunction with conjugated equine estrogen (CEE) (0.625 mg), CEE (0.625 mg) plus medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) (2.5 mg), or placebo. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S) Change from baseline and between groups effects of vitamin E with and without estrogen or hormone therapy on seven circulatory inflammatory markers in postmenopausal women. RESULT(S) Vitamin E levels increased to a similar extent in all three groups compared with baseline at weeks 4 and 12. Vitamin E increased serum interleukin-6 levels. Combination CEE plus MPA significantly increased C-reactive protein levels. However, there were no consistent statistically significant effects on six other inflammatory markers. CONCLUSION(S) Vitamin E attenuated C-reactive protein increases in postmenopausal women treated with estrogen replacement therapy but not with HT. Because there was no other persistent effect on six additional inflammatory markers, it can be concluded that vitamin E and HT do not play a major role in promoting a change in cardiovascular inflammatory markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce R Carr
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390-9032, USA.
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20
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Hemelaar M, Kenemans P, Schalkwijk CG, Braat DDM, van der Mooren MJ. No increase in C-reactive protein levels during intranasal compared to oral hormone therapy in healthy post-menopausal women. Hum Reprod 2006; 21:1635-42. [PMID: 16501036 DOI: 10.1093/humrep/del034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inflammation plays an important role in the development of atherosclerotic disease. Oral post-menopausal hormone therapy increases serum C-reactive protein (CRP) levels. This study compared the effects of intranasal and oral administration of 17beta-estradiol (E2) combined with norethisterone acetate (NETA) on markers of inflammation in healthy post-menopausal women. METHODS Ninety healthy post-menopausal women (age 56.6 +/- 4.7 years) participated in this 1-year trial. After computerized block randomization, they daily received, in a double-blind fashion, either intranasal E2/NET [175 microg/275 microg (n = 47)] or oral E2/NETA [1 mg/0.5 mg (n = 43)]. Concentrations of high sensitivity CRP and adhesion molecules were measured at baseline and after 12, 24 and 52 weeks of treatment. RESULTS CRP levels were increased (P = 0.001) in the oral but not in the intranasal group. The increase in the oral group was highest at week 12 (64.9%) and was larger (P < 0.01) compared with the non-significant increase (8.6%) found in the intranasal group. Both groups showed decreases (P < 0.001) in soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule (sVCAM), soluble intracellular adhesion molecule (sICAM) and sE-selectin. The decreases were larger (P < 0.01) in the oral than in the intranasal group. CONCLUSION Intranasal E2/NET therapy did not significantly increase CRP levels, in contrast to the increase observed in the oral E2/NETA treatment group. Both intranasal and oral therapy lowered plasma concentrations of adhesion molecules, however, more so in the oral group.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Hemelaar
- Project Ageing Women and Institute for Cardiovascular Research-Vrije Universiteit, Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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21
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Gol M, Akan P, Dogan E, Karas C, Saygili U, Posaci C. Effects of estrogen, raloxifene, and hormone replacement therapy on serum C-reactive protein and homocysteine levels. Maturitas 2006; 53:252-9. [PMID: 15990257 DOI: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2005.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2004] [Revised: 04/29/2005] [Accepted: 05/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate the effects of conjugated equine estrogen (CEE), CEE plus medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA), CEE plus Nomegestrol acetate (NA), and raloxifene on serum high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) and homocysteine (Hcy) levels in healthy postmenopausal women. MATERIALS One hundred seven healthy postmenopausal women were recruited in a prospective, randomized, and placebo-controlled 6 months study. Of these, 18 were hysterectomized and received daily oral 0.625 mg CEE. Eighty nine non-hysterectomized women were randomly allocated to one of four groups: a group (22 patients) treated with CEE, 0.625 mg/daily plus MPA 2.5 mg/daily; a group (22 patients) treated with CEE, 0.625 mg/daily plus NA 5 mg/daily; a group (23 patients) treated with raloxifene hydrochloride, 60 mg once daily; and a placebo group (22 patients). Hcy and hs-CRP were measured at baseline and at 3 and 6 months. RESULTS CEE (20%, P=0.03) and CEE+MPA (59%, P=0.006) increased serum hs-CRP levels significantly, whereas CEE+NA decreased serum hs-CRP by 25% (P=0.01). Raloxifene had no significant effect on serum hs-CRP levels during and after the treatment. In all active treatment groups serum Hcy levels decreased significantly compared to baseline and placebo. CONCLUSIONS Conjugated equine estrogen, hormone replacement therapies, and raloxifene lower serum Hcy levels to a comparable extent in postmenopausal women. Hs-CRP, as a cardiovascular risk factor, is not influenced by raloxifene, whereas CEE and CEE plus MPA significantly increase hs-CRP levels. Treatment with CEE plus NA reduces serum hs-CRP levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mert Gol
- Dokuz Eylul University Faculty of Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Inciralti, Izmir, Turkey.
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22
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Kuhl H. Pharmacology of estrogens and progestogens: influence of different routes of administration. Climacteric 2005; 8 Suppl 1:3-63. [PMID: 16112947 DOI: 10.1080/13697130500148875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 446] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
This review comprises the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of natural and synthetic estrogens and progestogens used in contraception and therapy, with special consideration of hormone replacement therapy. The paper describes the mechanisms of action, the relation between structure and hormonal activity, differences in hormonal pattern and potency, peculiarities in the properties of certain steroids, tissue-specific effects, and the metabolism of the available estrogens and progestogens. The influence of the route of administration on pharmacokinetics, hormonal activity and metabolism is presented, and the effects of oral and transdermal treatment with estrogens on tissues, clinical and serum parameters are compared. The effects of oral, transdermal (patch and gel), intranasal, sublingual, buccal, vaginal, subcutaneous and intramuscular administration of estrogens, as well as of oral, vaginal, transdermal, intranasal, buccal, intramuscular and intrauterine application of progestogens are discussed. The various types of progestogens, their receptor interaction, hormonal pattern and the hormonal activity of certain metabolites are described in detail. The structural formulae, serum concentrations, binding affinities to steroid receptors and serum binding globulins, and the relative potencies of the available estrogens and progestins are presented. Differences in the tissue-specific effects of the various compounds and regimens and their potential implications with the risks and benefits of hormone replacement therapy are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Kuhl
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, J. W. Goethe University of Frankfurt, Germany
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23
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Hilpert KF, Kris-Etherton PM, West SG. Lipid response to a low-fat diet with or without soy is modified by C-reactive protein status in moderately hypercholesterolemic adults. J Nutr 2005; 135:1075-9. [PMID: 15867284 DOI: 10.1093/jn/135.5.1075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent evidence suggests that individuals with high concentrations of C-reactive protein (CRP), a marker of inflammation, are less responsive to cholesterol-lowering diets. CRP concentrations are increased by oral estrogen; however, the effect of soy phytoestrogens on inflammation has not been studied comprehensively, especially in women receiving hormone replacement therapy (HRT). This study was conducted to determine whether adding soy to a low-fat, high-fiber diet affects CRP and interleukin (IL)-6, and to examine the association between CRP levels and lipid response in moderately hypercholesterolemic adults (men = 18, postmenopausal women = 14; 6 receiving HRT). After a 3-wk run-in period with consumption of a Step I diet (27% total fat, 7% saturated fat, 275 mg cholesterol), participants were randomly assigned to diets containing 25 g/d soy protein (+ 90 mg/d isoflavones) or 25 g/d milk protein for 6 wk in a crossover design. Lipids and lipoproteins, CRP, and IL-6 were measured at the end of each diet and participants were categorized into high (>3.5 mg/L) or low CRP groups based on a median split. The addition of soy or milk protein to the Step I diet did not affect lipids or inflammatory markers. Regardless of protein source, those with low CRP exhibited significant decreases in LDL cholesterol (-3.5%) and the LDL:HDL cholesterol ratio (-4.8%), whereas those with high CRP had significant increases in LDL cholesterol (+4.8%), the LDL:HDL cholesterol ratio (+5.2%), apolipoprotein B (+3.8%), and lipoprotein(a) (+13.5%) compared with the run-in diet. These results suggest that inflammation may not only attenuate lipid responses, but also aggravate dyslipidemia in hypercholesterolemic subjects consuming a cholesterol-lowering diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten F Hilpert
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, The Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.
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24
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D'Anna R, Baviera G, Corrado F, Cancellieri F, Crisafulli A, Squadrito F. The effect of the phytoestrogen genistein and hormone replacement therapy on homocysteine and C-reactive protein level in postmenopausal women. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2005; 84:474-7. [PMID: 15842212 DOI: 10.1111/j.0001-6349.2005.00661.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect, in postmenopausal women, of the phytoestrogen genistein and hormone replacement therapy (HRT) on circulating two independent factors of cardiovascular risk: homocysteine and C-reactive protein (CRP). METHODS Ninety healthy postmenopausal women, from 50 to 60 years of age, were randomly assigned to receive genistein (n = 30; 54 mg/die) or continuous combined estrogen/progestin therapy (17-beta-estradiol 1 mg plus norethisterone acetate 0.5 mg) or placebo. Plasma homocysteine and serum CRP were measured at baseline and after 6 months of treatment. RESULTS In the genistein group, plasma homocysteine and serum CRP showed no statistically significant difference from baseline (homocysteine: 11.36 +/- 0.39 micromol/l; CRP: 1.73 +/- 0.31 mg/l) to 6 months treatment (homocysteine: 10.72 +/- 0.46 micromol/l; CRP: 2.13 +/- 0.45 mg/l), without any significant difference versus the placebo group (homocysteine: 11.25 +/- 0.43 micromol/l; CRP: 1.74 +/- 0.22 mg/l). In the HRT group there was a slight, but not significant reduction, of plasma homocysteine mean value from baseline (11.21 +/- 0.44 micromol/l) to 6 months treatment (10.45 +/- 0.38 micromol/l); whereas CRP mean value at the end of treatment (3.30 +/- 0.55 mg/l) was significantly higher from baseline (1.61 +/- 0.25 mg/l) (P < 0.01). However, after 6 months, no significant difference existed with the other two groups. CONCLUSIONS The phytoestrogen genistein, after 6 months treatment, does not modify the independent cardiovascular risk linked to circulating homocysteine or CRP level. Our experience confirms critical increase of CRP serum level after HRT treatment, but not plasma homocysteine significant variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosario D'Anna
- Department of Obstetrical and Gynecologic Science, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
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25
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Baldwin WS, Roling JA, Peterson S, Chapman LM. Effects of nonylphenol on hepatic testosterone metabolism and the expression of acute phase proteins in winter flounder (Pleuronectes americanus): comparison to the effects of Saint John's Wort. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2005; 140:87-96. [PMID: 15792627 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2005.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2004] [Revised: 01/08/2005] [Accepted: 01/13/2005] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
4-Nonylphenol (4-NP), a major by-product of alkylphenol ethoxylates, is used in several industries and as a consequence is quite common in rivers, estuaries and other aquatic environments that receive sewage discharges or are near offshore oil platforms. 4-NP is an environmental estrogen that also binds human and rodent Pregnane X-receptor (PXR), the orphan nuclear receptor that controls the expression of several detoxication genes in mammals, including several CYP3A and CYP2B family members. These P450s preferentially hydroxylate testosterone in the 6beta- and 16beta-positions, respectively. In this study, the effects of 4-NP on testosterone metabolism and hepatic CYP3A induction were compared to the effects of St. John's Wort (SJW), a well established mammalian PXR agonist, in winter flounder. Male winter flounder (Pleuronectes americanus) were injected with 100 mg/kg/day 4-NP or 500 mg/kg/day SJW or both (S and N) every 24 h. Forty-eight hours after the initial injections, flounder were euthanized. Western blots and testosterone 6beta-hydroxylation indicated that CYP3A was increased 50% by 4-NP, but was not affected by SJW. Testosterone 16beta-hydroxylase activity was also significantly increased in flounder treated with 4-NP (2.8 x), but not with SJW. This is not consistent with our hypothesis that both SJW and 4-NP would induce CYP3A. Subtractive hybridization was performed between control and 4-NP treated hepatic mRNA samples to isolate differentially expressed genes. Subtractive hybridization indicated that several acute phase proteins were altered by 4-NP. Quantitative real-time PCR (Q-PCR) confirmed 4-NP altered the expression of complement components C8b, cathepsin L, C-type lectin domain, FK506 binding protein 2 precursor (FKBP2) and an EST (expressed sequence tag). SJW and 4-NP treated flounder demonstrated similar induction profiles for the EST, cathepsin L and FKBP2, suggesting that SJW was at a sufficient dose to alter gene expression but not induce P450s. In conclusion, testosterone hydroxylase activity and Western blots indicate that SJW did not activate detoxication pathways in a similar manner to 4-NP.
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Affiliation(s)
- William S Baldwin
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at El Paso, 79968, USA.
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