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Mozzetta C, Sartorelli V, Steinkuhler C, Puri PL. HDAC inhibitors as pharmacological treatment for Duchenne muscular dystrophy: a discovery journey from bench to patients. Trends Mol Med 2024; 30:278-294. [PMID: 38408879 PMCID: PMC11095976 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2024.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
Earlier evidence that targeting the balance between histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and deacetylases (HDACs), through exposure to HDAC inhibitors (HDACis), could enhance skeletal myogenesis, prompted interest in using HDACis to promote muscle regeneration. Further identification of constitutive HDAC activation in dystrophin-deficient muscles, caused by dysregulated nitric oxide (NO) signaling, provided the rationale for HDACi-based therapeutic interventions for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). In this review, we describe the molecular, preclinical, and clinical evidence supporting the efficacy of HDACis in countering disease progression by targeting pathogenic networks of gene expression in multiple muscle-resident cell types of patients with DMD. Given that givinostat is paving the way for HDACi-based interventions in DMD, next-generation HDACis with optimized therapeutic profiles and efficacy could be also explored for synergistic combinations with other therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Mozzetta
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Pathology (IBPM), National Research Council (CNR) of Italy, Rome, Italy
| | - Vittorio Sartorelli
- Laboratory of Muscle Stem Cells and Gene Regulation, National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (NIAMS), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | - Pier Lorenzo Puri
- Development, Aging, and Regeneration Program, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA.
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2
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Genetic Analysis of HIBM Myopathy-Specific GNE V727M Hotspot Mutation Identifies a Novel COL6A3 Allied Gene Signature That Is Also Deregulated in Multiple Neuromuscular Diseases and Myopathies. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:genes14030567. [PMID: 36980840 PMCID: PMC10048522 DOI: 10.3390/genes14030567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The GNE-associated V727M mutation is one of the most prevalent ethnic founder mutations in the Asian HIBM cohort; however, its role in inducing disease phenotype remains largely elusive. In this study, the function of this hotspot mutation was profoundly investigated. For this, V727M mutation-specific altered expression profile and potential networks were explored. The relevant muscular disorder-specific in vivo studies and patient data were further analyzed, and the key altered molecular pathways were identified. Our study found that the GNEV727M mutation resulted in a deregulated lincRNA profile, the majority of which (91%) were associated with a down-regulation trend. Further, in silico analysis of associated targets showed their active role in regulating Wnt, TGF-β, and apoptotic signaling. Interestingly, COL6a3 was found as a key target of these lincRNAs. Further, GSEA analysis showed HIBM patients with variable COL6A3 transcript levels have significant alteration in many critical pathways, including epithelial-mesenchymal-transition, myogenesis, and apoptotic signaling. Interestingly, 12 of the COL6A3 coexpressed genes also showed a similar altered expression profile in HIBM. A similar altered trend in COL6A3 and coexpressed genes were found in in vivo HIBM disease models as well as in multiple other skeletal disorders. Thus, the COL6A3-specific 13 gene signature seems to be altered in multiple muscular disorders. Such deregulation could play a pivotal role in regulating many critical processes such as extracellular matrix organization, cell adhesion, and skeletal muscle development. Thus, investigating this novel COL6A3-specific 13 gene signature provides valuable information for understanding the molecular cause of HIBM and may also pave the way for better diagnosis and effective therapeutic strategies for many muscular disorders.
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3
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Dubuisson N, Versele R, Planchon C, Selvais CM, Noel L, Abou-Samra M, Davis-López de Carrizosa MA. Histological Methods to Assess Skeletal Muscle Degeneration and Regeneration in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:16080. [PMID: 36555721 PMCID: PMC9786356 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232416080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a progressive disease caused by the loss of function of the protein dystrophin. This protein contributes to the stabilisation of striated cells during contraction, as it anchors the cytoskeleton with components of the extracellular matrix through the dystrophin-associated protein complex (DAPC). Moreover, absence of the functional protein affects the expression and function of proteins within the DAPC, leading to molecular events responsible for myofibre damage, muscle weakening, disability and, eventually, premature death. Presently, there is no cure for DMD, but different treatments help manage some of the symptoms. Advances in genetic and exon-skipping therapies are the most promising intervention, the safety and efficiency of which are tested in animal models. In addition to in vivo functional tests, ex vivo molecular evaluation aids assess to what extent the therapy has contributed to the regenerative process. In this regard, the later advances in microscopy and image acquisition systems and the current expansion of antibodies for immunohistological evaluation together with the development of different spectrum fluorescent dyes have made histology a crucial tool. Nevertheless, the complexity of the molecular events that take place in dystrophic muscles, together with the rise of a multitude of markers for each of the phases of the process, makes the histological assessment a challenging task. Therefore, here, we summarise and explain the rationale behind different histological techniques used in the literature to assess degeneration and regeneration in the field of dystrophinopathies, focusing especially on those related to DMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Dubuisson
- Endocrinology, Diabetes and Nutrition Unit, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research, Medical Sector, Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Avenue Hippocrate 55, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
- Neuromuscular Reference Center, Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc (CUSL), Avenue Hippocrate 10, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Romain Versele
- Endocrinology, Diabetes and Nutrition Unit, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research, Medical Sector, Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Avenue Hippocrate 55, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Chloé Planchon
- Endocrinology, Diabetes and Nutrition Unit, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research, Medical Sector, Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Avenue Hippocrate 55, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Camille M. Selvais
- Endocrinology, Diabetes and Nutrition Unit, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research, Medical Sector, Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Avenue Hippocrate 55, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Laurence Noel
- Endocrinology, Diabetes and Nutrition Unit, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research, Medical Sector, Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Avenue Hippocrate 55, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Michel Abou-Samra
- Endocrinology, Diabetes and Nutrition Unit, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research, Medical Sector, Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Avenue Hippocrate 55, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - María A. Davis-López de Carrizosa
- Endocrinology, Diabetes and Nutrition Unit, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research, Medical Sector, Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Avenue Hippocrate 55, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Sevilla, 41012 Seville, Spain
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Rocha CT, Escolar DM. Treatment and Management of Muscular Dystrophies. Neuromuscul Disord 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-71317-7.00020-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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5
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Salvadori L, Chiappalupi S, Arato I, Mancuso F, Calvitti M, Marchetti MC, Riuzzi F, Calafiore R, Luca G, Sorci G. Sertoli Cells Improve Myogenic Differentiation, Reduce Fibrogenic Markers, and Induce Utrophin Expression in Human DMD Myoblasts. Biomolecules 2021; 11:1504. [PMID: 34680138 PMCID: PMC8533898 DOI: 10.3390/biom11101504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an X-linked disease caused by mutations in DMD gene translating in lack of functional dystrophin and resulting in susceptibility of myofibers to rupture during contraction. Inflammation and fibrosis are critical hallmarks of DMD muscles, which undergo progressive degeneration leading to loss of independent ambulation in childhood and death by early adulthood. We reported that intraperitoneal injection of microencapsulated Sertoli cells (SeC) in dystrophic mice translates into recovery of muscle morphology and performance thanks to anti-inflammatory effects and induction of the dystrophin paralogue, utrophin at the muscle level, opening new avenues in the treatment of DMD. The aim of this study is to obtain information about the direct effects of SeC on myoblasts/myotubes, as a necessary step in view of a translational application of SeC-based approaches to DMD. We show that (i) SeC-derived factors stimulate cell proliferation in the early phase of differentiation in C2C12, and human healthy and DMD myoblasts; (ii) SeC delay the expression of differentiation markers in the early phase nevertheless stimulating terminal differentiation in DMD myoblasts; (iii) SeC restrain the fibrogenic potential of fibroblasts, and inhibit myoblast-myofibroblast transdifferentiation; and, (iv) SeC provide functional replacement of dystrophin in preformed DMD myotubes regardless of the mutation by inducing heregulin β1/ErbB2/ERK1/2-dependent utrophin expression. Altogether, these results show that SeC are endowed with promyogenic and antifibrotic effects on dystrophic myoblasts, further supporting their potential use in the treatment of DMD patients. Our data also suggest that SeC-based approaches might be useful in improving the early phase of muscle regeneration, during which myoblasts have to adequately proliferate to replace the damaged muscle mass.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Differentiation/genetics
- Cell Proliferation/genetics
- Cell Transdifferentiation/genetics
- Disease Models, Animal
- Dystrophin/genetics
- Gene Expression Regulation/genetics
- Genetic Diseases, X-Linked/genetics
- Genetic Diseases, X-Linked/metabolism
- Genetic Diseases, X-Linked/pathology
- Humans
- Inflammation/genetics
- Inflammation/metabolism
- Inflammation/pathology
- Injections, Intraperitoneal
- MAP Kinase Signaling System/genetics
- Male
- Mice
- Muscle, Skeletal/metabolism
- Muscle, Skeletal/pathology
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/genetics
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/metabolism
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/pathology
- Myoblasts/metabolism
- Neuregulin-1/genetics
- Receptor, ErbB-2/genetics
- Regeneration/genetics
- Sertoli Cells/metabolism
- Sertoli Cells/pathology
- Utrophin/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Salvadori
- Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale, 28100 Novara, Italy;
- Interuniversity Institute of Myology (IIM), 06132 Perugia, Italy; (S.C.); (F.R.)
| | - Sara Chiappalupi
- Interuniversity Institute of Myology (IIM), 06132 Perugia, Italy; (S.C.); (F.R.)
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy; (I.A.); (F.M.); (M.C.); (M.C.M.); (R.C.)
- Consorzio Interuniversitario Biotecnologie (CIB), 34127 Trieste, Italy
| | - Iva Arato
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy; (I.A.); (F.M.); (M.C.); (M.C.M.); (R.C.)
| | - Francesca Mancuso
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy; (I.A.); (F.M.); (M.C.); (M.C.M.); (R.C.)
| | - Mario Calvitti
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy; (I.A.); (F.M.); (M.C.); (M.C.M.); (R.C.)
| | - Maria Cristina Marchetti
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy; (I.A.); (F.M.); (M.C.); (M.C.M.); (R.C.)
| | - Francesca Riuzzi
- Interuniversity Institute of Myology (IIM), 06132 Perugia, Italy; (S.C.); (F.R.)
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy; (I.A.); (F.M.); (M.C.); (M.C.M.); (R.C.)
- Consorzio Interuniversitario Biotecnologie (CIB), 34127 Trieste, Italy
| | - Riccardo Calafiore
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy; (I.A.); (F.M.); (M.C.); (M.C.M.); (R.C.)
- Centro Biotecnologico Internazionale di Ricerca Traslazionale ad Indirizzo Endocrino, Metabolico ed Embrio-Riproduttivo (CIRTEMER), 06132 Perugia, Italy
| | - Giovanni Luca
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy; (I.A.); (F.M.); (M.C.); (M.C.M.); (R.C.)
- Centro Biotecnologico Internazionale di Ricerca Traslazionale ad Indirizzo Endocrino, Metabolico ed Embrio-Riproduttivo (CIRTEMER), 06132 Perugia, Italy
- Centro Universitario di Ricerca sulla Genomica Funzionale (CURGeF), 06132 Perugia, Italy
| | - Guglielmo Sorci
- Interuniversity Institute of Myology (IIM), 06132 Perugia, Italy; (S.C.); (F.R.)
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy; (I.A.); (F.M.); (M.C.); (M.C.M.); (R.C.)
- Consorzio Interuniversitario Biotecnologie (CIB), 34127 Trieste, Italy
- Centro Biotecnologico Internazionale di Ricerca Traslazionale ad Indirizzo Endocrino, Metabolico ed Embrio-Riproduttivo (CIRTEMER), 06132 Perugia, Italy
- Centro Universitario di Ricerca sulla Genomica Funzionale (CURGeF), 06132 Perugia, Italy
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Systemically Administered Homing Peptide Targets Dystrophic Lesions and Delivers Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGFβ) Inhibitor to Attenuate Murine Muscular Dystrophy Pathology. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13091506. [PMID: 34575582 PMCID: PMC8471674 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13091506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Muscular dystrophy is a progressively worsening and lethal disease, where accumulation of functionality-impairing fibrosis plays a key pathogenic role. Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGFβ1) is a central signaling molecule in the development of fibrosis in muscular dystrophic humans and mice. Inhibition of TGFβ1 has proven beneficial in mouse models of muscular dystrophy, but the global strategies of TGFβ1 inhibition produce significant detrimental side effects. Here, we investigated whether murine muscular dystrophy lesion-specific inhibition of TGFβ1 signaling by the targeted delivery of therapeutic decorin (a natural TGFβ inhibitor) by a vascular homing peptide CAR (CARSKNKDC) would reduce skeletal muscle fibrosis and pathology and increase functional characteristics of skeletal muscle. We demonstrate that CAR peptide homes to dystrophic lesions with specificity in two muscular dystrophy models. Recombinant fusion protein consisting of CAR peptide and decorin homes selectively to sites of skeletal muscle damage in mdxDBA2/J and gamma-sarcoglycan deficient DBA2/J mice. This targeted delivery reduced TGFβ1 signaling as demonstrated by reduced nuclear pSMAD staining. Three weeks of targeted decorin treatment decreased both membrane permeability and fibrosis and improved skeletal muscle function in comparison to control treatments in the mdxD2 mice. These results show that selective delivery of decorin to the sites of skeletal muscle damage attenuates the progression of murine muscular dystrophy.
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7
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Haberecht-Müller S, Krüger E, Fielitz J. Out of Control: The Role of the Ubiquitin Proteasome System in Skeletal Muscle during Inflammation. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11091327. [PMID: 34572540 PMCID: PMC8468834 DOI: 10.3390/biom11091327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The majority of critically ill intensive care unit (ICU) patients with severe sepsis develop ICU-acquired weakness (ICUAW) characterized by loss of muscle mass, reduction in myofiber size and decreased muscle strength leading to persisting physical impairment. This phenotype results from a dysregulated protein homeostasis with increased protein degradation and decreased protein synthesis, eventually causing a decrease in muscle structural proteins. The ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) is the predominant protein-degrading system in muscle that is activated during diverse muscle atrophy conditions, e.g., inflammation. The specificity of UPS-mediated protein degradation is assured by E3 ubiquitin ligases, such as atrogin-1 and MuRF1, which target structural and contractile proteins, proteins involved in energy metabolism and transcription factors for UPS-dependent degradation. Although the regulation of activity and function of E3 ubiquitin ligases in inflammation-induced muscle atrophy is well perceived, the contribution of the proteasome to muscle atrophy during inflammation is still elusive. During inflammation, a shift from standard- to immunoproteasome was described; however, to which extent this contributes to muscle wasting and whether this changes targeting of specific muscular proteins is not well described. This review summarizes the function of the main proinflammatory cytokines and acute phase response proteins and their signaling pathways in inflammation-induced muscle atrophy with a focus on UPS-mediated protein degradation in muscle during sepsis. The regulation and target-specificity of the main E3 ubiquitin ligases in muscle atrophy and their mode of action on myofibrillar proteins will be reported. The function of the standard- and immunoproteasome in inflammation-induced muscle atrophy will be described and the effects of proteasome-inhibitors as treatment strategies will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Haberecht-Müller
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Medicine Greifswald, 17475 Greifswald, Germany;
| | - Elke Krüger
- Institute of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Medicine Greifswald, 17475 Greifswald, Germany;
- Correspondence: (E.K.); (J.F.)
| | - Jens Fielitz
- DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Greifswald, 17475 Greifswald, Germany
- Department of Internal Medicine B, Cardiology, University Medicine Greifswald, 17475 Greifswald, Germany
- Correspondence: (E.K.); (J.F.)
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Wharton's Jelly-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells Reduce Fibrosis in a Mouse Model of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy by Upregulating microRNA 499. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9091089. [PMID: 34572277 PMCID: PMC8469349 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9091089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of Wharton's jelly-derived mesenchymal stem cells (WJ-MSCs) in an animal model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). Mdx mice (3-5 months old) were administered five different doses of WJ-MSCs through their tail veins. A week after injection, grip strength measurements, creatine kinase (CK) assays, immunohistochemistry, and western blots were performed for comparison between healthy mice, mdx control mice, and WJ-MSC-injected mdx mice. WJ-MSCs exerted dose-dependent multisystem therapeutic effects in mdx mice, by decreasing CK, recovering normal behavior, regenerating muscle, and reducing apoptosis and fibrosis in skeletal muscle. We also confirmed that miR-499-5p is significantly downregulated in mdx mice, and that intravenous injection of WJ-MSCs enhanced its expression, leading to anti-fibrotic effects via targeting TGFβR 1 and 3. Thus, WJ-MSCs may represent novel allogeneic "off-the-shelf" cellular products for the treatment of DMD and possibly other muscle disorders.
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9
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The linkage between inflammation and fibrosis in muscular dystrophies: The axis autotaxin-lysophosphatidic acid as a new therapeutic target? J Cell Commun Signal 2021; 15:317-334. [PMID: 33689121 PMCID: PMC8222483 DOI: 10.1007/s12079-021-00610-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Muscular dystrophies (MDs) are a diverse group of severe disorders characterized by increased skeletal muscle feebleness. In many cases, respiratory and cardiac muscles are also compromised. Skeletal muscle inflammation and fibrosis are hallmarks of several skeletal muscle diseases, including MDs. Until now, several keys signaling pathways and factors that regulate inflammation and fibrosis have been identified. However, no curative treatments are available. Therefore, it is necessary to find new therapeutic targets to fight these diseases and improve muscle performance. Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is an active glycerophospholipid mainly synthesized by the secreted enzyme autotaxin (ATX), which activates six different G protein-coupled receptors named LPA1 to LPA6 (LPARs). In conjunction, they are part of the ATX/LPA/LPARs axis, involved in the inflammatory and fibrotic response in several organs-tissues. This review recapitulates the most relevant aspects of inflammation and fibrosis in MDs. It analyzes experimental evidence of the effects of the ATX/LPA/LPARs axis on inflammatory and fibrotic responses. Finally, we speculate about its potential role as a new therapeutic pharmacological target to treat these diseases.
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10
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Abstract
Muscle cell fusion is a multistep process involving cell migration, adhesion, membrane remodeling and actin-nucleation pathways to generate multinucleated myotubes. However, molecular brakes restraining cell-cell fusion events have remained elusive. Here we show that transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) pathway is active in adult muscle cells throughout fusion. We find TGFβ signaling reduces cell fusion, regardless of the cells' ability to move and establish cell-cell contacts. In contrast, inhibition of TGFβ signaling enhances cell fusion and promotes branching between myotubes in mouse and human. Exogenous addition of TGFβ protein in vivo during muscle regeneration results in a loss of muscle function while inhibition of TGFβR2 induces the formation of giant myofibers. Transcriptome analyses and functional assays reveal that TGFβ controls the expression of actin-related genes to reduce cell spreading. TGFβ signaling is therefore requisite to limit mammalian myoblast fusion, determining myonuclei numbers and myofiber size.
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Frohlich J, Vinciguerra M. Candidate rejuvenating factor GDF11 and tissue fibrosis: friend or foe? GeroScience 2020; 42:1475-1498. [PMID: 33025411 PMCID: PMC7732895 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-020-00279-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Growth differentiation factor 11 (GDF11 or bone morphogenetic protein 11, BMP11) belongs to the transforming growth factor-β superfamily and is closely related to other family member-myostatin (also known as GDF8). GDF11 was firstly identified in 2004 due to its ability to rejuvenate the function of multiple organs in old mice. However, in the past few years, the heralded rejuvenating effects of GDF11 have been seriously questioned by many studies that do not support the idea that restoring levels of GDF11 in aging improves overall organ structure and function. Moreover, with increasing controversies, several other studies described the involvement of GDF11 in fibrotic processes in various organ setups. This review paper focuses on the GDF11 and its pro- or anti-fibrotic actions in major organs and tissues, with the goal to summarize our knowledge on its emerging role in regulating the progression of fibrosis in different pathological conditions, and to guide upcoming research efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Frohlich
- International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital, Pekarska 53, 656 91, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Manlio Vinciguerra
- International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital, Pekarska 53, 656 91, Brno, Czech Republic.
- Institute for Liver and Digestive Health, Division of Medicine, University College London (UCL), London, UK.
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12
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Corpuz AD, Ramos JW, Matter ML. PTRH2: an adhesion regulated molecular switch at the nexus of life, death, and differentiation. Cell Death Discov 2020; 6:124. [PMID: 33298880 PMCID: PMC7661711 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-020-00357-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Peptidyl-tRNA hydrolase 2 (PTRH2; Bit-1; Bit1) is an underappreciated regulator of adhesion signals and Bcl2 expression. Its key roles in muscle differentiation and integrin-mediated signaling are central to the pathology of a recently identified patient syndrome caused by a cluster of Ptrh2 gene mutations. These loss-of-function mutations were identified in patients presenting with severe deleterious phenotypes of the skeletal muscle, endocrine, and nervous systems resulting in a syndrome called Infantile-onset Multisystem Nervous, Endocrine, and Pancreatic Disease (IMNEPD). In contrast, in cancer PTRH2 is a potential oncogene that promotes malignancy and metastasis. PTRH2 modulates PI3K/AKT and ERK signaling in addition to Bcl2 expression and thereby regulates key cellular processes in response to adhesion including cell survival, growth, and differentiation. In this Review, we discuss the state of the science on this important cell survival, anoikis and differentiation regulator, and opportunities for further investigation and translation. We begin with a brief overview of the structure, regulation, and subcellular localization of PTRH2. We discuss the cluster of gene mutations thus far identified which cause developmental delays and multisystem disease. We then discuss the role of PTRH2 and adhesion in breast, lung, and esophageal cancers focusing on signaling pathways involved in cell survival, cell growth, and cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austin D Corpuz
- Cancer Biology Program, University of Hawaii Cancer Center, Honolulu, 96813, HI, USA.,Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, John A. Burns School of Medicine University of Hawaii at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA
| | - Joe W Ramos
- Cancer Biology Program, University of Hawaii Cancer Center, Honolulu, 96813, HI, USA
| | - Michelle L Matter
- Cancer Biology Program, University of Hawaii Cancer Center, Honolulu, 96813, HI, USA.
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13
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Gieron-Korthals M, Fernandez R. New Developments in Diagnosis, Treatment, and Management of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. Adv Pediatr 2020; 67:183-196. [PMID: 32591061 DOI: 10.1016/j.yapd.2020.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Gieron-Korthals
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Child Neurology, University of South Florida, Morsani College of Medicine, 17 Davis Boulevard, Suite 200, Tampa, FL 33606, USA.
| | - Raymond Fernandez
- Pediatric Neurology Associates, 4150 North Armenia Avenue, Suite 103, Tampa, FL 33607, USA; Muscular Dystrophy Association Care Center, Shriners Hospital for Children, Tampa, FL, USA
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Caputo L, Granados A, Lenzi J, Rosa A, Ait-Si-Ali S, Puri PL, Albini S. Acute conversion of patient-derived Duchenne muscular dystrophy iPSC into myotubes reveals constitutive and inducible over-activation of TGFβ-dependent pro-fibrotic signaling. Skelet Muscle 2020; 10:13. [PMID: 32359374 PMCID: PMC7195779 DOI: 10.1186/s13395-020-00224-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2019] [Accepted: 02/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), DYSTROPHIN deficiency exposes myofibers to repeated cycles of contraction/degeneration, ultimately leading to muscle loss and replacement by fibrotic tissue. DMD pathology is typically exacerbated by excessive secretion of TGFβ and consequent accumulation of pro-fibrotic components of the extra-cellular matrix (ECM), which in turn impairs compensatory regeneration and complicates the efficacy of therapeutic strategies. It is currently unclear whether DMD skeletal muscle fibers directly contribute to excessive activation of TGFβ. Development of skeletal myofibers from DMD patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), as an "in dish" model of disease, can be exploited to determine the myofiber contribution to pathogenic TGFβ signaling in DMD and might provide a screening platform for the identification of anti-fibrotic interventions in DMD. METHODS We describe a rapid and efficient method for the generation of contractile human skeletal muscle cells from DMD patient-derived hiPSC, based on the inducible expression of MyoD and BAF60C (encoded by SMARCD3 gene), using an enhanced version of piggyBac (epB) transposone vectors. DMD iPSC-derived myotubes were tested as an "in dish" disease model and exposed to environmental and mechanical cues that recapitulate salient pathological features of DMD. RESULTS We show that DMD iPSC-derived myotubes exhibit a constitutive activation of TGFβ-SMAD2/3 signaling. High-content screening (HCS)-based quantification of nuclear phosphorylated SMAD2/3 signal revealed that DMD iPSC-derived myotubes also exhibit increased activation of the TGFβ-SMAD2/3 signaling following exposure to either recombinant TGFβ or electrical pacing-induced contraction. CONCLUSIONS Acute conversion of DMD patient-derived iPSC into skeletal muscles, by the ectopic expression of MyoD and BAF60C, provides a rapid and reliable protocol for an "in dish" DMD model that recapitulates key pathogenic features of disease pathology, such as the constitutive activation of the TGFβ/SMAD signaling as well as the deregulated response to pathogenic stimuli, e.g., ECM-derived signals or mechanical cues. Thus, this model is suitable for the identification of new therapeutic targets in DMD patient-specific muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Caputo
- Development, Aging and Regeneration Program, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Alice Granados
- Epigenetics and Cell Fate (EDC), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Paris Diderot, Université de Paris, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Jessica Lenzi
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology Charles Darwin, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le Aldo Moro 5, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Rosa
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology Charles Darwin, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le Aldo Moro 5, Rome, Italy.,Center for Life Nano Science, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Viale Regina Elena 291, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Slimane Ait-Si-Ali
- Epigenetics and Cell Fate (EDC), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Paris Diderot, Université de Paris, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Pier Lorenzo Puri
- Development, Aging and Regeneration Program, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA.
| | - Sonia Albini
- Epigenetics and Cell Fate (EDC), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Paris Diderot, Université de Paris, F-75013, Paris, France. .,Genethon, 1bis, Rue de l'Internationale, 91000, EVRY, France.
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15
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Contreras O, Soliman H, Theret M, Rossi FMV, Brandan E. TGF-β-driven downregulation of the Wnt/β-Catenin transcription factor TCF7L2/TCF4 in PDGFRα+ fibroblasts. J Cell Sci 2020; 133:jcs.242297. [DOI: 10.1242/jcs.242297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent progenitors essential for organogenesis, tissue homeostasis, regeneration, and scar formation. Tissue injury upregulates TGF-β signaling, which modulates myofibroblast fate, extracellular matrix remodeling, and fibrosis. However, the molecular determinants of MSCs differentiation and survival remain poorly understood. The canonical Wnt Tcf/Lef transcription factors regulate development and stemness, but the mechanisms by which injury-induced cues modulate their expression remain underexplored. Here, we studied the cell-specific gene expression of Tcf/Lef and, more specifically, we investigated whether damage-induced TGF-β impairs the expression and function of TCF7L2, using several models of MSCs, including skeletal muscle fibro-adipogenic progenitors. We show that Tcf/Lefs are differentially expressed and that TGF-β reduces the expression of TCF7L2 in MSCs but not in myoblasts. We also found that the ubiquitin-proteasome system regulates TCF7L2 proteostasis and participates in TGF-β-mediated TCF7L2 protein downregulation. Finally, we show that TGF-β requires HDACs activity to repress the expression of TCF7L2. Thus, our work found a novel interplay between TGF-β and Wnt canonical signaling cascades in PDGFRα+ fibroblasts and suggests that this mechanism could be targeted in tissue repair and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osvaldo Contreras
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular and Center for Aging and Regeneration (CARE-ChileUC), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, 8331150 Santiago, Chile
- Biomedical Research Centre, Department of Medical Genetics and School of Biomedical Engineering, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z3 Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Present address: Developmental and Stem Cell Biology Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, Darlinghurst, NSW, 2010, Australia
| | - Hesham Soliman
- Biomedical Research Centre, Department of Medical Genetics and School of Biomedical Engineering, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z3 Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Minia University, 61519 Minia, Egypt
| | - Marine Theret
- Biomedical Research Centre, Department of Medical Genetics and School of Biomedical Engineering, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z3 Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Fabio M. V. Rossi
- Biomedical Research Centre, Department of Medical Genetics and School of Biomedical Engineering, University of British Columbia, V6T 1Z3 Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Enrique Brandan
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular and Center for Aging and Regeneration (CARE-ChileUC), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, 8331150 Santiago, Chile
- Fundación Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile
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16
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Henríquez-Olguín C, Boronat S, Cabello-Verrugio C, Jaimovich E, Hidalgo E, Jensen TE. The Emerging Roles of Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Oxidase 2 in Skeletal Muscle Redox Signaling and Metabolism. Antioxid Redox Signal 2019; 31:1371-1410. [PMID: 31588777 PMCID: PMC6859696 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2018.7678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Significance: Skeletal muscle is a crucial tissue to whole-body locomotion and metabolic health. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have emerged as intracellular messengers participating in both physiological and pathological adaptations in skeletal muscle. A complex interplay between ROS-producing enzymes and antioxidant networks exists in different subcellular compartments of mature skeletal muscle. Recent evidence suggests that nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidases (NOXs) are a major source of contraction- and insulin-stimulated oxidants production, but they may paradoxically also contribute to muscle insulin resistance and atrophy. Recent Advances: Pharmacological and molecular biological tools, including redox-sensitive probes and transgenic mouse models, have generated novel insights into compartmentalized redox signaling and suggested that NOX2 contributes to redox control of skeletal muscle metabolism. Critical Issues: Major outstanding questions in skeletal muscle include where NOX2 activation occurs under different conditions in health and disease, how NOX2 activation is regulated, how superoxide/hydrogen peroxide generated by NOX2 reaches the cytosol, what the signaling mediators are downstream of NOX2, and the role of NOX2 for different physiological and pathophysiological processes. Future Directions: Future research should utilize and expand the current redox-signaling toolbox to clarify the NOX2-dependent mechanisms in skeletal muscle and determine whether the proposed functions of NOX2 in cells and animal models are conserved into humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Henríquez-Olguín
- Section of Molecular Physiology, Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS), Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Muscle Cell Physiology Laboratory, Center for Exercise, Metabolism, and Cancer, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Susanna Boronat
- Oxidative Stress and Cell Cycle Group, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Claudio Cabello-Verrugio
- Laboratory of Muscle Pathology, Fragility and Aging, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile.,Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago, Chile.,Center for the Development of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (CEDENNA), Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Enrique Jaimovich
- Muscle Cell Physiology Laboratory, Center for Exercise, Metabolism, and Cancer, Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Elena Hidalgo
- Oxidative Stress and Cell Cycle Group, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Thomas E Jensen
- Section of Molecular Physiology, Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS), Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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17
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Role of hypoxia in skeletal muscle fibrosis: Synergism between hypoxia and TGF-β signaling upregulates CCN2/CTGF expression specifically in muscle fibers. Matrix Biol 2019; 87:48-65. [PMID: 31669521 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2019.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Several skeletal muscle diseases are characterized by fibrosis, the excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix. Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and connective tissue growth factor (CCN2/CTGF) are two profibrotic factors augmented in fibrotic skeletal muscle, together with signs of reduced vasculature that implies a decrease in oxygen supply. We observed that fibrotic muscles are characterized by the presence of positive nuclei for hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), a key mediator of the hypoxia response. However, it is not clear how a hypoxic environment could contribute to the fibrotic phenotype in skeletal muscle. We evaluated the role of hypoxia and TGF-β on CCN2 expression in vitro. Fibroblasts, myoblasts and differentiated myotubes were incubated with TGF-β1 under hypoxic conditions. Hypoxia and TGF-β1 induced CCN2 expression synergistically in myotubes but not in fibroblasts or undifferentiated muscle progenitors. This induction requires HIF-1α and the Smad-independent TGF-β signaling pathway. We performed in vivo experiments using pharmacological stabilization of HIF-1α or hypoxia-induced via hindlimb ischemia together with intramuscular injections of TGF-β1, and we found increased CCN2 expression. These observations suggest that hypoxic signaling together with TGF-β signaling, which are both characteristics of a fibrotic skeletal muscle environment, induce the expression of CCN2 in skeletal muscle fibers and myotubes.
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18
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Contreras O, Cruz-Soca M, Theret M, Soliman H, Tung LW, Groppa E, Rossi FM, Brandan E. The cross-talk between TGF-β and PDGFRα signaling pathways regulates stromal fibro/adipogenic progenitors’ fate. J Cell Sci 2019; 132:jcs.232157. [DOI: 10.1242/jcs.232157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibro/adipogenic progenitors (FAPs) are tissue-resident mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) required for proper skeletal muscle development, regeneration, and maintenance. However, FAPs are also responsible for fibro-fatty scar deposition following chronic damage. We aimed to study a functional cross-talk between TGF-β and PDGFRα signaling pathways in FAPs’ fate. Here, we show that the number of FAPs correlates with TGF-β levels and with extracellular matrix deposition during regeneration and repair. Interestingly, the expression of PDGFRα changed dynamically in the stromal/fibroblast lineage after injury. Furthermore, PDGFRα-dependent immediate early gene expression changed during regeneration and repair. We also found that TGF-β signaling reduces PDGFRα expression in FAPs, mouse dermal fibroblasts, and in two related mesenchymal/fibroblast cell lines. Moreover, TGF-β promotes myofibroblast differentiation of FAPs but inhibits their adipogenicity. Accordingly, TGF-β impairs the expression of PDGFRα-dependent immediate early genes in a TGF-BR1-dependent manner. Finally, pharmacological inhibition of PDGFRα activity with AG1296 impaired TGF-β-induced extracellular matrix remodeling, Smad2 signaling, myofibroblast differentiation, and migration of MSCs. Thus, our work establishes a functional cross-talk between TGF-β and PDGFRα signaling pathways that is involved in regulating the biology of FAPs/MSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osvaldo Contreras
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular and Center for Aging and Regeneration (CARE-ChileUC), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Biomedical Research Centre, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Meilyn Cruz-Soca
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular and Center for Aging and Regeneration (CARE-ChileUC), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Marine Theret
- Biomedical Research Centre, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Hesham Soliman
- Biomedical Research Centre, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Minia University, Minia, Egypt
| | - Lin Wei Tung
- Biomedical Research Centre, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Elena Groppa
- Biomedical Research Centre, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Fabio M. Rossi
- Biomedical Research Centre, Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Enrique Brandan
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular and Center for Aging and Regeneration (CARE-ChileUC), Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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19
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Nintedanib decreases muscle fibrosis and improves muscle function in a murine model of dystrophinopathy. Cell Death Dis 2018; 9:776. [PMID: 29991677 PMCID: PMC6039566 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-018-0792-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2017] [Revised: 05/24/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Duchenne muscle dystrophy (DMD) is a genetic disorder characterized by progressive skeletal muscle weakness. Dystrophin deficiency induces instability of the sarcolemma during muscle contraction that leads to muscle necrosis and replacement of muscle by fibro-adipose tissue. Several therapies have been developed to counteract the fibrotic process. We report the effects of nintedanib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, in the mdx murine model of DMD. Nintedanib reduced proliferation and migration of human fibroblasts in vitro and decreased the expression of fibrotic genes such as COL1A1, COL3A1, FN1, TGFB1, and PDGFA. We treated seven mdx mice with 60 mg/kg/day nintedanib for 1 month. Electrophysiological studies showed an increase in the amplitude of the motor action potentials and an improvement of the morphology of motor unit potentials in the animals treated. Histological studies demonstrated a significant reduction of the fibrotic areas present in the skeletal muscles. Analysis of mRNA expression from muscles of treated mice showed a reduction in Col1a1, Col3a1, Tgfb1, and Pdgfa. Western blot showed a reduction in the expression of collagen I in skeletal muscles. In conclusion, nintedanib reduced the fibrotic process in a murine model of dystrophinopathy after 1 month of treatment, suggesting its potential use as a therapeutic drug in DMD patients.
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20
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TGF-β and CTGF are Mitogenic Output Mediators of Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling in Desmoid Fibromatosis. Appl Immunohistochem Mol Morphol 2018; 25:559-565. [PMID: 26894649 DOI: 10.1097/pai.0000000000000340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Desmoid fibromatosis is a locally aggressive clonal fibroblastic proliferation with high recurrence rates and no metastatic potential. Implicated molecular aberrations occur within the Wnt/β-catenin pathway (APC and β-catenin gene mutations). Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) are profibrotic growth factors, downstream from nuclear translocation of β-catenin, that lead to increased fibrogenesis. CTGF (a downstream effector of TGF-β) is a matricellular protein that modulates the activity of growth factors, adhesion molecules, integrins, and extracellular matrix thus playing a central role in tissue remodeling and fibrosis. Recently there has been growing interest in use of extracellular matrix inhibitors for treatment of various fibrogenic diseases. Desmoid fibromatosis samples (n=15) were evaluated for expression of β-catenin, TGF-β, and CTGF using immunohistochemistry on formalin paraffin-embedded material. A control group comprising scar tissue and adjacent normal skin (n=10) were simultaneously immunostained with above mentioned markers. Real-time polymerase chain reaction was performed on frozen specimens of desmoid fibromatosis (n=6) and normal skin (n=2). All 15 desmoid tumors were positive for β-catenin (surrogate marker of Wnt/β-catenin pathway dysregulation) which was negative in control normal skin and scar samples. TGF-β and CTGF were negative in 9 of 10 normal skin controls. TGF-β and CTGF were positive in all cases of scar tissue. All 15 cases of desmoid tumors were positive for TGF-β and CTGF. The real-time polymerase chain reaction showed higher expression levels of TGF-β and CTGF in desmoid fibromatosis compared with normal skin. The high constitutive expression of β-catenin downstream effectors; TGF-β, CTGF has the potential for enabling targeted therapy.
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21
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Cordova G, Negroni E, Cabello-Verrugio C, Mouly V, Trollet C. Combined Therapies for Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy to Optimize Treatment Efficacy. Front Genet 2018; 9:114. [PMID: 29692797 PMCID: PMC5902687 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2018.00114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Duchene Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) is the most frequent muscular dystrophy and one of the most severe due to the absence of the dystrophin protein. Typical pathological features include muscle weakness, muscle wasting, degeneration, and inflammation. At advanced stages DMD muscles present exacerbated extracellular matrix and fat accumulation. Recent progress in therapeutic approaches has allowed new strategies to be investigated, including pharmacological, gene-based and cell-based therapies. Gene and cell-based therapies are still limited by poor targeting and low efficiency in fibrotic dystrophic muscle, therefore it is increasingly evident that future treatments will have to include “combined therapies” to reach maximal efficiency. The scope of this mini-review is to provide an overview of the current literature on such combined therapies for DMD. By “combined therapies” we mean those that include both a therapy to correct the genetic defect and an additional one to address one of the secondary pathological features of the disease. In this mini-review, we will not provide a comprehensive view of the literature on therapies for DMD, since many such reviews already exist, but we will focus on the characteristics, efficiency, and potential of such combined therapeutic strategies that have been described so far for DMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalo Cordova
- Sorbonne Université, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Association Institut de Myologie, Centre de Recherche en Myologie, UMRS974, Paris, France
| | - Elisa Negroni
- Sorbonne Université, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Association Institut de Myologie, Centre de Recherche en Myologie, UMRS974, Paris, France
| | - Claudio Cabello-Verrugio
- Laboratorio de Patologías Musculares, Fragilidad y Envejecimiento, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile.,Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago, Chile
| | - Vincent Mouly
- Sorbonne Université, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Association Institut de Myologie, Centre de Recherche en Myologie, UMRS974, Paris, France
| | - Capucine Trollet
- Sorbonne Université, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Association Institut de Myologie, Centre de Recherche en Myologie, UMRS974, Paris, France
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22
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Bersini S, Gilardi M, Mora M, Krol S, Arrigoni C, Candrian C, Zanotti S, Moretti M. Tackling muscle fibrosis: From molecular mechanisms to next generation engineered models to predict drug delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2018. [PMID: 29518415 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2018.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Muscle fibrosis represents the end stage consequence of different diseases, among which muscular dystrophies, leading to severe impairment of muscle functions. Muscle fibrosis involves the production of several growth factors, cytokines and proteolytic enzymes and is strictly associated to inflammatory processes. Moreover, fibrosis causes profound changes in tissue properties, including increased stiffness and density, lower pH and oxygenation. Up to now, there is no therapeutic approach able to counteract the fibrotic process and treatments directed against muscle pathologies are severely impaired by the harsh conditions of the fibrotic environment. The design of new therapeutics thus need innovative tools mimicking the obstacles posed by the fibrotic environment to their delivery. This review will critically discuss the role of in vivo and 3D in vitro models in this context and the characteristics that an ideal model should possess to help the translation from bench to bedside of new candidate anti-fibrotic agents.
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Li EW, McKee-Muir OC, Gilbert PM. Cellular Biomechanics in Skeletal Muscle Regeneration. Curr Top Dev Biol 2018; 126:125-176. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2017.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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24
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Kim J, Lee J. Role of transforming growth factor-β in muscle damage and regeneration: focused on eccentric muscle contraction. J Exerc Rehabil 2017; 13:621-626. [PMID: 29326892 PMCID: PMC5747195 DOI: 10.12965/jer.1735072.536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
High-intensity eccentric muscle contraction induces muscle damage. Damaged muscles recover through different processes, including degeneration, inflammation, regeneration, and fibrosis; some of these processes are mediated through the actions of cytokines. The transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) is one such cytokine involved in muscle recovery and repair. In this regard, TGF-β regulates the skeletal muscle inflammatory response, inhibits muscle regeneration, regulates extracellular matrix remodeling, and promotes fibrosis. Although some studies have suggested that inhibition of TGF-β after muscle damage promotes muscle regeneration and recovery, other studies have noted that TGF-β inhibition actually reduces muscle strength because it leads to incomplete muscle regeneration. Despite the importance of TGF-β in the repair of damaged muscles, most studies have focused on examining its role in muscle diseases such as chronic inflammatory diseases or Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy. Here, we have reviewed the existing literature for examining the role of TGF-β in muscle damage and regeneration after eccentric muscle contraction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jooyoung Kim
- Sport, Health and Rehabilitation Major, College of Physical Education, Kookmin University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Joohyung Lee
- Sport, Health and Rehabilitation Major, College of Physical Education, Kookmin University, Seoul, Korea
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25
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Acuña MJ, Salas D, Córdova-Casanova A, Cruz-Soca M, Céspedes C, Vio CP, Brandan E. Blockade of Bradykinin receptors worsens the dystrophic phenotype of mdx mice: differential effects for B1 and B2 receptors. J Cell Commun Signal 2017; 12:589-601. [PMID: 29250740 DOI: 10.1007/s12079-017-0439-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The Kallikrein Kinin System (KKS) is a vasoactive peptide system with known functions in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis, renal function and blood pressure. The main effector peptide of KKS is Bradykinin (BK). This ligand has two receptors: a constitutive B2 receptor (B2R), which has been suggested to have anti-fibrotic effects in renal and cardiac models of fibrosis; and the inducible B1 receptor (B1R), whose expression is induced by damage and inflammation. Inflammation and fibrosis are hallmarks of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), therefore we hypothesized that the KKS may play a role in this disease. To evaluate this hypothesis we used the mdx mouse a model for DMD. We blocked the endogenous activity of the KKS by treating mdx mice with B2R antagonist (HOE-140) or B1R antagonist (DesArgLeu8BK (DALBK)) for four weeks. Both antagonists increased damage, fibrosis, TGF-β and Smad-dependent signaling, CTGF/CCN-2 levels as well as the number of CD68 positive inflammatory cells. B2R blockade also reduced isolated muscle contraction force. These results indicate that the endogenous KKS has a protective role in the dystrophic muscle. The KKS may be a new target for future therapies to reduce inflammation and fibrosis in dystrophic muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- María José Acuña
- Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración, CARE Chile UC y Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Centro de Biología y Química Aplicada (CIBQA), Universidad Bernardo O Higgins, Santiago, Chile
| | - Daniela Salas
- Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración, CARE Chile UC y Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Adriana Córdova-Casanova
- Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración, CARE Chile UC y Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Meilyn Cruz-Soca
- Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración, CARE Chile UC y Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carlos Céspedes
- Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración, CARE Chile UC y Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carlos P Vio
- Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración, CARE Chile UC y Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile. .,Centro de Excelencia en Biomedicina de Magallanes (CEBIMA), Universidad de Magallanes, Punta Arenas, Chile. .,Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Libertador Bernardo O'Higgins 340, 8331150, Santiago, Chile.
| | - Enrique Brandan
- Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración, CARE Chile UC y Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile. .,Centro de Excelencia en Biomedicina de Magallanes (CEBIMA), Universidad de Magallanes, Punta Arenas, Chile. .,Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Libertador Bernardo O'Higgins 340, 8331150, Santiago, Chile.
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Ábrigo J, Campos F, Simon F, Riedel C, Cabrera D, Vilos C, Cabello-Verrugio C. TGF-β requires the activation of canonical and non-canonical signalling pathways to induce skeletal muscle atrophy. Biol Chem 2017; 399:253-264. [DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2017-0217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2017] [Accepted: 11/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The transforming growth factor type-beta (TGF-β) induces skeletal muscle atrophy characterised by a decrease in the fibre’s diameter and levels of myosin heavy chain (MHC), also as an increase of MuRF-1 expression. In addition, TGF-β induces muscle atrophy by a mechanism dependent on reactive oxygen species (ROS). TGF-β signals by activating both canonical Smad-dependent, and non-canonical signalling pathways such as ERK1/2, JNK1/2, and p38 MAPKs. However, the participation of canonical and non-canonical signalling pathways in the TGF-β atrophic effect on skeletal muscle is unknown. We evaluate the impact of Smad and MAPK signalling pathways on the TGF-β-induced atrophic effect in C2C12 myotubes. The results indicate that TGF-β activates Smad2/3, ERK1/2 and JNK1/2, but not p38 in myotubes. The pharmacological inhibition of Smad3, ERK1/2 and JNK1/2 activation completely abolished the atrophic effect of TGF-β. Finally, the inhibition of these canonical and non-canonical pathways did not decrease the ROS increment, while the inhibition of ROS production entirely abolished the phosphorylation of Smad3, ERK1/2 and JNK1/2. These results suggest that TGF-β requires Smad3, ERK1/2 and JNK1/2 activation to produce skeletal muscle atrophy. Moreover, the induction of ROS by TGF-β is an upstream event to canonical and non-canonical pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Ábrigo
- Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas , Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas and Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Andres Bello , Avenida República 239 , Santiago 8370146 , Chile
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy , 8331150 Santiago , Chile
| | - Fabian Campos
- Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas , Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas and Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Andres Bello , Avenida República 239 , Santiago 8370146 , Chile
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy , 8331150 Santiago , Chile
| | - Felipe Simon
- Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas , Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas and Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Andres Bello , Avenida República 239 , Santiago 8370146 , Chile
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy , 8331150 Santiago , Chile
| | - Claudia Riedel
- Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas , Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas and Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Andres Bello , Avenida República 239 , Santiago 8370146 , Chile
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy , 8331150 Santiago , Chile
| | - Daniel Cabrera
- Universidad Bernardo O Higgins, Facultad de Salud , Departamento de Ciencias Químicas y Biológicas , 8370993 Santiago , Chile
- Departamento de Gastroenterología, Facultad de Medicina , Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile , 8331150 Santiago , Chile
| | - Cristian Vilos
- Laboratory of Nanomedicine and Targeted Delivery, Center for Integrative Medicine and Innovative Science, Faculty of Medicine, and Center for Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences , Universidad Andres Bello , 8370146 Santiago , Chile
- Center for the Development of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (CEDENNA) , Universidad de Santiago de Chile , 9170022 Santiago , Chile
| | - Claudio Cabello-Verrugio
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy , 8331150 Santiago , Chile
- Laboratory of Muscle Pathology, Fragility and Aging , Departmento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas and Facultad de Medicina , Universidad Andres Bello , Avenida República 239 , Santiago 8370146 , Chile
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27
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Morales MG, Acuña MJ, Cabrera D, Goldschmeding R, Brandan E. The pro-fibrotic connective tissue growth factor (CTGF/CCN2) correlates with the number of necrotic-regenerative foci in dystrophic muscle. J Cell Commun Signal 2017; 12:413-421. [PMID: 28887614 DOI: 10.1007/s12079-017-0409-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF/CCN2) has strong inflammatory and profibrotic activities. Its expression is enhanced in skeletal muscular dystrophies such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), a myopathy characterized by exacerbated inflammation and fibrosis. In dystrophic tissue, necrotic-regenerative foci, myofibroblasts, newly-regenerated muscle fibers and necrosis all occur simultaneously. To determine if CCN2 is involved in the appearance of the foci, we studied their presence and characteristics in mdx mice (DMD mouse model) compared to mdx mice hemizygous for CCN2 (mdx-Ccn2+/-). We used laser capture microdissection followed by gene expression and immunofluorescence analyses to investigate fibrotic, inflammation and regeneration markers in damaged and non-damaged areas in mdx and mdx-Ccn2+/- skeletal muscle. Mdx mice foci express elevated mRNAs levels of transforming growth factor type beta, collagen, fibronectin, the myofribroblast marker α-SMA, and the myogenic transcription factor myogenin. Mdx foci also show elevated levels of MCP-1 and CD-68 positive cells, indicating that CCN2 could be inducing an inflammatory response. We found a significant reduction in the number of foci in mdx-Ccn2+/- mice muscle. Fibrotic and inflammatory markers were also decreased in these foci. We did not observe any difference in Pax7 mRNA levels, a marker for satellite cells, in mdx mice compared to mdx-Ccn2+/- mice. Thus, CCN2 appears to be involved in the fibrotic response as well as in the inflammatory response in the dystrophic skeletal muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Gabriela Morales
- Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración, CARE Chile UC y Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - María José Acuña
- Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración, CARE Chile UC y Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Daniel Cabrera
- Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración, CARE Chile UC y Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Departamento de Ciencias Químicas y Biológicas, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Bernardo O'Higgins, Santiago, Chile
| | - Roel Goldschmeding
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Enrique Brandan
- Centro de Envejecimiento y Regeneración, CARE Chile UC y Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.
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28
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Walton KL, Johnson KE, Harrison CA. Targeting TGF-β Mediated SMAD Signaling for the Prevention of Fibrosis. Front Pharmacol 2017; 8:461. [PMID: 28769795 PMCID: PMC5509761 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 357] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Fibrosis occurs when there is an imbalance in extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition and degradation. Excessive ECM deposition results in scarring and thickening of the affected tissue, and interferes with tissue and organ homeostasis – mimicking an exaggerated “wound healing” response. Many transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) ligands are potent drivers of ECM deposition, and additionally, have a natural affinity for the ECM, creating a concentrated pool of pro-fibrotic factors at the site of injury. Consequently, TGF-β ligands are upregulated in many human fibrotic conditions and, as such, are attractive targets for fibrosis therapy. Here, we will discuss the contribution of TGF-β proteins in the pathogenesis of fibrosis, and promising anti-fibrotic approaches that target TGF-β ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly L Walton
- Growth Factor Therapeutics Laboratory, Department of Physiology, Monash University, ClaytonVIC, Australia
| | - Katharine E Johnson
- Growth Factor Therapeutics Laboratory, Department of Physiology, Monash University, ClaytonVIC, Australia
| | - Craig A Harrison
- Growth Factor Therapeutics Laboratory, Department of Physiology, Monash University, ClaytonVIC, Australia
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29
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE In sepsis, the disease course of critically ill patients is often complicated by muscle failure leading to ICU-acquired weakness. The myokine transforming growth factor-β1 increases during inflammation and mediates muscle atrophy in vivo. We observed that the transforming growth factor-β1 inhibitor, secreted frizzled-related protein 2, was down-regulated in skeletal muscle of ICU-acquired weakness patients. We hypothesized that secreted frizzled-related protein 2 reduction enhances transforming growth factor-β1-mediated effects and investigated the interrelationship between transforming growth factor-β1 and secreted frizzled-related protein 2 in inflammation-induced atrophy. DESIGN Observational study and prospective animal trial. SETTING Two ICUs and research laboratory. PATIENTS/SUBJECTS Twenty-six critically ill patients with Sequential Organ Failure Assessment scores greater than or equal to 8 underwent a skeletal muscle biopsy from the vastus lateralis at median day 5 in ICU. Four patients undergoing elective orthopedic surgery served as controls. To search for signaling pathways enriched in muscle of ICU-acquired weakness patients, a gene set enrichment analysis of our recently published gene expression profiles was performed. Quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, Western blot, and immunohistochemistry were used to analyze secreted frizzled-related protein 2 expression and protein content. A mouse model of inflammation-induced skeletal muscle atrophy due to polymicrobial sepsis and cultured myocytes were used for mechanistic analyses. INTERVENTIONS None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Gene set enrichment analysis uncovered transforming growth factor-β1 signaling activation in vastus lateralis from ICU-acquired weakness patients. Muscular secreted frizzled-related protein 2 expression was reduced after 5 days in ICU. Likewise, muscular secreted frizzled-related protein 2 expression was decreased early and continuously in mice with inflammation-induced atrophy. In muscle, secreted frizzled-related protein 2 was predominantly contained in fast twitch/type II myofibers. Secreted frizzled-related protein 2 physically interacted and colocalized with transforming growth factor-β1 through its cysteine-rich domain. Finally, secreted frizzled-related protein 2 prevented transforming growth factor-β1-induced atrophy in C2C12 myotubes. CONCLUSIONS Muscular secreted frizzled-related protein 2 is down-regulated in ICU-acquired weakness patients and mice with inflammation-induced muscle atrophy. Decreased secreted frizzled-related protein 2 possibly establishes a positive feedback loop enhancing transforming growth factor-β1-mediated atrophic effects in inflammation-induced atrophy.
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30
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Song Y, Yao S, Liu Y, Long L, Yang H, Li Q, Liang J, Li X, Lu Y, Zhu H, Zhang N. Expression levels of TGF-β1 and CTGF are associated with the severity of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Exp Ther Med 2017; 13:1209-1214. [PMID: 28413459 PMCID: PMC5377242 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2017.4105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to analyze the association of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) expression levels in skeletal muscle with the clinical manifestation of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). A total of 18 cases of DMD, which were confirmed by routine pathological diagnosis were recruited into the present study, along with 8 subjects who suffered from acute trauma but did not present any neuromuscular diseases and were enrolled as the healthy controls. Immunohistochemical staining was used to detect the expression levels of CTGF and TGF-β1 in muscle biopsy specimens. Furthermore, Spearman rank correlation analysis was conducted among the expression levels of CTGF and TGF-β1, age, clinical severity and pathological severity in DMD patients. The immunohistochemical staining results revealed that the expression levels of CTGF and TGF-β1 were significantly increased in the DMD group compared with those in the control group (P<0.05). These levels were not found to be significantly correlated with the onset age (P>0.05), but there was a significant correlation with the degree of pathology and clinical severity (P<0.05). In conclusion, an upregulated expression of CTGF and TGF-β1 was revealed in the skeletal muscle of DMD patients, which were in positive correlation with the degree of pathology and clinical severity. These two factors may be involved in the pathophysiology of fibrosis in DMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanmin Song
- Department of Emergency, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China.,Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
| | - Shuai Yao
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China.,Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Mental Health Centre of Wuxi, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214151, P.R. China
| | - Yunhai Liu
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
| | - Lili Long
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
| | - Huan Yang
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
| | - Qiuxiang Li
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
| | - Jinghui Liang
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
| | - Xinxin Li
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
| | - Yuling Lu
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
| | - Haoran Zhu
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
| | - Ning Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, P.R. China
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31
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Delaney K, Kasprzycka P, Ciemerych MA, Zimowska M. The role of TGF-β1 during skeletal muscle regeneration. Cell Biol Int 2017; 41:706-715. [PMID: 28035727 DOI: 10.1002/cbin.10725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 12/26/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The injury of adult skeletal muscle initiates series of well-coordinated events that lead to the efficient repair of the damaged tissue. Any disturbances during muscle myolysis or reconstruction may result in the unsuccessful regeneration, characterised by strong inflammatory response and formation of connective tissue, that is, fibrosis. The switch between proper regeneration of skeletal muscle and development of fibrosis is controlled by various factors. Amongst them are those belonging to the transforming growth factor β family. One of the TGF-β family members is TGF-β1, a multifunctional cytokine involved in the regulation of muscle repair via satellite cells activation, connective tissue formation, as well as regulation of the immune response intensity. Here, we present the role of TGF-β1 in myogenic differentiation and muscle repair. The understanding of the mechanisms controlling these processes can contribute to the better understanding of skeletal muscle atrophy and diseases which consequence is fibrosis disrupting muscle function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamila Delaney
- Faculty of Biology, Department of Cytology, Institute of Zoology, University of Warsaw, 1 Miecznikowa St., 02-096 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Paulina Kasprzycka
- Faculty of Biology, Department of Cytology, Institute of Zoology, University of Warsaw, 1 Miecznikowa St., 02-096 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Maria Anna Ciemerych
- Faculty of Biology, Department of Cytology, Institute of Zoology, University of Warsaw, 1 Miecznikowa St., 02-096 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Malgorzata Zimowska
- Faculty of Biology, Department of Cytology, Institute of Zoology, University of Warsaw, 1 Miecznikowa St., 02-096 Warsaw, Poland
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32
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Elevated Expression of Moesin in Muscular Dystrophies. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2017; 187:654-664. [PMID: 28082118 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2016.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Revised: 10/30/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Fibrosis is the main complication of muscular dystrophies. We identified moesin, a member of the ezrin-radixin-moesin family, in dystrophic muscles of mice representing Duchenne and congenital muscular dystrophies (DMD and CMD, respectively) and dysferlinopathy, but not in the wild type. High levels of moesin were also observed in muscle biopsy specimens from DMD, Ullrich CMD, and merosin-deficient CMD patients, all of which present high levels of fibrosis. The myofibroblasts, responsible for extracellular matrix protein synthesis, and the macrophages infiltrating the dystrophic muscles were the source of moesin. Moesin-positive cells were embedded within the fibrotic areas between the myofibers adjacent to the collagen type I fibers. Radixin was also synthesized by the myofibroblasts, whereas ezrin colocalized with the myofiber membranes. In animal models and patients' muscles, part of the moesin was in its active phosphorylated form. Inhibition of fibrosis by halofuginone, an antifibrotic agent, resulted in a major decrease in moesin levels in the muscles of DMD and CMD mice. In summary, the results of this study may pave the way for exploiting moesin as a novel target for intervention in MDs, and as part of a battery of biomarkers to evaluate treatment success in preclinical studies and clinical trials.
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33
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Chen JL, Colgan TD, Walton KL, Gregorevic P, Harrison CA. The TGF-β Signalling Network in Muscle Development, Adaptation and Disease. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 900:97-131. [PMID: 27003398 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-27511-6_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Skeletal muscle possesses remarkable ability to change its size and force-producing capacity in response to physiological stimuli. Impairment of the cellular processes that govern these attributes also affects muscle mass and function in pathological conditions. Myostatin, a member of the TGF-β family, has been identified as a key regulator of muscle development, and adaptation in adulthood. In muscle, myostatin binds to its type I (ALK4/5) and type II (ActRIIA/B) receptors to initiate Smad2/3 signalling and the regulation of target genes that co-ordinate the balance between protein synthesis and degradation. Interestingly, evidence is emerging that other TGF-β proteins act in concert with myostatin to regulate the growth and remodelling of skeletal muscle. Consequently, dysregulation of TGF-β proteins and their associated signalling components is increasingly being implicated in muscle wasting associated with chronic illness, ageing, and inactivity. The growing understanding of TGF-β biology in muscle, and its potential to advance the development of therapeutics for muscle-related conditions is reviewed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin L Chen
- Centre for Endocrinology and Metabolism, Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, VIC, 3168, Australia.,Department of Molecular and Translational Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Muscle Research and Therapeutics Development, Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, VIC, 3004, Australia.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Timothy D Colgan
- Muscle Research and Therapeutics Development, Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, VIC, 3004, Australia.,Department of Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Kelly L Walton
- Centre for Endocrinology and Metabolism, Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, VIC, 3168, Australia.,Department of Molecular and Translational Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Paul Gregorevic
- Muscle Research and Therapeutics Development, Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, VIC, 3004, Australia. .,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. .,Department of Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. .,Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, The University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - Craig A Harrison
- Centre for Endocrinology and Metabolism, Hudson Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, VIC, 3168, Australia. .,Department of Molecular and Translational Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. .,Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
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34
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Pan H, Vojnits K, Liu TT, Meng F, Yang L, Wang Y, Huard J, Cox CS, Lally KP, Li Y. MMP1 gene expression enhances myoblast migration and engraftment following implanting into mdx/SCID mice. Cell Adh Migr 2016. [PMID: 26223276 DOI: 10.4161/19336918.2014.983799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Myoblast transplantation (MT) is a method to introduce healthy genes into abnormal skeletal muscle. It has been considered as a therapeutic modality in the last few decades for diseases such as Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD). However, challenges including cell death and poor graft engraftment have limited its application. The current experiment utilizes MMP1 gene transfer to improve the efficacy of myoblast transplantation into the diseased dystrophic skeletal muscle of mdx mice. Our results indicated that MMP1 expression can promote myogenic differentiation and fusion capacities, increase migration of MMP1 expressing myoblasts in vitro, as well as improve engraftment of dystrophin positive myofibers in vivo. Taken together, our observation suggests that the addition of MMP1 can overcome limitations in MT and improve its clinical efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiying Pan
- a Department of Pediatric Surgery ; University of Texas Medical School at Houston ; Houston , TX USA
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35
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Abrigo J, Rivera JC, Simon F, Cabrera D, Cabello-Verrugio C. Transforming growth factor type beta (TGF-β) requires reactive oxygen species to induce skeletal muscle atrophy. Cell Signal 2016; 28:366-376. [PMID: 26825874 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2016.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2015] [Revised: 12/28/2015] [Accepted: 01/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) is a classical modulator of skeletal muscle and regulates several processes, such as myogenesis, regeneration, and muscle function in skeletal muscle diseases. Skeletal muscle atrophy, characterised by the loss of muscle strength and mass, is one of the pathological conditions regulated by TGF-β. Atrophy also results in increased myosin heavy chain (MHC) degradation and the expression of two muscle-specific E3 ubiquitin ligases, atrogin-1 and MuRF-1. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are modulators of muscle wasting, and NAD(P)H oxidase (NOX) is one of the main sources of ROS. While it was recently found that TGF-β1 induces atrophy in skeletal muscle, the underlying mechanism is not fully understood. In this study, the role of NOX-derived ROS in skeletal muscle atrophy induced by TGF-β was assessed. TGF-β1 induced an atrophic effect in C2C12 myotubes, as evidenced by decreased myotube diameter and MHC levels, together with increased MuRF-1 levels. Concomitantly, TGF-β increased NOX-induced ROS contents. Interestingly, NOX inhibition through apocynin and the antioxidant treatment with N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) decreased increased ROS levels in myotubes. Additionally, both apocynin and NAC completely prevented the decreased MHC, decreased myotube diameter, and increased MuRF-1 induced by TGF-β. Injection of TGF-β1 into the tibialis anterior muscle induced atrophy, as observed by decreased fibre diameter and MHC levels, together with increased MuRF-1 levels. Likewise, TGF-β increased the ROS contents in the smaller fibres of skeletal muscle. Additionally, the administration of NAC to mice prevented all atrophic effects and the increase in ROS induced by TGF-β in the tibialis anterior. This is the first study to report that TGF-β has an atrophic effect dependent on NOX-induced ROS in skeletal muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Abrigo
- Laboratory of Biology and Molecular Physiopathology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile; Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago, Chile
| | - Juan Carlos Rivera
- Laboratory of Biology and Molecular Physiopathology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile; Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago, Chile
| | - Felipe Simon
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago, Chile; Laboratory of Integrative Physiopathology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Daniel Cabrera
- Departamento de Gastroenterología, Facultad de Medicina, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile; Departamento de Ciencias Químicas y Biológicas, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Bernardo O Higgins, Santiago, Chile
| | - Claudio Cabello-Verrugio
- Laboratory of Biology and Molecular Physiopathology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile; Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago, Chile.
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36
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Contreras O, Rebolledo DL, Oyarzún JE, Olguín HC, Brandan E. Connective tissue cells expressing fibro/adipogenic progenitor markers increase under chronic damage: relevance in fibroblast-myofibroblast differentiation and skeletal muscle fibrosis. Cell Tissue Res 2016; 364:647-660. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-015-2343-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2015] [Accepted: 12/03/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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37
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Biressi S, Miyabara EH, Gopinath SD, Carlig PMM, Rando TA. A Wnt-TGFβ2 axis induces a fibrogenic program in muscle stem cells from dystrophic mice. Sci Transl Med 2015; 6:267ra176. [PMID: 25520397 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3008411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
We have previously observed that Wnt signaling activates a fibrogenic program in adult muscle stem cells, called satellite cells, during aging. We genetically labeled satellite cells in a mouse model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy to follow their fate during the progression of the disease. We observed that a fraction of satellite cells had a reduced myogenic potential and showed enhanced expression of profibrotic genes compared to age-matched controls. By combining in vitro and in vivo results, we found that expression of transforming growth factor-β2 (TGFβ2) was induced in response to elevated canonical Wnt signaling in dystrophic muscles and that the resulting increase in TGFβ activity affected the behavior of satellite cells in an autocrine or paracrine fashion. Indeed, pharmacological inhibition of the TGFβ pathway in vivo reduced the fibrogenic characteristics of satellite cells. These studies shed new light on the cellular and molecular mechanisms responsible for stem cell dysfunction in dystrophic muscle and may contribute to the development of more effective and specific therapeutic approaches for the prevention of muscle fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Biressi
- Paul F. Glenn Laboratories for the Biology of Aging and Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Elen H Miyabara
- Paul F. Glenn Laboratories for the Biology of Aging and Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA. Anatomy Department, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, 2415 Lineu Prestes Avenue, São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Suchitra D Gopinath
- Paul F. Glenn Laboratories for the Biology of Aging and Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Poppy M M Carlig
- Paul F. Glenn Laboratories for the Biology of Aging and Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Thomas A Rando
- Paul F. Glenn Laboratories for the Biology of Aging and Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA. Neurology Service, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, 3801 Miranda Avenue, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA.
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38
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Sun C, Li S, Li D. Sulforaphane mitigates muscle fibrosis in mdx mice via Nrf2-mediated inhibition of TGF-β/Smad signaling. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2015; 120:377-90. [PMID: 26494449 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00721.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 10/17/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Sulforaphane (SFN), an activator of NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), has been found to have an antifibrotic effect on liver and lung. However, its effects on dystrophic muscle fibrosis remain unknown. This work was undertaken to evaluate the effects of SFN-mediated activation of Nrf2 on dystrophic muscle fibrosis. Male mdx mice (age 3 mo) were treated with SFN by gavage (2 mg/kg body wt per day) for 3 mo. Experimental results demonstrated that SFN remarkably attenuated skeletal and cardiac muscle fibrosis as indicated by reduced Sirius Red staining and immunostaining of the extracellular matrix. Moreover, SFN significantly inhibited the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)/Smad signaling pathway and suppressed profibrogenic gene and protein expressions such as those of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), fibronectin, collagen I, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), and tissue inhibitor metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) in an Nrf2-dependent manner. Furthermore, SFN significantly decreased the expression of inflammatory cytokines CD45, TNF-α, and IL-6 in mdx mice. In conclusion, these results show that SFN can attenuate dystrophic muscle fibrosis by Nrf2-mediated inhibition of the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway, which indicates that Nrf2 may represent a new target for dystrophic muscle fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengcao Sun
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan, People's Republic of China; Institute of Global Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan, People's Republic of China; and
| | - Shujun Li
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan, People's Republic of China; Wuhan Hospital for the Prevention and Treatment of Occupational Diseases, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
| | - Dejia Li
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan, People's Republic of China
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Córdova G, Rochard A, Riquelme-Guzmán C, Cofré C, Scherman D, Bigey P, Brandan E. SMAD3 and SP1/SP3 Transcription Factors Collaborate to Regulate Connective Tissue Growth Factor Gene Expression in Myoblasts in Response to Transforming Growth Factor β. J Cell Biochem 2015; 116:1880-7. [DOI: 10.1002/jcb.25143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalo Córdova
- Laboratorio de Diferenciación Celular y Patología; Centro de Regulación Celular y Patología (CRCP); Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular; Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile; Santiago Chile
- Unité de Technologie Chimique et Biologique pour la Santé; CNRS, UMR8258; Paris F-75006 France
- INSERM U1022; Université Paris Descartes; ENSCP Chimie-ParisTech; Paris France
| | - Alice Rochard
- Unité de Technologie Chimique et Biologique pour la Santé; CNRS, UMR8258; Paris F-75006 France
- INSERM U1022; Université Paris Descartes; ENSCP Chimie-ParisTech; Paris France
| | - Camilo Riquelme-Guzmán
- Laboratorio de Diferenciación Celular y Patología; Centro de Regulación Celular y Patología (CRCP); Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular; Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile; Santiago Chile
| | - Catalina Cofré
- Laboratorio de Diferenciación Celular y Patología; Centro de Regulación Celular y Patología (CRCP); Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular; Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile; Santiago Chile
| | - Daniel Scherman
- Unité de Technologie Chimique et Biologique pour la Santé; CNRS, UMR8258; Paris F-75006 France
- INSERM U1022; Université Paris Descartes; ENSCP Chimie-ParisTech; Paris France
| | - Pascal Bigey
- Unité de Technologie Chimique et Biologique pour la Santé; CNRS, UMR8258; Paris F-75006 France
- INSERM U1022; Université Paris Descartes; ENSCP Chimie-ParisTech; Paris France
| | - Enrique Brandan
- Laboratorio de Diferenciación Celular y Patología; Centro de Regulación Celular y Patología (CRCP); Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular; Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile; Santiago Chile
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Meriggioli MN, Roubenoff R. Prospect for pharmacological therapies to treat skeletal muscle dysfunction. Calcif Tissue Int 2015; 96:234-42. [PMID: 25363509 DOI: 10.1007/s00223-014-9926-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 10/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Skeletal muscle weakness is a leading cause of mobility disability in the elderly (sarcopenia), as a complication of acute or chronic illness (cachexia), and due to inherited or acquired muscle diseases (muscular dystrophies, myositides, etc.). As of now, there are no approved drugs that can reliably increase muscle strength and function. However, with our understanding of the regulation of myocyte signaling and homeostasis evolving rapidly, experimental treatments are now entering the clinic. We review the current status of clinical research in pharmacological therapies for muscle disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew N Meriggioli
- Department of Musculoskeletal Translational Medicine, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, 220 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
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41
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Cofre C, Acuña MJ, Contreras O, Morales MG, Riquelme C, Cabello-Verrugio C, Brandan E. Transforming growth factor type-β inhibits Mas receptor expression in fibroblasts but not in myoblasts or differentiated myotubes; Relevance to fibrosis associated to muscular dystrophies. Biofactors 2015; 41:111-20. [PMID: 25809912 DOI: 10.1002/biof.1208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a genetic disorder characterized by myofiber degeneration, muscle weakness, and increased fibrosis. Transforming growth factor type-β (TGF-β), a central mediator of fibrosis, is upregulated in fibrotic diseases. Angiotensin-(1-7) [Ang-(1-7)] is a peptide with actions that oppose those of angiotensin-II (Ang II). Ang-(1-7) effects are mediated by the Mas receptor. Treatment with Ang-(1-7) produce positive effects in the mdx mouse, normalizing skeletal muscle architecture, decreasing local fibrosis, and fibroblasts, and improving muscle function. Mdx mice deficient for the Mas receptor showed the opposite effects. To identify the cell type(s) responsible for Mas receptor expression, and to characterize whether profibrotic effectors had any effect on its expression, we determined the effect of profibrotic agents on Mas expression. TGF-β, but not connective tissue growth factor or Ang-II, reduced the expression of Mas receptor in fibroblasts isolated from skeletal muscle cells and fibroblasts from two established cell lines. In contrast, no effects were observed in myoblasts and differentiated myotubes. This inhibition was mediated by the Smad-dependent (canonical) and the PI3K and MEK1/2 (noncanonical) TGF-β signaling pathways. When both canonical and noncanonical inhibitors of the TGF-β-dependent pathways were added together, the inhibitory effect of TGF-β on Mas expression was lost. The decrease in Mas receptor induced by TGF-β in fibroblasts reduced the Ang-(1-7) mediated stimulation of phosphorylation of AKT pathway proteins. These results suggest that reduction of Mas receptor in fibroblasts, by TGF-β, could increase the fibrotic phenotype observed in dystrophic skeletal muscle decreasing the beneficial effect of Ang-(1-7).
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MESH Headings
- Angiotensin I/pharmacology
- Angiotensin II/pharmacology
- Animals
- Cell Line
- Disease Models, Animal
- Fibroblasts/drug effects
- Fibroblasts/metabolism
- Fibroblasts/pathology
- Fibrosis
- Gene Expression Regulation
- MAP Kinase Kinase 1/genetics
- MAP Kinase Kinase 1/metabolism
- MAP Kinase Kinase 2/genetics
- MAP Kinase Kinase 2/metabolism
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Inbred mdx
- Mice, Knockout
- Muscle Fibers, Skeletal/drug effects
- Muscle Fibers, Skeletal/metabolism
- Muscle Fibers, Skeletal/pathology
- Muscle, Skeletal/drug effects
- Muscle, Skeletal/metabolism
- Muscle, Skeletal/pathology
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/genetics
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/metabolism
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/pathology
- Myoblasts/drug effects
- Myoblasts/metabolism
- Myoblasts/pathology
- Organ Specificity
- Peptide Fragments/pharmacology
- Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases/genetics
- Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinases/metabolism
- Phosphorylation/drug effects
- Primary Cell Culture
- Proto-Oncogene Mas
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/genetics
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins/metabolism
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-akt/genetics
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-akt/metabolism
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/genetics
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/metabolism
- Signal Transduction
- Transforming Growth Factor beta/pharmacology
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Affiliation(s)
- Catalina Cofre
- Center for Aging and Regeneration, CARE Chile-UC and Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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Gutpell KM, Hrinivich WT, Hoffman LM. Skeletal muscle fibrosis in the mdx/utrn+/- mouse validates its suitability as a murine model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0117306. [PMID: 25607927 PMCID: PMC4301874 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0117306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2014] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Various therapeutic approaches have been studied for the treatment of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), but none of these approaches have led to significant long-term effects in patients. One reason for this observed inefficacy may be the use of inappropriate animal models for the testing of therapeutic agents. The mdx mouse is the most widely used murine model of DMD, yet it does not model the fibrotic progression observed in patients. Other murine models of DMD are available that lack one or both alleles of utrophin, a functional analog of dystrophin. The aim of this study was to compare fibrosis and myofiber damage in the mdx, mdx/utrn+/- and double knockout (dko) mouse models. We used Masson’s trichrome stain and percentage of centrally-nucleated myofibers as indicators of fibrosis and myofiber regeneration, respectively, to assess disease progression in diaphragm and gastrocnemius muscles harvested from young and aged wild-type, mdx, mdx/utrn+/- and dko mice. Our results indicated that eight week-old gastrocnemius muscles of both mdx/utrn+/- and dko hind limb developed fibrosis whereas age-matched mdx gastrocnemius muscle did not (p = 0.002). The amount of collagen found in the mdx/utrn+/- diaphragm was significantly higher than that found in the corresponding diaphragm muscles of wild-type animals, but not of mdx animals (p = 0.0003). Aged mdx/utrn+/- mice developed fibrosis in both diaphragm and gastrocnemius muscles compared to wild-type controls (p = 0.003). Mdx diaphragm was fibrotic in aged mice as well (p = 0.0235), whereas the gastrocnemius muscle in these animals was not fibrotic. We did not measure a significant difference in collagen staining between wild-type and mdx gastrocnemius muscles. The results of this study support previous reports that the moderately-affected mdx/utrn+/- mouse is a better model of DMD, and we show here that this difference is apparent by 2 months of age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly M. Gutpell
- Imaging Program, Lawson Health Research Institute, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Western University, London, ON, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | | | - Lisa M. Hoffman
- Imaging Program, Lawson Health Research Institute, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Western University, Department of Medical Biophysics, Western University, London, ON, Canada
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Pessina P, Cabrera D, Morales MG, Riquelme CA, Gutiérrez J, Serrano AL, Brandan E, Muñoz-Cánoves P. Novel and optimized strategies for inducing fibrosis in vivo: focus on Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. Skelet Muscle 2014; 4:7. [PMID: 25157321 PMCID: PMC4142391 DOI: 10.1186/2044-5040-4-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2013] [Accepted: 01/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Fibrosis, an excessive collagen accumulation, results in scar formation, impairing function of vital organs and tissues. Fibrosis is a hallmark of muscular dystrophies, including the lethal Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), which remains incurable. Substitution of muscle by fibrotic tissue also complicates gene/cell therapies for DMD. Yet, no optimal models to study muscle fibrosis are available. In the widely used mdx mouse model for DMD, extensive fibrosis develops in the diaphragm only at advanced adulthood, and at about two years of age in the ‘easy-to-access’ limb muscles, thus precluding fibrosis research and the testing of novel therapies. Methods We developed distinct experimental strategies, ranging from chronic exercise to increasing muscle damage on limb muscles of young mdx mice, by myotoxin injection, surgically induced trauma (laceration or denervation) or intramuscular delivery of profibrotic growth factors (such as TGFβ). We also extended these approaches to muscle of normal non-dystrophic mice. Results These strategies resulted in advanced and enhanced muscle fibrosis in young mdx mice, which persisted over time, and correlated with reduced muscle force, thus mimicking the severe DMD phenotype. Furthermore, increased fibrosis was also obtained by combining these procedures in muscles of normal mice, mirroring aberrant repair after severe trauma. Conclusions We have developed new and improved experimental strategies to accelerate and enhance muscle fibrosis in vivo. These strategies will allow rapidly assessing fibrosis in the easily accessible limb muscles of young mdx mice, without necessarily having to use old animals. The extension of these fibrogenic regimes to the muscle of non-dystrophic wild-type mice will allow fibrosis assessment in a wide array of pre-existing transgenic mouse lines, which in turn will facilitate understanding the mechanisms of fibrogenesis. These strategies should improve our ability to combat fibrosis-driven dystrophy progression and aberrant regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Pessina
- Cell Biology Group, Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, CIBER on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Pompeu Fabra University (UPF), Dr. Aiguader, 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Daniel Cabrera
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Catholic University of Chile, Avenida Libertador Bernardo O'Higgins, 340, Santiago, Chile
| | - María Gabriela Morales
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Catholic University of Chile, Avenida Libertador Bernardo O'Higgins, 340, Santiago, Chile
| | - Cecilia A Riquelme
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Catholic University of Chile, Avenida Libertador Bernardo O'Higgins, 340, Santiago, Chile
| | - Jaime Gutiérrez
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Catholic University of Chile, Avenida Libertador Bernardo O'Higgins, 340, Santiago, Chile
| | - Antonio L Serrano
- Cell Biology Group, Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, CIBER on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Pompeu Fabra University (UPF), Dr. Aiguader, 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Enrique Brandan
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Catholic University of Chile, Avenida Libertador Bernardo O'Higgins, 340, Santiago, Chile
| | - Pura Muñoz-Cánoves
- Cell Biology Group, Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, CIBER on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Pompeu Fabra University (UPF), Dr. Aiguader, 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain ; Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Dr. Aiguader, 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
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45
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Holmberg J, Alajbegovic A, Gawlik KI, Elowsson L, Durbeej M. Laminin α2 Chain-Deficiency is Associated with microRNA Deregulation in Skeletal Muscle and Plasma. Front Aging Neurosci 2014; 6:155. [PMID: 25071564 PMCID: PMC4080261 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2014.00155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2014] [Accepted: 06/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
microRNAs (miRNAs) are widespread regulators of gene expression, but little is known of their potential roles in congenital muscular dystrophy type 1A (MDC1A). MDC1A is a severe form of muscular dystrophy caused by mutations in the gene encoding laminin α2 chain. To gain insight into the pathophysiological roles of miRNAs associated with MDC1A pathology, laminin α2 chain-deficient mice were evaluated by quantitative PCR. We demonstrate that expression of muscle-specific miR-1, miR-133a, and miR-206 is deregulated in laminin α2 chain-deficient muscle. Furthermore, expression of miR-223 and miR-21, associated with immune cell infiltration and fibrosis, respectively, is altered. Finally, we show that plasma levels of muscle-specific miRNAs are markedly elevated in laminin α2 chain-deficient mice and partially normalized in response to proteasome inhibition therapy. Altogether, our data suggest important roles for miRNAs in MDC1A pathology and we propose plasma levels of muscle-specific miRNAs as promising biomarkers for the progression of MDC1A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Holmberg
- Muscle Biology Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, University of Lund , Lund , Sweden
| | - Azra Alajbegovic
- Muscle Biology Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, University of Lund , Lund , Sweden
| | - Kinga Izabela Gawlik
- Muscle Biology Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, University of Lund , Lund , Sweden
| | - Linda Elowsson
- Muscle Biology Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, University of Lund , Lund , Sweden
| | - Madeleine Durbeej
- Muscle Biology Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, University of Lund , Lund , Sweden
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46
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Tagliavini F, Pellegrini C, Sardone F, Squarzoni S, Paulsson M, Wagener R, Gualandi F, Trabanelli C, Ferlini A, Merlini L, Santi S, Maraldi NM, Faldini C, Sabatelli P. Defective collagen VI α6 chain expression in the skeletal muscle of patients with collagen VI-related myopathies. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2014; 1842:1604-12. [PMID: 24907562 PMCID: PMC4316388 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2014.05.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Revised: 05/12/2014] [Accepted: 05/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Collagen VI is a non-fibrillar collagen present in the extracellular matrix (ECM) as a complex polymer; the mainly expressed form is composed of α1, α2 and α3 chains; mutations in genes encoding these chains cause myopathies known as Ullrich congenital muscular dystrophy (UCMD), Bethlem myopathy (BM) and myosclerosis myopathy (MM). The collagen VI α6 chain is a recently identified component of the ECM of the human skeletal muscle. Here we report that the α6 chain was dramatically reduced in skeletal muscle and muscle cell cultures of genetically characterized UCMD, BM and MM patients, independently of the clinical phenotype, the gene involved and the effect of the mutation on the expression of the “classical” α1α2α3 heterotrimer. By contrast, the collagen VI α6 chain was normally expressed or increased in the muscle of patients affected by other forms of muscular dystrophy, the overexpression matching with areas of increased fibrosis. In vitro treatment with TGF-β1, a potent collagen inducer, promoted the collagen VI α6 chain deposition in the ECM of normal muscle cells, whereas, in cultures derived from collagen VI-related myopathy patients, the collagen VI α6 chain failed to develop a network outside the cells and accumulated in the endoplasmic reticulum. The defect of the α6 chain points to a contribution to the pathogenesis of collagen VI-related disorders. Collagen VI is an ECM component of the human skeletal muscle. We evaluated the α6 chain in collagen VI-related and other muscular dystrophies. The α6 chain was reduced in collagen VI-related diseases but not in other myopathies. A correlation between the α6 chain and fibrosis was demonstrated in MDC1A. The α6 chain is involved in the pathogenesis of collagen VI diseases and fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Tagliavini
- CNR-National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Bologna, Italy; SC Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Cell Biology, IOR, Bologna, Italy
| | - C Pellegrini
- SC Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Cell Biology, IOR, Bologna, Italy
| | - F Sardone
- CNR-National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Bologna, Italy; SC Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Cell Biology, IOR, Bologna, Italy
| | - S Squarzoni
- CNR-National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Bologna, Italy; SC Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Cell Biology, IOR, Bologna, Italy
| | - M Paulsson
- Center for Biochemistry, Center for Molecular Medicine (CMMC) and Cologne Center for Musculoskeletal Biomechanics (CCMB), University of Cologne, Germany
| | - R Wagener
- Center for Biochemistry, Center for Molecular Medicine (CMMC) and Cologne Center for Musculoskeletal Biomechanics (CCMB), University of Cologne, Germany
| | - F Gualandi
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Italy
| | - C Trabanelli
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Italy
| | - A Ferlini
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Italy
| | - L Merlini
- SC Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Cell Biology, IOR, Bologna, Italy
| | - S Santi
- CNR-National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Bologna, Italy; SC Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Cell Biology, IOR, Bologna, Italy
| | - N M Maraldi
- CNR-National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Bologna, Italy
| | - C Faldini
- University of Bologna, Rizzoli Orthopaedic Institute, Bologna, Italy
| | - P Sabatelli
- CNR-National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Molecular Genetics, Bologna, Italy; SC Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Cell Biology, IOR, Bologna, Italy.
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Abstract
Neuromuscular diseases, which encompass disorders that affect muscle and its innervation, are highly heritable. Genetic diagnosis now frequently pinpoints the primary mutation responsible for a given neuromuscular disease. However, the results from genetic testing indicate that neuromuscular disease phenotypes may vary widely, even in individuals with the same primary disease-causing mutation. Clinical variability arises from both genetic and environmental factors. Genetic modifiers can now be identified using candidate gene as well as genomic approaches. The presence of genetic modifiers for neuromuscular disease helps define the clinical outcome and also highlights pathways of potential therapeutic utility. Herein, we will focus on single gene neuromuscular disorders, including muscular dystrophy, spinal muscular atrophy, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and the methods that have been used to identify modifier genes. Animal models have been an invaluable resource for modifier gene discovery and subsequent mechanistic studies. Some modifiers, identified using animal models, have successfully translated to the human counterpart. Furthermore, in a few instances, modifier gene discovery has repetitively uncovered the same pathway, such as TGFβ signaling in muscular dystrophy, further emphasizing the relevance of that pathway. Knowledge of genetic factors that influence disease can have direct clinical applications for prognosis and predicted outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kay-Marie Lamar
- Department of Human Genetics, Department of Medicine, Section of Cardiology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Elizabeth M McNally
- Department of Human Genetics, Department of Medicine, Section of Cardiology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
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Acharjee S, Chung TK, Gopinadhan S, Shankar SR, Wang Y, Li L, Vercherat C, Gulbagci NT, Rossner M, Taneja R. Sharp-1 regulates TGF-β signaling and skeletal muscle regeneration. J Cell Sci 2013; 127:599-608. [PMID: 24357723 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.136648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Sharp-1 is a basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcriptional repressor that is involved in a number of cellular processes. Our previous studies have demonstrated that Sharp-1 is a negative regulator of skeletal myogenesis and it blocks differentiation of muscle precursor cells by modulating the activity of MyoD. In order to understand its role in pre- and post-natal myogenesis, we assessed skeletal muscle development and freeze-injury-induced regeneration in Sharp-1-deficient mice. We show that embryonic skeletal muscle development is not impaired in the absence of Sharp-1; however, post-natally, the regenerative capacity is compromised. Although the initial phases of injury-induced regeneration proceed normally in Sharp-1(-/-) mice, during late stages, the mutant muscle exhibits necrotic fibers, calcium deposits and fibrosis. TGF-β expression, as well as levels of phosphorylated Smad2 and Smad3, are sustained in the mutant tissue and treatment with decorin, which blocks TGF-β signaling, improves the histopathology of Sharp-1(-/-) injured muscles. In vitro, Sharp-1 associates with Smad3, and its overexpression inhibits TGF-β- and Smad3-mediated expression of extracellular matrix genes in myofibroblasts. These results demonstrate that Sharp-1 regulates muscle regenerative capacity, at least in part, by modulation of TGF-β signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujata Acharjee
- Department of Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029, USA
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Narola J, Pandey SN, Glick A, Chen YW. Conditional expression of TGF-β1 in skeletal muscles causes endomysial fibrosis and myofibers atrophy. PLoS One 2013; 8:e79356. [PMID: 24244485 PMCID: PMC3828351 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0079356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2013] [Accepted: 09/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
To study the effects of transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) on fibrosis and failure of regeneration of skeletal muscles, we generated a tet-repressible muscle-specific TGF-β1 transgenic mouse in which expression of TGF-β1 is controlled by oral doxycycline. The mice developed muscle weakness and atrophy after TGF-β1 over-expression. We defined the group of mice that showed phenotype within 2 weeks as early onset (EO) and the rest as late onset (LO), which allowed us to further examine phenotypic differences between the groups. While only mice in the EO group showed significant muscle weakness, pathological changes including endomysial fibrosis and smaller myofibers were observed in both groups at two weeks after the TGF-β1 was over-expressed. In addition, the size of the myofibers and collagen accumulation were significantly different between the two groups. The amount of latent and active TGF-β1 in the muscle and circulation were significantly higher in the EO group compared to the LO or control groups. The up-regulation of the latent TGF-β1 indicated that endogenous TGF-β1 was induced by the expression of the TGF-β1 transgene. Our studies showed that the primary effects of TGF-β1 over-expression in skeletal muscles are muscle wasting and endomysial fibrosis. In addition, the severity of the pathology is associated with the total amount of TGF-β1 and the expression of endogenous TGF-β1. The findings suggest that an auto-feedback loop of TGF-β1 may contribute to the severity of phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jigna Narola
- Research Center for Genetic Medicine, Children’s National Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Sachchida Nand Pandey
- Research Center for Genetic Medicine, Children’s National Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Adam Glick
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Yi-Wen Chen
- Research Center for Genetic Medicine, Children’s National Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States of America
- Department of Integrative Systems Biology and Department of Pediatrics, George Washington University, Washington, DC, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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