Purification of human Rad51 protein by selective spermidine precipitation

A Fanci knockout mouse model reveals common and distinct functions for FANCI and FANCD2

Fanconi Anemia (FA) clinical phenotypes are heterogenous and rely on a mutation in one of the 22 FANC genes (FANCA-W) involved in a common interstrand DNA crosslink-repair pathway. A critical step in the activation of FA pathway is the monoubiquitination of FANCD2 and its binding partner FANCI. To better address the clinical phenotype associated with FANCI and the epistatic relationship with FANCD2, we created the first conditional inactivation model for FANCI in mouse. Fanci -/- mice displayed typical FA features such as delayed development in utero, microphtalmia, cellular sensitivity to mitomycin C, occasional limb abnormalities and hematological deficiencies. Interestingly, the deletion of Fanci leads to a strong meiotic phenotype and severe hypogonadism. FANCI was localized in spermatocytes and spermatids and in the nucleus of oocytes. Both FANCI and FANCD2 proteins co-localized with RPA along meiotic chromosomes, albeit at different levels. Consistent with a role in meiotic recombination, FANCI interacted with RAD51 and stimulated D-loop formation, unlike FANCD2. The double knockout Fanci-/- Fancd2-/- also showed epistatic relationship for hematological defects while being not epistatic with respect to generating viable mice in crosses of double heterozygotes. Collectively, this study highlights common and distinct functions of FANCI and FANCD2 during mouse development, meiotic recombination and hematopoiesis.

New Phosphorylation Sites of Rad51 by c-Met Modulates Presynaptic Filament Stability

Genomic instability through deregulation of DNA repair pathways can initiate cancer and subsequently result in resistance to chemo and radiotherapy. Understanding these biological mechanisms is therefore essential to overcome cancer. RAD51 is the central protein of the Homologous Recombination (HR) DNA repair pathway, which leads to faithful DNA repair of DSBs. The recombinase activity of RAD51 requires nucleofilament formation and is regulated by post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation. In the last decade, studies have suggested the existence of a relationship between receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) and Homologous Recombination DNA repair. Among these RTK the c-MET receptor is often overexpressed or constitutively activated in many cancer types and its inhibition induces the decrease of HR. In this study, we show for the first time that c-MET is able to phosphorylate the RAD51 protein. We demonstrate in vitro that c-MET phosphorylates four tyrosine residues localized mainly in the subunit-subunit interface of RAD51. Whereas these post-translational modifications do not affect the presynaptic filament formation, they strengthen its stability against the inhibitor effect of the BRC peptide obtained from BRCA2. Taken together, these results confirm the role of these modifications in the regulation of the BRCA2-RAD51 interaction and underline the importance of c-MET in DNA damage response.

Expression, Purification, and Biochemical Evaluation of Human RAD51 Protein

The RAD51 DNA strand exchange protein plays an important role in maintaining the integrity of the human genome. It promotes homology-directed DNA repair by exchanging strands between the damaged and the intact DNA molecules. It also plays an important role in stabilizing distressed DNA replication forks. When overexpressed or misregulated, however, RAD51 contributes to "rogue," genome destabilizing events that can lead to cancer, cell death, and to acquisition of chemotherapy resistance by cancerous cells. Human RAD51 is, therefore, an important and highly coveted anticancer drug target. Biochemical, biophysical, and structural studies of the human RAD51 and establishment of its structure-activity relationship require purification of large quantities of protein. In this chapter we describe a robust method for expression and purification of human RAD51 and the methods for assessing its activity based on the single-strand DNA-binding stoichiometry and its capacity to carry out the DNA strand exchange reaction.

Cancer-causing mutations in the tumor suppressor PALB2 reveal a novel cancer mechanism using a hidden nuclear export signal in the WD40 repeat motif

One typical mechanism to promote genomic instability, a hallmark of cancer, is to inactivate tumor suppressors, such as PALB2. It has recently been reported that mutations in PALB2 increase the risk of breast cancer by 8-9-fold by age 40 and the life time risk is ∼3-4-fold. To date, predicting the functional consequences of PALB2 mutations has been challenging as they lead to different cancer risks. Here, we performed a structure-function analysis of PALB2, using PALB2 truncated mutants (R170fs, L531fs, Q775X and W1038X), and uncovered a new mechanism by which cancer cells could drive genomic instability. Remarkably, the PALB2 W1038X mutant, harboring a mutation in its C-terminal domain, is still proficient in stimulating RAD51-mediated recombination in vitro, although it is unusually localized to the cytoplasm. After further investigation, we identified a hidden NES within the WD40 domain of PALB2 and found that the W1038X truncation leads to the exposure of this NES to CRM1, an export protein. This concept was also confirmed with another WD40-containing protein, RBBP4. Consequently, our studies reveal an unreported mechanism linking the nucleocytoplasmic translocation of PALB2 mutants to cancer formation.

Dynamic unwrapping of nucleosomes by HsRAD51 that includes sliding and rotational motion of histone octamers

Wrapping of genomic DNA into nucleosomes poses thermodynamic and kinetic barriers to biological processes such as replication, transcription, repair and recombination. Previous biochemical studies have demonstrated that in the presence of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) the human RAD51 (HsRAD51) recombinase can form a nucleoprotein filament (NPF) on double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) that is capable of unwrapping the nucleosomal DNA from the histone octamer (HO). Here, we have used single molecule Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (smFRET) to examine the real time nucleosome dynamics in the presence of the HsRAD51 NPF. We show that oligomerization of HsRAD51 leads to stepwise, but stochastic unwrapping of the DNA from the HO in the presence of ATP. The highly reversible dynamics observed in single-molecule trajectories suggests an antagonistic mechanism between HsRAD51 binding and rewrapping of the DNA around the HO. These stochastic dynamics were independent of the nucleosomal DNA sequence or the asymmetry created by the presence of a linker DNA. We also observed sliding and rotational oscillations of the HO with respect to the nucleosomal DNA. These studies underline the dynamic nature of even tightly associated protein-DNA complexes such as nucleosomes.

High-resolution structure of the presynaptic RAD51 filament on single-stranded DNA by electron cryo-microscopy

Homologous DNA recombination (HR) by the RAD51 recombinase enables error-free DNA break repair. To execute HR, RAD51 first forms a presynaptic filament on single-stranded (ss) DNA, which catalyses pairing with homologous double-stranded (ds) DNA. Here, we report a structure for the presynaptic human RAD51 filament at 3.5–5.0Å resolution using electron cryo-microscopy. RAD51 encases ssDNA in a helical filament of 103Å pitch, comprising 6.4 protomers per turn, with a rise of 16.1Å and a twist of 56.2°. Inter-protomer distance correlates with rotation of an α-helical region in the core catalytic domain that is juxtaposed to ssDNA, suggesting how the RAD51–DNA interaction modulates protomer spacing and filament pitch. We map Fanconi anaemia-like disease-associated RAD51 mutations, clarifying potential phenotypes. We predict binding sites on the presynaptic filament for two modules present in each BRC repeat of the BRCA2 tumour suppressor, a critical HR mediator. Structural modelling suggests that changes in filament pitch mask or expose one binding site with filament-inhibitory potential, rationalizing the paradoxical ability of the BRC repeats to either stabilize or inhibit filament formation at different steps during HR. Collectively, our findings provide fresh insight into the structural mechanism of HR and its dysregulation in human disease.

Without Binding ATP, Human Rad51 Does Not Form Helical Filaments on ssDNA

Construction of the presynaptic filament (PSF) of proper helical structure by Rad51 recombinases is a prerequisite of the progress of homologous recombination repair. We studied the contribution of ATP-binding to this structure of wt human Rad51 (hRad51). We exploited the protein-dissociation effect of high hydrostatic pressure to determine the free energy of dissociation of the protomer interfaces in hRad51 oligomer states and used electron microscopy to obtain topological parameters. Without cofactors ATP and Ca(2+) and template DNA, hRad51 did not exist in monomer form, but it formed rodlike long filaments without helical order. ΔG(diss) indicated a strong inherent tendency of aggregation. Binding solely ssDNA left the filament unstructured with slightly increased ΔG(diss). Adding only ATP and Ca(2+) to the buffer disintegrated the self-associated rods into rings and short helices of further increased ΔG(diss). Rad51 binding to ssDNA only with ATP and Ca bound could lead to ordered helical filament formation of proper pitch size with interface contacts of K(d) ∼ 2 × 10(-11) M, indicating a structure of outstanding stability. ATP/Ca binding increased the ΔG(diss) of protomer contacts in the filament by 16 kJ/mol. The results emphasize that ATP-binding in the PSF of hRad51 has an essential, yet purely structural, role.

A Single-Strand Annealing Protein Clamps DNA to Detect and Secure Homology

Repair of DNA breaks by single-strand annealing (SSA) is a major mechanism for the maintenance of genomic integrity. SSA is promoted by proteins (single-strand-annealing proteins [SSAPs]), such as eukaryotic RAD52 and λ phage Redβ. These proteins use a short single-stranded region to find sequence identity and initiate homologous recombination. However, it is unclear how SSAPs detect homology and catalyze annealing. Using single-molecule experiments, we provide evidence that homology is recognized by Redβ monomers that weakly hold single DNA strands together. Once annealing begins, dimerization of Redβ clamps the double-stranded region and nucleates nucleoprotein filament growth. In this manner, DNA clamping ensures and secures a successful detection for DNA sequence homology. The clamp is characterized by a structural change of Redβ and a remarkable stability against force up to 200 pN. Our findings not only present a detailed explanation for SSAP action but also identify the DNA clamp as a very stable, noncovalent, DNA-protein interaction.

Structure and mechanism of action of the BRCA2 breast cancer tumor suppressor

Mutations in BRCA2 increase susceptibility to breast, ovarian and prostate cancers. The product of human BRCA2, BRCA2 protein, has a key role in the repair of DNA double-strand breaks and interstrand cross-links by RAD51-mediated homologous recombination. Here, we present a biochemical and structural characterization of full-length (3,418 amino acid) BRCA2, alone and in complex with RAD51. We show that BRCA2 facilitates nucleation of RAD51 filaments at multiple sites on single-stranded DNA. Three-dimensional EM reconstructions revealed that BRCA2 exists as a dimer and that two oppositely oriented sets of RAD51 molecules bind the dimer. Single-stranded DNA binds along the long axis of BRCA2, such that only one set of RAD51 monomers can form a productive complex with DNA and establish filament formation. Our data define the molecular mechanism by which this tumor suppressor facilitates RAD51-mediated homologous-recombinational repair.

Breast cancer proteins PALB2 and BRCA2 stimulate polymerase η in recombination-associated DNA synthesis at blocked replication forks

One envisioned function of homologous recombination (HR) is to find a template for DNA synthesis from the resected 3'-OH molecules that occur during double-strand break (DSB) repair at collapsed replication forks. However, the interplay between DNA synthesis and HR remains poorly understood in higher eukaryotic cells. Here, we reveal functions for the breast cancer proteins BRCA2 and PALB2 at blocked replication forks and show a role for these proteins in stimulating polymerase η (Polη) to initiate DNA synthesis. PALB2, BRCA2, and Polη colocalize at stalled or collapsed replication forks after hydroxyurea treatment. Moreover, PALB2 and BRCA2 interact with Polη and are required to sustain the recruitment of Polη at blocked replication forks. PALB2 and BRCA2 stimulate Polη-dependent DNA synthesis on D loop substrates. We conclude that PALB2 and BRCA2, in addition to their functions in D loop formation, play crucial roles in the initiation of recombination-associated DNA synthesis by Polη-mediated DNA repair.

Contributions of the RAD51 N-terminal domain to BRCA2-RAD51 interaction

RAD51 DNA strand exchange protein catalyzes the central step in homologous recombination, a cellular process fundamentally important for accurate repair of damaged chromosomes, preservation of the genetic integrity, restart of collapsed replication forks and telomere maintenance. BRCA2 protein, a product of the breast cancer susceptibility gene, is a key recombination mediator that interacts with RAD51 and facilitates RAD51 nucleoprotein filament formation on single-stranded DNA generated at the sites of DNA damage. An accurate atomistic level description of this interaction, however, is limited to a partial crystal structure of the RAD51 core fused to BRC4 peptide. Here, by integrating homology modeling and molecular dynamics, we generated a structure of the full-length RAD51 in complex with BRC4 peptide. Our model predicted previously unknown hydrogen bonding patterns involving the N-terminal domain (NTD) of RAD51. These interactions guide positioning of the BRC4 peptide within a cavity between the core and the NTDs; the peptide binding separates the two domains and restricts internal dynamics of RAD51 protomers. The model’s depiction of the RAD51-BRC4 complex was validated by free energy calculations and in vitro functional analysis of rationally designed mutants. All generated mutants, RAD51^E42A, RAD51^E59A, RAD51^E237A, RAD51^E59A/E237A and RAD51^{E42A/E59A/E237A} maintained basic biochemical activities of the wild-type RAD51, but displayed reduced affinities for the BRC4 peptide. Strong correlation between the calculated and experimental binding energies confirmed the predicted structure of the RAD51-BRC4 complex and highlighted the importance of RAD51 NTD in RAD51-BRCA2 interaction.

PALB2 self-interaction controls homologous recombination

PALB2 is essential for BRCA2 anchorage to nuclear structures and for homologous recombinational repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Here, we report that the N-terminal coiled-coil motif of PALB2 regulates its self-association and homologous recombination. Monomeric PALB2 shows higher efficiency to bind DNA and promotes RAD51 filament formation with or without the inhibitory effect of Replication Protein A. Moreover, overexpression of the PALB2 coiled-coil domain severely affects RAD51 loading to DNA damage sites suggesting a competition between PALB2 self-interaction and PALB2–BRCA1 interaction. In the presence of DNA damage, the switch between PALB2–PALB2 and PALB2–BRCA1 interactions allows the activation of HR. Controlling HR via PALB2 self-interactions could be important to prevent aberrant recombination in normal conditions and activate DNA repair when required.

Interactions between BRCA2 and RAD51 for promoting homologous recombination in Leishmania infantum

In most organisms, the primary function of homologous recombination (HR) is to allow genome protection by the faithful repair of DNA double-strand breaks. The vital step of HR is the search for sequence homology, mediated by the RAD51 recombinase, which is stimulated further by proteins mediators such as the tumor suppressor BRCA2. The biochemical interplay between RAD51 and BRCA2 is unknown in Leishmania or Trypanosoma. Here we show that the Leishmania infantum BRCA2 protein possesses several critical features important for the regulation of DNA recombination at the genetic and biochemical level. A BRCA2 null mutant, generated by gene disruption, displayed genomic instability and gene-targeting defects. Furthermore, cytological studies show that LiRAD51 can no longer localize to the nucleus in this mutant. The Leishmania RAD51 and BRCA2 interact together and the purified proteins bind single-strand DNA. Remarkably, LiBRCA2 is a recombination mediator that stimulates the invasion of a resected DNA double-strand break in an undamaged template by LiRAD51 to form a D-loop structure. Collectively, our data show that LiBRCA2 and LiRAD51 promote HR at the genetic and biochemical level in L. infantum, the causative agent of visceral leishmaniasis.

RAD51 protein ATP cap regulates nucleoprotein filament stability

RAD51 mediates homologous recombination by forming an active DNA nucleoprotein filament (NPF). A conserved aspartate that forms a salt bridge with the ATP γ-phosphate is found at the nucleotide-binding interface between RAD51 subunits of the NPF known as the ATP cap. The salt bridge accounts for the nonphysiological cation(s) required to fully activate the RAD51 NPF. In contrast, RecA homologs and most RAD51 paralogs contain a conserved lysine at the analogous structural position. We demonstrate that substitution of human RAD51(Asp-316) with lysine (HsRAD51(D316K)) decreases NPF turnover and facilitates considerably improved recombinase functions. Structural analysis shows that archaebacterial Methanococcus voltae RadA(D302K) (MvRAD51(D302K)) and HsRAD51(D316K) form extended active NPFs without salt. These studies suggest that the HsRAD51(Asp-316) salt bridge may function as a conformational sensor that enhances turnover at the expense of recombinase activity.

Subunit interface residues F129 and H294 of human RAD51 are essential for recombinase function

RAD51 mediated homologous recombinational repair (HRR) of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) is essential to maintain genomic integrity. RAD51 forms a nucleoprotein filament (NPF) that catalyzes the fundamental homologous pairing and strand exchange reaction (recombinase) required for HRR. Based on structural and functional homology with archaeal and yeast RAD51, we have identified the human RAD51 (HsRAD51) subunit interface residues HsRad51(F129) in the Walker A box and HsRad51(H294) in the L2 ssDNA binding region as potentially important participants in salt-induced conformational transitions essential for recombinase activity. We demonstrate that the HsRad51(F129V) and HsRad51(H294V) substitution mutations reduce DNA dependent ATPase activity and are largely defective in the formation of a functional NPF, which ultimately eliminates recombinase catalytic functions. Our data are consistent with the conclusion that the HsRAD51(F129) and HsRAD51(H294) residues are important participants in the cation-induced allosteric activation of HsRAD51.

Visualization of human Dmc1 presynaptic filaments

Meiosis is initiated by the programmed formation of DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). These DSBs are repaired by homologous recombination to promote crossover formation that ensures proper chromosomal segregation in meiosis. hRad51 and hDmc1 are two human recombinases present during meiosis that are homologous to the RecA recombinase from Escherichia coli. The hRad51 and hDmc1 recombinases bind the nucleolytically processed ends of the DSB forming a presynaptic filament. Formation of the presynaptic filament is necessary for the search for homology and the progression of recombination. In this chapter, we provide a method to purify hDmc1 and prepare samples for visualizing hDmc1 nucleoprotein presynaptic filaments via transmission electron microscopy.

Cooperation of breast cancer proteins PALB2 and piccolo BRCA2 in stimulating homologous recombination

Inherited mutations in human PALB2 are associated with a predisposition to breast and pancreatic cancers. PALB2's tumor-suppressing effect is thought to be based on its ability to facilitate BRCA2's function in homologous recombination. However, the biochemical properties of PALB2 are unknown. Here we show that human PALB2 binds DNA, preferentially D-loop structures, and directly interacts with the RAD51 recombinase to stimulate strand invasion, a vital step of homologous recombination. This stimulation occurs through reinforcing biochemical mechanisms, as PALB2 alleviates inhibition by RPA and stabilizes the RAD51 filament. Moreover, PALB2 can function synergistically with a BRCA2 chimera (termed piccolo, or piBRCA2) to further promote strand invasion. Finally, we show that PALB2-deficient cells are sensitive to PARP inhibitors. Our studies provide the first biochemical insights into PALB2's function with piBRCA2 as a mediator of homologous recombination in DNA double-strand break repair.

Reversibility, equilibration, and fidelity of strand exchange reaction between short oligonucleotides promoted by RecA protein from escherichia coli and human Rad51 and Dmc1 proteins

We demonstrate the reversibility of RecA-promoted strand exchange reaction between short oligonucleotides in the presence of adenosine 5'-O-(thiotriphosphate). The reverse reaction proceeds without the dissociation of RecA from DNA. The reaction reaches equilibrium and its yield depends on the homology between the reaction substrates. We estimate the tolerance of the RecA-promoted strand exchange to individual base substitutions for a comprehensive set of possible base combinations in a selected position along oligonucleotide substrates for strand exchange and find, in agreement with previously reported estimations, that this tolerance is higher than in the case of free DNA. It is demonstrated that the short oligonucleotide-based approach can be applied to the human recombinases Rad51 and Dmc1 when strand exchange is performed in the presence of calcium ions and ATP. Remarkably, despite the commonly held belief that the eukaryotic recombinases have an inherently lower strand exchange activity, in our system their efficiencies in strand exchange are comparable with that of RecA. Under our experimental conditions, the human recombinases exhibit a significantly higher tolerance to interruptions of homology due to point base substitutions than RecA. Finding conditions where a chemical reaction is reversible and reaches equilibrium is critically important for its thermodynamically correct description. We believe that the experimental system described here will substantially facilitate further studies on different aspects of the mechanisms of homologous recombination.

RTEL1 maintains genomic stability by suppressing homologous recombination

Homologous recombination (HR) is an important conserved process for DNA repair and ensures maintenance of genome integrity. Inappropriate HR causes gross chromosomal rearrangements and tumorigenesis in mammals. In yeast, the Srs2 helicase eliminates inappropriate recombination events, but the functional equivalent of Srs2 in higher eukaryotes has been elusive. Here, we identify C. elegans RTEL-1 as a functional analog of Srs2 and describe its vertebrate counterpart, RTEL1, which is required for genome stability and tumor avoidance. We find that rtel-1 mutant worms and RTEL1-depleted human cells share characteristic phenotypes with yeast srs2 mutants: lethality upon deletion of the sgs1/BLM homolog, hyperrecombination, and DNA damage sensitivity. In vitro, purified human RTEL1 antagonizes HR by promoting the disassembly of D loop recombination intermediates in a reaction dependent upon ATP hydrolysis. We propose that loss of HR control after deregulation of RTEL1 may be a critical event that drives genome instability and cancer.

Interaction with the BRCA2 C terminus protects RAD51-DNA filaments from disassembly by BRC repeats

BRCA2 has an essential function in DNA repair by homologous recombination, interacting with RAD51 via short motifs in the middle and at the C terminus of BRCA2. Here, we report that a conserved 36-residue sequence of human BRCA2 encoded by exon 27 (BRCA2Exon27) interacts with RAD51 through the specific recognition of oligomerized RAD51 ATPase domains. BRCA2Exon27 binding stabilizes the RAD51 nucleoprotein filament against disassembly by BRC repeat 4. The protection is specific for RAD51 filaments formed on single-stranded DNA and is lost when BRCA2Exon27 is phosphorylated on Ser3291. We propose that productive recombination results from the functional balance between the different RAD51-binding modes [corrected] of the BRC repeat and exon 27 regions of BRCA2. Our results further suggest a mechanism in which CDK phosphorylation of BRCA2Exon27 at the G2-M transition alters the balance in favor of RAD51 filament disassembly, thus terminating recombination.

Altered DNA binding by the human Rad51-R150Q mutant found in breast cancer patients

The human Rad51 protein (HsRad51) catalyzes homologous pairing and strand exchange between single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) during recombinational repair of double-stranded DNA breaks. An HsRad51 mutation that results in the substitution of Gln for Arg150 (R150Q) was found in bilateral breast cancer patients; however, the consequences of this R150Q mutation have not been elucidated. To determine how this HsRad51(R150Q) mutation affects HsRad51 function, in the present study, we purified the HsRad51(R150Q) mutant. The purified HsRad51(R150Q) was completely proficient in the ATP-hydrolyzing activity. A gel filtration analysis revealed that HsRad51(R150Q) also retained the polymer formation ability. In contrast, the ssDNA- and dsDNA-binding abilities of HsRad51(R150Q) were clearly reduced, as compared to those of HsRad51. These differences in the DNA-binding properties between HsRad51(R150Q) and HsRad51 may be important to account for the tumorigenesis in breast cancer patients with the HsRad51(R150Q) mutation.

Real-time assembly and disassembly of human RAD51 filaments on individual DNA molecules

The human DNA repair protein RAD51 is the crucial component of helical nucleoprotein filaments that drive homologous recombination. The molecular mechanistic details of how this structure facilitates the requisite DNA strand rearrangements are not known but must involve dynamic interactions between RAD51 and DNA. Here, we report the real-time kinetics of human RAD51 filament assembly and disassembly on individual molecules of both single- and double-stranded DNA, as measured using magnetic tweezers. The relative rates of nucleation and filament extension are such that the observed filament formation consists of multiple nucleation events that are in competition with each other. For varying concentration of RAD51, a Hill coefficient of 4.3 ± 0.5 is obtained for both nucleation and filament extension, indicating binding to dsDNA with a binding unit consisting of multiple (≥4) RAD51 monomers. We report Monte Carlo simulations that fit the (dis)assembly data very well. The results show that, surprisingly, human RAD51 does not form long continuous filaments on DNA. Instead each nucleoprotein filament consists of a string of many small filament patches that are only a few tens of monomers long. The high flexibility and dynamic nature of this arrangement is likely to facilitate strand exchange.

Interactions between human BRCA2 protein and the meiosis-specific recombinase DMC1

Germline mutations in BRCA2 predispose to hereditary breast cancers. BRCA2 protein regulates recombinational repair by interaction with RAD51 via a series of degenerate BRC repeat motifs encoded by exon 11 (BRCA2(996-2113)), and an unrelated C-terminal domain (BRCA2(3265-3330)). BRCA2 is also required for meiotic recombination. Here, we show that human BRCA2 binds the meiosis-specific recombinase DMC1 and define the primary DMC1 interaction site to a 26 amino-acid region (BRCA2(2386-2411)). This region is highly conserved in BRCA2 proteins from a variety of mammalian species, but is absent in BRCA2 from Arabidopsis thaliana, Caenorhabditis elegans, and other eukaryotes. We demonstrate the critical importance of Phe2406, Pro2408, and Pro2409 at the conserved motif (2404)KVFVPPFK(2411). This interaction domain, defined as the PhePP motif, promotes specific interactions between BRCA2 and DMC1, but not with RAD51. Thus, the RAD51 and DMC1 interaction domains on BRCA2 are distinct from each other, allowing coordinated interactions of the two recombinases with BRCA2 at meiosis. These results lead us to suggest that BRCA2 is a universal regulator of RAD51/DMC1 recombinase actions.

Stabilization of RAD51 nucleoprotein filaments by the C-terminal region of BRCA2

The human breast cancer susceptibility gene BRCA2 is required for the regulation of RAD51-mediated homologous recombinational repair. BRCA2 interacts with RAD51 monomers, as well as nucleoprotein filaments, primarily though the conserved BRC motifs. The unrelated C-terminal region of BRCA2 also interacts with RAD51. Here we show that the BRCA2 C terminus interacts directly with RAD51 filaments, but not monomers, by binding an interface created by two adjacent RAD51 protomers. These interactions stabilize filaments so that they cannot be dissociated by association with BRC repeats. Interaction of the BRCA2 C terminus with the RAD51 filament causes a large movement of the flexible RAD51 N-terminal domain that is important in regulating filament dynamics. We suggest that interactions of the BRCA2 C-terminal region with RAD51 may facilitate efficient nucleation of RAD51 multimers on DNA and thereby stimulate recombination-mediated repair.

Stimulation of fission yeast and mouse Hop2-Mnd1 of the Dmc1 and Rad51 recombinases

Genetic analysis of fission yeast suggests a role for the spHop2-Mnd1 proteins in the Rad51 and Dmc1-dependent meiotic recombination pathways. In order to gain biochemical insights into this process, we purified Schizosaccharomyces pombe Hop2-Mnd1 to homogeneity. spHop2 and spMnd1 interact by co-immunoprecipitation and two-hybrid analysis. Electron microscopy reveals that S. pombe Hop2-Mnd1 binds single-strand DNA ends of 3'-tailed DNA. Interestingly, spHop2-Mnd1 promotes the renaturation of complementary single-strand DNA and catalyses strand exchange reactions with short oligonucleotides. Importantly, we show that spHop2-Mnd1 stimulates spDmc1-dependent strand exchange and strand invasion. Ca(2+) alleviate the requirement for the order of addition of the proteins on DNA. We also demonstrate that while spHop2-Mnd1 affects spDmc1 specifically, mHop2 or mHop2-Mnd1 stimulates both the hRad51 and hDmc1 recombinases in strand exchange assays. Thus, our results suggest a crucial role for S. pombe and mouse Hop2-Mnd1 in homologous pairing and strand exchange and reveal evolutionary divergence in their specificity for the Dmc1 and Rad51 recombinases.

A region of human BRCA2 containing multiple BRC repeats promotes RAD51-mediated strand exchange

Human BRCA2, a breast and ovarian cancer suppressor, binds to the DNA recombinase RAD51 through eight conserved BRC repeats, motifs of approximately 30 residues, dispersed across a large region of the protein. BRCA2 is essential for homologous recombination in vivo, but isolated BRC repeat peptides can prevent the assembly of RAD51 into active nucleoprotein filaments in vitro, suggesting a model in which BRCA2 sequesters RAD51 in undamaged cells, and promotes recombinase function after DNA damage. How BRCA2 might fulfill these dual functions is unclear. We have purified a fragment of human BRCA2 (BRCA2(BRC1-8)) with 1127 residues spanning all 8 BRC repeats but excluding the C-terminal DNA-binding domain (BRCA2(CTD)). BRCA2(BRC1-8) binds RAD51 nucleoprotein filaments in a ternary complex, indicating it may organize RAD51 on DNA. Human RAD51 is relatively ineffective in vitro at strand exchange between homologous DNA molecules unless non-physiological ions like NH4+ are present. In an ionic milieu more typical of the mammalian nucleus, BRCA2(BRCI-8) stimulates RAD51-mediated strand exchange, suggesting it may be an essential co-factor in vivo. Thus, the human BRC repeats, embedded within their surronding sequences as an eight-repeat unit, mediate homologous recombination independent of the BRCA2(CTD) through a previously unrecognized role in control of RAD51 activity.

CeBRC-2 stimulates D-loop formation by RAD-51 and promotes DNA single-strand annealing

The BRCA2 tumour suppressor regulates the RAD-51 recombinase during double-strand break (DSB) repair by homologous recombination (HR) but how BRCA2 executes its functions is not well understood. We previously described a functional homologue of BRCA2 in Caenorhabditis elegans (CeBRC-2) that binds preferentially to single-stranded DNA via an OB-fold domain and associates directly with RAD-51 via a single BRC domain. Consistent with a direct role in HR, Cebrc-2 mutants are defective for repair of meiotic and radiation-induced DSBs due to an inability to regulate RAD-51. Here, we explore the function of CeBRC-2 in HR processes using purified proteins. We show that CeBRC-2 stimulates RAD-51-mediated D-loop formation and reduces the rate of ATP hydrolysis catalysed by RAD-51. These functions of CeBRC-2 are dependent upon direct association with RAD-51 via its BRC motif and on its DNA-binding activity, as point mutations in the BRC domain that abolish RAD-51 binding or the BRC domain of CeBRC-2 alone, lacking the DNA-binding domain, fail to stimulate RAD-51-mediated D-loop formation and do not reduce the rate of ATP hydrolysis by RAD-51. Phenotypic comparison of Cebrc-2 and rad-51 mutants also revealed a role for CeBRC-2 in an error-prone DSB repair pathway independent of rad-51 and non-homologous end joining, raising the possibility that CeBRC-2 may have replaced the role of vertebrate Rad52 in DNA single-strand annealing (SSA), which is missing from C. elegans. Indeed, we show here that CeBRC-2 mediates SSA of RPA-oligonucleotide complexes similar to Rad52. These results reveal RAD-51-dependent and -independent functions of CeBRC-2 that provide an explanation for the difference in DNA repair defects observed in Cebrc-2 and rad-51 mutants, and define mechanistic roles for CeBRC-2 in HR and in the SSA pathway for DSB repair.

Roles of the human Rad51 L1 and L2 loops in DNA binding

The human Rad51 protein, a eukaryotic ortholog of the bacterial RecA protein, is a key enzyme that functions in homologous recombination and recombinational repair of double strand breaks. The Rad51 protein contains two flexible loops, L1 and L2, which are proposed to be sites for DNA binding, based on a structural comparison with RecA. In the present study, we performed mutational and fluorescent spectroscopic analyses on the L1 and L2 loops to examine their role in DNA binding. Gel retardation and DNA-dependent ATP hydrolysis measurements revealed that the substitution of the tyrosine residue at position 232 (Tyr232) within the L1 loop with alanine, a short side chain amino acid, significantly decreased the DNA-binding ability of human Rad51, without affecting the protein folding or the salt-induced, DNA-independent ATP hydrolysis. Even the conservative replacement with tryptophan affected the DNA binding, indicating that Tyr232 is involved in DNA binding. The importance of the L1 loop was confirmed by the fluorescence change of a tryptophan residue, replacing the Asp231, Ser233, or Gly236 residue, upon DNA binding. The alanine replacement of phenylalanine at position 279 (Phe279) within the L2 loop did not affect the DNA-binding ability of human Rad51, unlike the Phe203 mutation of the RecA L2 loop. The Phe279 side chain may not be directly involved in the interaction with DNA. However, the fluorescence intensity of the tryptophan replacing the Rad51-Phe279 residue was strongly reduced upon DNA binding, indicating that the L2 loop is also close to the DNA-binding site.

Magnesium influences the discrimination and release of ADP by human RAD51

hRAD51 lacks cooperative DNA-dependent ATPase activity and appears to function with 5-10-fold less Mg2+ compared to RecA. We have further explored the effect of Mg2+ on adenosine nucleotide binding, ATPase, and DNA strand exchange activities. hRAD51 was saturated with the poorly hydrolyzable analog of ATP, ATPgammaS, at approximately 0.08 mM Mg2+. In contrast, > 0.5 mM Mg2+ was required to saturate hRAD51 with ADP. We found ADP to be a significantly less effective competitive inhibitor of the hRAD51 ATPase at low Mg2+ concentrations (0.08 mM). Mg2+ did not appear to affect the ability of ATPgammaS to competitively inhibit the hRAD51 ATPase. Low Mg2+ (0.08-0.12 mM) enhanced the steady-state ATPase of hRAD51 while higher Mg2+ concentration (> 0.3 mM) was inhibitory. At low Mg2+, hRAD51 appeared capable of nearly complete hydrolysis of available ATP, suggesting a lack of ADP product inhibition. There was a strong correlation between the amount of Mg2+ required for stable ADP binding and the inhibition of hRad51 strand exchange activity. Simultaneous inclusion of exogenous ATP and chelation of Mg2+ with EDTA significantly enhanced ADP-->ATP exchange by hRAD51. These studies are consistent with the hypothesis that Mg2+ influences the discrimination and release of ADP, which may sequentially impose an important regulatory step in the hRAD51 ATPase cycle.

DNA mediated disassembly of hRad51 and hRad52 proteins and recruitment of hRad51 to ssDNA by hRad52

Purified human Rad51 and Rad52 proteins exhibit multiple oligomeric states, in vitro. Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) renders high molecular weight aggregates of both proteins into smaller and soluble forms that include even the monomers. Consequently, these proteins that have a propensity to interact with each other's higher order forms by themselves, start interacting with monomeric forms in the presence of ssDNA, presumably reflecting the steps of protein assembly on DNA. In the same conditions, DNA binding assays reveal hRad52-mediated recruitment of hRad51 on ssDNA. Put together, these studies hint at DNA-induced disassembly of higher-order forms of Rad51 and Rad52 proteins as steps that precede protein assembly during hRad51 presynapsis on DNA, in vitro.

Long-distance lateral diffusion of human Rad51 on double-stranded DNA

Rad51 is the primary eukaryotic recombinase responsible for initiating DNA strand exchange during homologous recombination. Although the subject of intense study for over a decade, many molecular details of the reactions promoted by Rad51 and related recombinases remain unknown. Using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy, we directly visualized the behavior of individual Rad51 complexes on double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) molecules suspended in an extended configuration above a lipid bilayer. Here we show that complexes of Rad51 can bind to and slide freely along the helical axis of dsDNA. Sliding is bidirectional, does not require ATP hydrolysis, and displays properties consistent with a 1D random walk driven solely by thermal diffusion. The proteins move freely on the DNA for long periods of time; however, sliding terminates and the proteins become immobile upon encountering the free end of a linear dsDNA molecule. This study provides previously uncharacterized insights into the behaviors of human Rad51, which may apply to other members of the RecA-like family of recombinases.

Human DNA polymerase eta promotes DNA synthesis from strand invasion intermediates of homologous recombination

Stalled replication forks pose a serious threat to genome integrity. To overcome the catastrophic consequences associated with fork demise, translesion synthesis (TLS) polymerases such as poleta promote DNA synthesis past lesions. Alternatively, a stalled fork may collapse and undergo repair by homologous recombination. By using fractionated cell extracts and purified recombinant proteins, we show that poleta extends DNA synthesis from D loop recombination intermediates in which an invading strand serves as the primer. Extracts from XP-V cells, which are defective in poleta, exhibit severely reduced D loop extension activity. The D loop extension activity of poleta is unusual, as this reaction cannot be promoted by the replicative DNA polymerase delta or by other TLS polymerases such as poliota. Moreover, we find that poleta interacts with RAD51 recombinase and RAD51 stimulates poleta-mediated D loop extension. Our results indicate a dual function for poleta at stalled replication forks: the promotion of translesion synthesis and the reinitiation of DNA synthesis by homologous recombination repair.

Fission yeast rad51 and dmc1, two efficient DNA recombinases forming helical nucleoprotein filaments

Homologous recombination is important for the repair of double-strand breaks during meiosis. Eukaryotic cells require two homologs of Escherichia coli RecA protein, Rad51 and Dmc1, for meiotic recombination. To date, it is not clear, at the biochemical level, why two homologs of RecA are necessary during meiosis. To gain insight into this, we purified Schizosaccharomyces pombe Rad51 and Dmc1 to homogeneity. Purified Rad51 and Dmc1 form homo-oligomers, bind single-stranded DNA preferentially, and exhibit DNA-stimulated ATPase activity. Both Rad51 and Dmc1 promote the renaturation of complementary single-stranded DNA. Importantly, Rad51 and Dmc1 proteins catalyze ATP-dependent strand exchange reactions with homologous duplex DNA. Electron microscopy reveals that both S. pombe Rad51 and Dmc1 form nucleoprotein filaments. Rad51 formed helical nucleoprotein filaments on single-stranded DNA, whereas Dmc1 was found in two forms, as helical filaments and also as stacked rings. These results demonstrate that Rad51 and Dmc1 are both efficient recombinases in lower eukaryotes and reveal closer functional and structural similarities between the meiotic recombinase Dmc1 and Rad51. The DNA strand exchange activity of both Rad51 and Dmc1 is most likely critical for proper meiotic DNA double-strand break repair in lower eukaryotes.

BRCA2 BRC motifs bind RAD51-DNA filaments

Germ-line mutations in BRCA2 account for approximately half the cases of autosomal dominant familial breast cancers. BRCA2 has been shown to interact directly with RAD51, an essential component of the cellular machinery for homologous recombination and the maintenance of genome stability. Interactions between BRCA2 and RAD51 take place by means of the conserved BRC repeat regions of BRCA2. Previously, it was shown that peptides corresponding to BRC3 or BRC4 bind RAD51 monomers and block RAD51-DNA filament formation. In this work, we further analyze these interactions and find that at lower molar ratios BRC3 or BRC4 actually bind and form stable complexes with RAD51-DNA nucleoprotein filaments. Only at high concentrations of the BRC repeats are filaments disrupted. The specific protein-protein contacts occur in the RAD51 filament by means of the N-terminal domain of RAD51 for BRC3 and the nucleotide-binding core of RAD51 for BRC4. These observations show that the BRC repeats bind distinct regions of RAD51 and are nonequivalent in their mode of interaction. The results provide insight into why mutation in just one of the eight BRC repeats would affect the way that BRCA2 protein interacts with the RAD51 filament. Disruption of a single RAD51 interaction site, one of several simultaneous interactions occurring throughout the BRC repeat-containing exon 11 of BRCA2, might modulate the ability of RAD51 to promote recombinational repair and lead to an increased risk of breast cancer.

Molecular visualization of the yeast Dmc1 protein ring and Dmc1-ssDNA nucleoprotein complex

Saccharomyces cerevisiae Dmc1, a meiosis-specific homologue of RecA, catalyzes homologous pairing and strand exchange during meiotic DNA recombination. The purified budding yeast Dmc1 (ScDmc1) protein exhibits much weaker recombinase activity in vitro as compared to that of the Escherichia coli RecA protein. Using atomic force microscopy (AFM) with carbon nanotube tips, we found ScDmc1 forms rings with an external diameter of 18 nm and a central cavity of 4 nm. In the presence of single-stranded DNA (ssDNA), the majority of the ScDmc1 protein (90%) bound DNA as protein rings; only a small faction (10%) was able to form filamentous structure. In contrast, nearly all RecA proteins form fine helical nucleoprotein filaments with ssDNA under identical conditions. RecA-mediated recombinase activity is initiated through the nucleation of RecA onto ssDNA to form helical nucleoprotein filaments. Our results support the notion that ScDmc1 becomes catalytically active only when it forms a helical nucleoprotein filament with ssDNA.

The Hop2 and Mnd1 proteins act in concert with Rad51 and Dmc1 in meiotic recombination

During the first meiotic division, homologous chromosomes (homologs) have to separate to opposite poles of the cell to ensure the right complement in the progeny. Homologous recombination provides a mechanism for a genome-wide homology search and physical linkage among the homologs before their orderly segregation. Rad51 and Dmc1 recombinases are the major players in these processes. Disruption of meiosis-specific HOP2 or MND1 genes leads to severe defects in homologous synapsis and an early-stage recombination failure resulting in sterility. Here we show that mouse Hop2 can efficiently form D-loops, the first recombination intermediates, but this activity is abrogated upon association with Mnd1. Furthermore, the Hop2-Mnd1 heterodimer physically interacts with Rad51 and Dmc1 recombinases and stimulates their activity up to 35-fold. Our data reveal an interplay among Hop2, Mnd1 and Rad51 and Dmc1 in the formation of the first recombination intermediates during meiosis.

CDK-dependent phosphorylation of BRCA2 as a regulatory mechanism for recombinational repair

Inherited mutations in BRCA2 are associated with a predisposition to early-onset breast cancers. The underlying basis of tumorigenesis is thought to be linked to defects in DNA double-strand break repair by homologous recombination. Here we show that the carboxy-terminal region of BRCA2, which interacts directly with the essential recombination protein RAD51, contains a site (serine 3291; S3291) that is phosphorylated by cyclin-dependent kinases. Phosphorylation of S3291 is low in S phase when recombination is active, but increases as cells progress towards mitosis. This modification blocks C-terminal interactions between BRCA2 and RAD51. However, DNA damage overcomes cell cycle regulation by decreasing S3291 phosphorylation and stimulating interactions with RAD51. These results indicate that S3291 phosphorylation might provide a molecular switch to regulate RAD51 recombination activity, providing new insight into why BRCA2 C-terminal deletions lead to radiation sensitivity and cancer predisposition.

Characterization of kinetics of DNA strand-exchange and ATP hydrolysis activities of recombinant PfRad51, a Plasmodium falciparum recombinase

Although homologous recombination-mediated DNA rearrangements are quite widespread in Plasmodium falciparum, the molecular mechanisms involved are essentially unknown. Recent identification of PfRad51 in P. falciparum has suggested that it may play central role during homologous recombination and DNA rearrangements. Full-length recombinant PfRad51 was over expressed in Escherichia coli and purified to near homogeneity. Using optimized enzymatic activity conditions recombinant PfRad51 protein was shown to catalyze DNA strand-exchange reaction, a central step during homologous recombination. Unlike bacterial RecA protein, PfRad51 promoted strand-exchange reaction does not require ATP hydrolysis. The PfRad51 protein also catalyzed ssDNA-dependent ATP hydrolysis and the k(cat) values were similar to those reported for human Rad51. The demonstration of strand-exchange activity of PfRad51 protein, first such report in any protozoan parasite, suggests importance of similar recombination mechanism during DNA rearrangements associated with antigenic variation in P. falciparum.

Self-polymerization of archaeal RadA protein into long and fine helical filaments

The Archaeal protein RadA, a RecA/Rad51 homolog, is able to promote pairing and exchange of DNA strands with homologous sequences. Here, we have expressed, purified, and crystallized the catalytically active RadA protein from Sulfolobus solfataricus (Sso). Preliminary X-ray analysis indicated that Sso RadA protein likely forms helical filament in protein crystals. Using atomic force microscopy with a carbon nanotube (CNT) tip for high-resolution imaging, we demonstrated that Sso RadA protein indeed forms fine helical filaments up to 1 microm in length ( approximately 10nm pitch) in the absence of DNA and nucleotide cofactor. We also observed that Sso RadA protein helical filament could dissemble upon incubation with ssDNA, and then the proteins associate with ssDNA to form nucleoprotein filament.

Structural basis for octameric ring formation and DNA interaction of the human homologous-pairing protein Dmc1

The human Dmc1 protein, a RecA/Rad51 homolog, is a meiosis-specific DNA recombinase that catalyzes homologous pairing. RecA and Rad51 form helical filaments, while Dmc1 forms an octameric ring. In the present study, we crystallized the full-length human Dmc1 protein and solved the structure of the Dmc1 octameric ring. The monomeric structure of the Dmc1 protein closely resembled those of the human and archaeal Rad51 proteins. In addition to the polymerization motif that was previously identified in the Rad51 proteins, we found another hydrogen bonding interaction at the polymer interface, which could explain why Dmc1 forms stable octameric rings instead of helical filaments. Mutagenesis studies identified the inner and outer basic patches that are important for homologous pairing. The inner patch binds both single-stranded and double-stranded DNAs, while the outer one binds single-stranded DNA. Based on these results, we propose a model for the interaction of the Dmc1 rings with DNA.

Conformational changes modulate the activity of human RAD51 protein

Homologous recombination provides a major pathway for the repair of DNA double-strand breaks in mammalian cells. Defects in homologous recombination can lead to high levels of chromosomal translocations or deletions, which may promote cell transformation and cancer development. A key component of this process is RAD51. In comparison to RecA, the bacterial homologue, human RAD51 protein exhibits low-level strand-exchange activity in vitro. This activity can, however, be stimulated by the presence of high salt. Here, we have investigated the mechanistic basis for this stimulation. We show that high ionic strength favours the co-aggregation of RAD51-single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) nucleoprotein filaments with naked duplex DNA, to form a complex in which the search for homologous sequences takes place. High ionic strength allows differential binding of RAD51 to ssDNA and double-stranded DNA (dsDNA), such that ssDNA-RAD51 interactions are unaffected, whereas those between RAD51 and dsDNA are destabilized. Most importantly, high salt induces a conformational change in RAD51, leading to the formation of extended nucleoprotein filaments on ssDNA. These extended filaments mimic the active form of the Escherichia coli RecA-ssDNA filament that exhibits efficient strand-exchange activity.

Biochemical basis of the constitutive coprotease activity of RecA P67W protein

The mutation of Pro67 to Trp (P67W) in the Escherichia coli RecA protein results in reduced recombination and constitutive coprotease phenotypes. We examined the biochemical properties of this mutant in an effort to understand these altered behaviors. We find that RecA P67W protein can access single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) binding sites within regions of secondary structure more effectively than wild-type protein, and binding to duplex DNA is both faster and more extensive as well. This mutant is also more effective than wild-type RecA protein in displacing SSB protein from ssDNA. An enhancement in SSB protein displacement has been shown previously for RecA441, RecA730, and RecA803 proteins, and similarly, this improved ability to displace SSB protein for RecA P67W protein correlates with an increased rate of association with ssDNA. As for the aforementioned mutant RecA proteins, we expect that this enhanced activity will allow RecA P67W protein to bind ssDNA naturally occurring in undamaged cells and to constitutively induce the SOS response. The DNA strand exchange activity of RecA P67W protein is also altered. Although the rate of duplex DNA uptake into joint molecules is increased compared to that of wild-type RecA protein, the resolution to the nicked circular dsDNA product is reduced. We suggest that either a limited amount of DNA strand reinvasion or a defect in DNA heteroduplex extension is responsible for the impaired recombination ability of this mutant protein.

Biochemical characterization of a mutant RecA protein altered in DNA-binding loop 1

The double substitution of Glu156 with Leu and Gly157 with Val in the Escherichia coli RecA protein results in a severely reduced level of recombination and constitutive coprotease behavior. Here we present our examination of the biochemical properties of this mutant protein, RecA N99, in an effort to understand its phenotype and the role of loop 1 (L1) in RecA function. We find that RecA N99 protein has reduced single-stranded DNA (ssDNA)-dependent ATP hydrolysis activity, which is not as sensitive to the presence of SSB protein as wild-type RecA protein. RecA N99 protein is also nearly unable to utilize duplex DNA as a polynucleotide cofactor for ATP hydrolysis, and it shows both a decreased rate of association with ssDNA and a diminished capacity to bind DNA in the secondary binding site. The mutant protein has a corresponding reduction in DNA strand exchange activity, which probably results in the decrease in recombination activity in vivo. The constitutive induction of the SOS response may be a consequence of the impaired ability to repair damaged DNA, resulting in unrepaired ssDNA which can act as a cofactor for the cleavage of LexA repressor. These findings point to an involvement of L1 in both the primary and secondary DNA binding sites of the RecA protein.

Complex formation by the human Rad51B and Rad51C DNA repair proteins and their activities in vitro

The human Rad51 protein is essential for DNA repair by homologous recombination. In addition to Rad51 protein, five paralogs have been identified: Rad51B/Rad51L1, Rad51C/Rad51L2, Rad51D/Rad51L3, XRCC2, and XRCC3. To further characterize a subset of these proteins, recombinant Rad51, Rad51B-(His)(6), and Rad51C proteins were individually expressed employing the baculovirus system, and each was purified from Sf9 insect cells. Evidence from nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid pull-down experiments demonstrates a highly stable Rad51B.Rad51C heterodimer, which interacts weakly with Rad51. Rad51B and Rad51C proteins were found to bind single- and double-stranded DNA and to preferentially bind 3'-end-tailed double-stranded DNA. The ability to bind DNA was elevated with mixed Rad51 and Rad51C, as well as with mixed Rad51B and Rad51C, compared with that of the individual protein. In addition, both Rad51B and Rad51C exhibit DNA-stimulated ATPase activity. Rad51C displays an ATP-independent apparent DNA strand exchange activity, whereas Rad51B shows no such activity; this apparent strand exchange ability results actually from a duplex DNA destabilization capability of Rad51C. By analogy to the yeast Rad55 and Rad57, our results suggest that Rad51B and Rad51C function through interactions with the human Rad51 recombinase and play a crucial role in the homologous recombinational repair pathway.

Biochemical characterization of the human RAD51 protein. III. Modulation of DNA binding by adenosine nucleotides

Adenosine nucleotides affect the ability of RecA small middle dotsingle-stranded DNA (ssDNA) nucleoprotein filaments to cooperatively assume and maintain an extended structure that facilitates DNA pairing during recombination. Here we have determined that ADP and ATP/ATPgammaS affect the DNA binding and aggregation properties of the human RecA homolog human RAD51 protein (hRAD51). These studies have revealed significant differences between hRAD51 and RecA. In the presence of ATPgammaS, RecA forms a stable complex with ssDNA, while the hRAD51 ssDNA complex is destabilized. Conversely, in the presence of ADP and ATP, the RecA ssDNA complex is unstable, while the hRAD51 ssDNA complex is stabilized. We identified two hRAD51 small middle dotssDNA binding forms by gel shift analysis, which were distinct from a well defined RecA small middle dotssDNA binding form. The available evidence suggests that a low molecular weight hRAD51 small middle dotssDNA binding form (hRAD51 small middle dotssDNA(low)) correlates with active ADP and ATP processing. A high molecular weight hRAD51 small middle dotssDNA aggregate (hRAD51 small middle dotssDNA(high)) appears to correlate with a form that fails to process ADP and ATP. Our data are consistent with the notion that hRAD51 is unable to appropriately coordinate ssDNA binding with adenosine nucleotide processing. These observations suggest that other factors may assist hRAD51 in order to mirror RecA recombinational function.

Biochemical characterization of the human RAD51 protein. I. ATP hydrolysis

The prototypical bacterial RecA protein promotes recombination/repair by catalyzing strand exchange between homologous DNAs. While the mechanism of strand exchange remains enigmatic, ATP-induced cooperativity between RecA protomers is critical for its function. A human RecA homolog, human RAD51 protein (hRAD51), facilitates eukaryotic recombination/repair, although its ability to hydrolyze ATP and/or promote strand exchange appears distinct from the bacterial RecA. We have quantitatively examined the hRAD51 ATPase. The catalytic efficiency (k(cat)/K(m)) of the hRAD51 ATPase was approximately 50-fold lower than the RecA ATPase. Altering the ratio of DNA/hRAD51 and including salts that stimulate DNA strand exchange (ammonium sulfate and spermidine) were found to affect the catalytic efficiency of hRAD51. The average site size of hRAD51 was determined to be approximately 3 nt (bp) for both single-stranded and double-stranded DNA. Importantly, hRAD51 lacks the magnitude of ATP-induced cooperativity that is a hallmark of RecA. Together, these results suggest that hRAD51 may be unable to coordinate ATP hydrolysis between neighboring protomers.

Identification and purification of two distinct complexes containing the five RAD51 paralogs

Cells defective in any of the RAD51 paralogs (RAD51B, RAD51C, RAD51D, XRCC2, and XRCC3) are sensitive to DNA cross-linking agents and to ionizing radiation. Because the paralogs are required for the assembly of DNA damage-induced RAD51 foci, and mutant cell lines are defective in homologous recombination and show genomic instability, their defect is thought to be caused by an inability to promote efficient recombinational repair. Here, we show that the five paralogs exist in two distinct complexes in human cells: one contains RAD51B, RAD51C, RAD51D, and XRCC2 (defined as BCDX2), whereas the other consists of RAD51C with XRCC3. Both protein complexes have been purified to homogeneity and their biochemical properties investigated. BCDX2 binds single-stranded DNA and single-stranded gaps in duplex DNA, in accord with the proposal that the paralogs play an early (pre-RAD51) role in recombinational repair. Moreover, BCDX2 complex binds specifically to nicks in duplex DNA. We suggest that the extreme sensitivity of paralog-defective cell lines to cross-linking agents is owing to defects in the processing of incised cross links and the consequential failure to initiate recombinational repair at these sites.

Archaeal RadA protein binds DNA as both helical filaments and octameric rings

The Escherichia coli RecA protein has been a model for understanding homologous eukaryotic recombination proteins such as Rad51. The active form of both RecA and Rad51 appear to be helical filaments polymerized on DNA, in which an unusual helical structure is induced in the DNA. Surprisingly, the human meiosis-specific homolog of RecA, Dmc1, has thus far only been observed to bind DNA as an octameric ring. Sequence analysis and biochemical studies have shown that archaeal RadA proteins are more closely related to Rad51 and Dmc1 than the bacterial RecA proteins. We find that the Sulfolobus solfataricus RadA protein binds DNA in the absence of nucleotide cofactor as an octameric ring and in the presence of ATP as a helical filament. Since it is likely that RadA is closely related to a common ancestral protein of both Rad51 and Dmc1, the two DNA-binding forms of RadA may provide insight into the divergence that has taken place between Rad51 and Dmc1.

RadA protein from Archaeoglobus fulgidus forms rings, nucleoprotein filaments and catalyses homologous recombination

Proteins that catalyse homologous recombination have been identified in all living organisms and are essential for the repair of damaged DNA as well as for the generation of genetic diversity. In bacteria homologous recombination is performed by the RecA protein, whereas in the eukarya a related protein called Rad51 is required to catalyse recombination and repair. More recently, archaeal homologues of RecA/Rad51 (RadA) have been identified and isolated. In this work we have cloned and purified the RadA protein from the hyperthermophilic, sulphate-reducing archaeon Archaeoglobus fulgidus and characterised its in vitro activities. We show that (i) RadA protein forms ring structures in solution and binds single- but not double-stranded DNA to form nucleoprotein filaments, (ii) RadA is a single-stranded DNA-dependent ATPase at elevated temperatures, and (iii) RadA catalyses efficient D-loop formation and strand exchange at temperatures of 60-70 degrees C. Finally, we have used electron microscopy to visualise RadA-mediated joint molecules, the intermediates of homologous recombination. Intriguingly, RadA shares properties of both the bacterial RecA and eukaryotic Rad51 recombinases.