Lonely hearts: Psychological perspectives on loneliness

Profiles of Loneliness and Ostracism During Adolescence: Consequences, Antecedents, and Protective Factors

This longitudinal study (N = 1078, 46% boys; 54% girls) examined profiles of loneliness and ostracism during adolescence and their consequences and antecedents. Longitudinal latent profiles analyses identified four distinct profiles: (1) High emotional loneliness (25%), High and increasing social loneliness (15%), High peer exclusion and high social impact (9%) and No peer problems (51%). Subsequent internalizing problems were typical for the High and increasing social loneliness profile and externalizing problems for the High emotional loneliness and High peer exclusion and high social impact profiles. Furthermore, effortful control, prosocial skills, and relationship quality with parents and teachers were highest in the No peer problems profile, whereas the High and increasing social loneliness profile had the lowest self-esteem and was characterized by low surgency/extraversion, high affiliativeness, and high negative affectivity.

Loneliness and the COVID-19 pandemic: implications for practice

Loneliness is a complex universal human experience. A variety of evidence indicates that prolonged loneliness can have a negative effect on an individual's long-term physical and psychological outcomes. Empirical evidence and systematic reviews show strong links between loneliness and ill health, particularly cardiovascular disease and mental health. Loneliness is increasing in frequency and severity. The issue of loneliness has been part of UK Government mandates since 2018; however, evidence suggests that, due to the pandemic, the need to focus on the issue may be even more significant. Assessing for loneliness can be challenging and many people do not want to report their feelings of loneliness. Interventions should aim to be preventive and help people create meaningful interactions. Useful interventions include person-centred interventions, cognitive therapy and group intervention therapy. There is a need for more evidence-based loneliness interventions. A knowledge of local and voluntary sectors is vital so health professionals can effectively support their patients.

Global time trends of perceived loneliness among adolescents from 28 countries in Africa, Asia, and the Americas

BACKGROUND

Perceived loneliness in adolescence is associated with a plethora of adverse outcomes. However, data on its temporal trends are scarce. Therefore, we aimed to examine the temporal trend of perceived loneliness among school-going adolescents aged 12-15 years from 28 countries in Africa, Asia, and the Americas, where temporal trends of loneliness are largely unknown.

METHODS

Cross-sectional data from the Global School-based Student Health Survey 2003-2017 were analyzed. Perceived loneliness referred to feeling lonely most of the time or always in the past 12 months. Crude linear trends of perceived loneliness by country were assessed by linear regression models.

RESULTS

Data on 180,087 adolescents aged 12-15 years were analyzed [Mean (SD) age 13.7 (1.0) years; 51.4 % females]. The overall prevalence of perceived loneliness was 10.7 %. Among the 28 countries included in the study, significant increasing and decreasing trends were observed in six counties each, with stable trends found in 16 countries. The most drastic increase and decrease were observed in Egypt between 2006 (7.9 %) and 2011 (14.3 %), and in Samoa between 2011 (23.3 %) and 2017 (8.0 %), respectively. Stable trends with high prevalence across time were also common.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that perceived loneliness among adolescents is a global phenomenon, which has seen little improvement if any in recent years. It would be prudent to implement nationwide policies to combat loneliness globally.

Senior volunteers: addressing loneliness in times of COVID-19

Volunteering in old age plays an important role in addressing feelings of loneliness, but little research has been conducted on the impact of engaging in volunteering activities during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study investigates the longitudinal impact of volunteering on feelings of loneliness. We analyzed data from 31,667 adults aged 50 years and older in the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), across three consecutive waves (one before the pandemic and two during the COVID-19 pandemic). Binary logistic regression analyses were conducted for loneliness, using volunteering and several control variables as independent variables, and found that even after controlling for previous loneliness, volunteering has a protective effect against experiencing feelings of loneliness. Those who participated in volunteering activities before or during the second pandemic period had a lower risk of loneliness during the second pandemic period. Volunteering during the second pandemic period, before and during the second pandemic period, and during all three periods measured in the study was negatively associated with the odds of feeling lonely. Encouraging volunteering among older adults can be a useful strategy to prevent loneliness during future emergency situations like the COVID-19 outbreak.

Can technology impact loneliness in dementia? A scoping review on the role of assistive technologies in delivering psychosocial interventions in long-term care

PURPOSE

We aimed to identify assistive technologies that are promising for addressing loneliness in people living with dementia in long-term care.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A scoping review was conducted. EBSCO, PubMed, Cochrane Library, and ProQuest were searched from 2000 to 2020. The included studies were selected by three independent researchers and summarised, compared, and categorized according to technology type. Publications were eligible for inclusion when they reported on psychosocial interventions aiming to reduce loneliness and/or social isolation in people with dementia in long-term care settings.

RESULTS

Twenty-four papers were included (20 original research papers and four reviews). Most studies were conducted in Australia and Europe. The studies aimed to investigate two different types of assistive technology: social robots, and multimedia computer systems. Most studies focussed on behaviour, engagement, and mood as primary outcomes. Only one study directly aimed to alleviate loneliness.

CONCLUSIONS

Even though only one study addressed loneliness directly, it became clear that assistive technologies used to apply psychosocial interventions have the potential to impact loneliness in people with dementia in long-term care. However, it remains unclear why loneliness was not included as an outcome and how loneliness could become a key outcome in evaluating assistive technologies.IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATIONLoneliness among older adults is associated with health risks, such as the development of dementia, depression, and increased mortality.Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) technologies have been studied to address loneliness for older adults; however people with dementia are often excluded from such studies.This diverse group of technologies is shown to have a promising impact on outcomes, such as social engagement, quality of life, and mood, but loneliness was studied less often.More research is needed to discover the potential of assistive technologies for people with dementia living in long-term care.

Sex-related differences in the associations between diurnal cortisol pattern and social and emotional loneliness in older adults

Introduction

Loneliness is a distressful feeling that can affect mental and physical health, particularly among older adults. Cortisol, the primary hormone of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal axis (HPA-axis), may act as a biological transducer through which loneliness affects health. While most previous studies have evaluated the association between loneliness, as a unidimensional construct, and diurnal cortisol pattern, no research has examined this relationship discriminating between social and emotional loneliness in older adults. As sex differences in the negative mental health outcomes of loneliness have been reported, we also investigated whether diurnal cortisol indices and loneliness associations occur in a sex-specific manner.

Methods

We analyzed the diurnal cortisol- pattern in 142 community-dwelling, non-depressed, Caucasian older adults (55,6% female) aged 60-90. Social and emotional (family and romantic) loneliness scores were assessed using the Spanish version of the Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults (SELSA). Five salivary cortisol samples were used to capture key features of the diurnal cortisol pattern, including: awakening and bedtime cortisol levels, awakening response (CAR), post-awakening cortisol output (post-awakening cortisol [i.e., the area under the curve with reference to the ground: AUCG]), total diurnal cortisol release (AUCG), and diurnal cortisol slope (DCS).

Results

After controlling for sociodemographic variables, the hierarchical linear multiple regression analyses revealed that in male older adults, higher scores on social and family loneliness were associated with elevated awakening cortisol levels, total diurnal cortisol output, and a steeper diurnal cortisol slope (DCS). However, these associations were not observed in female older adults. In addition, feelings of romantic loneliness were positively associated with bedtime cortisol levels and AUCG in older males. Multilevel growth curve modeling showed that experiencing more social and emotional loneliness predicted higher diurnal cortisol output throughout the day in older male adults.

Discussion

The presence of sex differences in the relationship between cortisol indices and loneliness among older adults holds particular significance for diagnostic and screening procedures. Combining loneliness scales as screening tools with diurnal cortisol measures has the potential to be an effective and cost-efficient approach in identifying higher-risk individuals at early stages.

The Role of Relationship Conflict for Momentary Loneliness and Affect in the Daily Lives of Older Couples

Background: Intimate partner relationships foster individuals' well-being throughout the lifespan. However, dissatisfying or conflict-laden relationships can have a detrimental impact on well-being and relationship quality. The majority of older adults live together with a spouse/partner, and intimate relationships are one of the most important social contexts in their daily lives. Purpose: Expanding on previous research, we examined the role of previous conflict on experiences of loneliness and affect in the daily lives of older partners from a dyadic perspective. Relationship duration and quality, personality traits (neuroticism and extraversion), conflict frequency during the measurement period, physical health as well as age were considered as moderators. Study Sample and Data Analysis: We used data from an experience sampling study with 151 older heterosexual couples (302 participants; 65+ years old) reporting on their positive and negative affect, loneliness, and previous experience of relationship conflict 6 times a day for 14 days. Data were analyzed using dyadic multilevel models. Results: For both men and women within couples, previous conflict was associated with an increased experience of negative affect and loneliness and a decreased experience of positive affect. Higher neuroticism predicted less positive and more negative affect following conflict for women and more loneliness for men. Higher relationship satisfaction predicted less increase in negative affect after conflict for female partners. Age, relationship duration, physical health, extraversion, and the number of conflict episodes showed no moderating effects. Conclusions: Our results support the notion that relationship conflict deteriorates emotional well-being in old age and renders older adults lonelier even in the context of intimate partner relationships.

Loneliness and trust issues reshape mental stress of expatriates during early COVID-19: a structural equation modelling approach

OBJECTIVES

To explore relationship among perceived stress regarding loneliness, interpersonal trust and institutional trust of expatriates during the early COVID-19 period (from 30^th March to 30^th May 2020).

METHODS

Data from  21,439 expatriates were extracted from COVIDiSTRESS global survey. The outcome variable was perceived stress. The explanatory variables were age, perceived loneliness, trust (interpersonal and institutional). Pairwise correlation, and structural equation modelling were used to determine relationship among outcome and explanatory variables.

RESULTS

The majority of the expatriates were female (73.85%), married (60.20%), had college degree (47.76%), and employed (48.72%). Over 63% of the total expatriates reported that the COVID-19 pandemic changed their lives. The average age of the respondents was 40.4 years (± 13.7), and the average score of perceived stress, loneliness, interpersonal and institutional trust were 25.5, 7.4, 14.2 and 40.4, respectively. We found a moderate correlation of perceived stress with age, perceived loneliness, interpersonal trust and institutional trust (p < 0.001). They were also found moderately related to each other. Structural equation modelling evaluated that a lack of trust can cause loneliness among expatriates, which later lead to perceived stress. Interpersonal trust was more likely to be associated with stress than institutional trust, whereas perceived loneliness mediated between both trusts and perceived stress.

CONCLUSION

Perceived stress can be reduced through trusting others and alleviating the loneliness. Making strong linkage among migrants as well as between migrants and local community is important to ensure proper mental wellbeing of expatriates.

The 100 Top-Cited Studies on Loneliness: A Bibliometric Analysis

The present study explores characteristics of the top 100 most-cited articles on loneliness. A systematic search was carried out using the Thomson Reuters Web of Science Core Collection to collect studies on loneliness from inception to June 1, 2022. The initial search resulted in 6,250 search results, which included articles, book chapters, conference proceedings, editorials, and letters. Two authors independently screened the literature and extracted the data. The study supervisor removed any discrepancies. Top 100 papers (articles and reviews) on loneliness published in English were extracted. Data analysis and visualization were performed on Excel, Web of Science (WoS) Data Analyzer, and VOSviewer 1.6.16. The total number of citations of the 100 top-cited articles was 42,044, ranging from 203 to 2,201 per article. All of the studies were published from 1989 to 2021, and the years with the highest number of top-cited articles published were 2003 and 2008. Most publications were from the following journals: Computers in Human Behavior, Developmental Psychology, Psychological Science, Psychology, and Aging (n=4 each). The most cited article was titled "UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3): Reliability, validity, and factor structure" by Russell, DW, in the Journal of Personality Assessment. The most productive institute was the University of Chicago. The two most productive authors were Cacioppo, JT, and Hawkley, LC. Of the 100 top-cited publications, 87 were original articles and 13 were reviews. The top three WoS categories were psychology multidisciplinary, gerontology, and psychiatry. In total, 37 author keywords were elicited and further clubbed into eight distinct clusters. The study provides new insight into loneliness research, which may help doctors, researchers, and stakeholders achieve a more comprehensive understanding of trends and influential contributions to the field and highlight under-researched areas, which could be the basis for future investigation.

Thriving together: the benefits of women's social ties for physical, psychological and relationship health

The relationship between social support and well-being is well established in social psychology, with evidence suggesting that these benefits are especially prominent among women. When faced with an environmental stressor, women are more likely to adopt a tend-and-befriend strategy rather than fight-or-flight. Furthermore, female friendships tend to be higher in self-disclosure and more frequently relied on for social support, which is associated with physical and psychological benefits. Women are also more effective at providing social support, further augmenting those benefits. We begin with an overview of the characteristics of women's social ties and how they can be especially useful in times of stress. We then transition to the benefits of female social networks even in the absence of negative events and incorporate research from health and social psychology to consider the positive implications of having strong social bonds and the negative implications of lacking such bonds. Additionally, we consider cross-cultural differences in tendencies to seek out social support and its subsequent benefits, as well as the need for more research with culturally diverse samples. It remains unclear the extent to which patterns of social support benefits for women vary cross-culturally. This article is part of the theme issue 'Cooperation among women: evolutionary and cross-cultural perspectives'.

Understanding loneliness: The roles of self- and interpersonal dysfunction and early parental indifference

Many factors are implicated in developing and maintaining loneliness, including aspects of personality functioning and experience of early adverse childhood events. This study aimed to examine the relationship between domains of personality dysfunction, including self- and interpersonal functioning, and loneliness and determine whether such personality factors mediate the relationship between childhood parental indifference and loneliness. In total, 393 community-dwelling adults, mean age 34.3 (SD = 12.67), were recruited online for cross-sectional assessment of loneliness, personality functioning, big-five personality traits and perceived childhood parental indifference. Linear regression analyses were conducted followed by a parallel mediation model. Self- and interpersonal dysfunction were positively associated with loneliness and remained significant predictors of loneliness after controlling for five-factor personality traits. Impaired personality functioning accounted for 12% of loneliness variance. Finally, self-dysfunction mediated the relationship between childhood parental indifference and loneliness. Findings emphasize the importance of addressing personality functioning when developing psychosocial interventions aimed at tackling loneliness.

Self-Compassion Correlates of Anxiety and Depression Symptoms in Youth: A Comparison of Two Self-Compassion Measures

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Self-compassion is considered as a protective psychological construct that would shield against the development of emotional problems. The aim of the present study was to compare the 'protective nature' of two measures of self-compassion: the Self-Compassion Scale for Youth (SCS-Y) and the Sussex-Oxford Compassion for the Self Scale (SOCS-S).

METHODS

Eighty-seven adolescents aged 12 to 18 years completed both self-compassion measures as well as scales of anxiety and depression symptoms.

RESULTS

SCS-Y and SOCS-S scores were positively correlated, and for both measures it was generally found that higher levels of self-compassion were associated with lower levels of emotional symptoms. However, the uncompassionate self-responding scales of the SCS-Y correlated positively with anxiety and depression symptoms and hence can better be seen as indices of vulnerability. Regression analyses suggested that a positive attitude toward oneself, as measured by the self-kindness scale of the SCS or its SOCS-S equivalent 'feeling for the person suffering' is particularly relevant as a buffer against emotional problems.

CONCLUSION

The protective nature of self-compassion can be established by both measures. Caution is advised with the use of the uncompassionate self-responding scales included in the SCS-Y as they appear to measure vulnerability rather than protection.

Introduction to Special Issue on Affective Science in Animals: Toward a Greater Understanding of Affective Processes in Non-Human Animals

How should we characterize the affective lives of non-human animals? There is a large body of work studying affective processes in non-human animals, yet this work is frequently overlooked. Ideas about the affective lives of animals have varied across culture and time and are reflected in literature, theology, and philosophy. Our contemporary ideas about animal affect are philosophically important within the discipline of affective science, and these ideas have consequences in several domains, including animal husbandry, conservation, and human and veterinary medicine. The articles contained within this special volume cover several levels of analysis and broad representation of species, from the non-mammalian, to rodents, to primates; but together, these articles are collectively concerned with the topic of affective processes in non-human animals.

The moderating role of everyday discrimination on the association between post-traumatic stress and loneliness among older Puerto Ricans

OBJECTIVES

This study examines the relationship between post-traumatic stress and loneliness and whether this relationship varies by perceived everyday discrimination among older Puerto Ricans.

METHODS

A total of 304 Puerto Ricans aged 60 and above from Wave 3 of the Boston Puerto Rican Health Study were included. Ordinary least squares regression examined the association between post-traumatic stress, perceived everyday discrimination, and loneliness.

RESULTS

Post-traumatic stress was significantly associated with a higher level of loneliness (β = 0.282; p < 0.001; 95% CI: 0.142, 0.423). The interaction effect between post-traumatic stress and perceived everyday discrimination on loneliness was statistically significant (β = 0.083; p < 0.05; 95% CI: 0.062, 0.230). More specifically, the positive association between post-traumatic stress and loneliness becomes more robust with the increase in perceived everyday discrimination.

CONCLUSION

Given an increase in population size on the U.S. mainland and migration from Puerto Rico due to natural disasters and declining economic conditions, it is essential to better understand the effect of perceived discrimination against older Puerto Ricans on the mainland United States as well as those who immigrated and stayed through older age. Outreach strategies and interventions that address perceived discrimination can help mitigate loneliness among older Puerto Ricans who experienced trauma.

Loneliness, Depression, and Genetics in the Elderly: Prognostic Factors of a Worse Health Condition?

Loneliness is considered a prognostic factor for poorer health status in the elderly. It is proposed to analyze the role of loneliness in health status in terms of various factors. A total of 1747 individuals from the pilot survey of the Aging in Spain Longitudinal Study (ELES-PS) were reviewed. ELES is a cross-sectional study for collecting health variables, food habits, socioeconomic data, and cognitive and functional capacities, which was carried out on a Spanish representative sample of noninstitutionalized persons of 50 years of age or older. Moreover, since telomere shortening is associated with cellular senescence, 35 telomere-related SNPs and cognitive impairments were analyzed. The results characterize the "solos" as males of 50-60 years, who were overweight and had lower levels of hemoglobin and neutrophils. There is also an association between five SNPs related to telomere length and BDNF. A group of people with loneliness and depression was identified with poorer health and cognitive status, poorer perception of their quality of life, poorer quality of sleep, and lower physical activity. Therefore, it follows that telomeres and BDNF play a role as intermediaries between loneliness and depression and their relationship with a worse state of health.

Loneliness and Social Support among the Middle-Aged and Elderly People with Visual Impairment

Loneliness is associated with depression, sleep disturbance, and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, and it is a global public health problem. Since physical and mental health have a great impact on loneliness, middle-aged and elderly people who are blind or visually impaired may be more affected by loneliness. Previous research has confirmed that effective social support can enhance physical and mental health and alleviate the negative effects of life stress. Therefore, in this study, we applied a cross-sectional design where data were collected using questionnaires completed in person, by phone, or online for a total of 456 middle-aged and elderly people with visual impairment. We found that the enrolled participants who were unemployed, lacked a stable source of income, lived alone, or were unable to move independently were prone to experiencing high levels of loneliness and low social support, which highlights the necessity of interventions such as counseling to alleviate the sense of loneliness in such groups. During the COVID-19 pandemic, social support measures to reduce the sense of loneliness should be highly encouraged to ensure that middle-aged and elderly people with visual impairment can continue to live independently, and social support seems to be an important factor.

Pet ownership, feelings of loneliness, and mood in people affected by the first COVID-19 lockdown

The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has caused dramatic changes to our lifestyle, particularly affecting our ability to interact “in person” with our social network. These changes have had a detrimental effect on the mental welfare of the global population. The international questionnaire “Pets in Lockdown” was designed to investigate whether feelings of loneliness were affecting the mood of people during the COVID-19 lockdown and whether pet ownership may have had a positive influence on both loneliness and general mood. As expected, higher loneliness scores were associated with higher negative and lower positive affective states. In addition, lower loneliness scores were associated with pet ownership and living with other people, but not with more frequent interactions with people from outside the household, suggesting that physical and close contact has an important role in decreasing feelings of loneliness. Besides the effects on the loneliness score, pet ownership was not associated with positive or negative affective states. The strength of the attachment to animals, measured as the amount of comfort that people obtain from their pets, was stronger in people with potentially limited access to affiliative physical human contact and was associated with both higher positive and negative affective states. Additionally, people obtained significantly more comfort from dogs and horses compared with other pet species. The results suggest that during the confinement period, pets may have benefited people with smaller social networks by alleviating loneliness and offering comfort and embodied close contact.

Associated Factors of Worrying About Loneliness Before Death

Human beings' welfare is closely related to their social relationships, and lack of that relationship could result in social isolation and loneliness. Various types of loneliness have been discussed in the literature, but a sense of loneliness before death has received no attention. Thus, this study is conducted to better understand the mechanism and nature of that type of loneliness. The response of this study was "Do you worry that you may be alone when you are dying?". After highlighting the most important features, to examine the true associations between various factors and a sense of loneliness, the pairwise interactions across various variables were considered. It was found, for instance, while attending religious service, having higher subjective life condition, and being older are negatively associated with the response, belief that success depends on God and higher income are positively associated with that feeling. Also, while married people are less worried about loneliness before death, this interacts with a myriad of factors. Similarly, positive associations were found across responses and a higher concern that those close with us won't be with us, or those who we care about might not remember us after death.

Loneliness in Leadership: A Study Applied to the Portuguese Banking Sector

In this study, we analyzed the feeling of loneliness in leadership in the Portuguese banking sector, seeking to identify variables that may instigate this feeling, such as gender, age, academic qualifications, function/position, number of working hours per week, and years of work/seniority, and the consequences that it may have, namely in terms of the decision-making process and the motivation of leaders. For this study, a quantitative research tool was used in the form of a questionnaire, which was applied to a group of collaborators, with leadership responsibilities, of the financial institutions authorized to operate in Portugal. We concluded that while some variables influence the feeling of loneliness in leadership (years of work, position, and academic qualifications), others do not (gender, age, and hours of work per week). We also found a relationship between loneliness and demotivation and proved that the feeling of loneliness affects leadership but does not affect decision making. The results are relevant, especially for the banking sector, which has undergone major restructuring in the Portuguese economy and needs guidance to face the country’s financial challenges.

Attachment mediates the link between childhood maltreatment and loneliness in persistent depressive disorder

BACKGROUND

A central concept of attachment theory is that early experiences with close attachment figures shape the way we interact with and relate to other social partners throughout life. As such, early experiences of childhood maltreatment (CM) have been suggested as a key precursor of adult insecure attachment representations. As CM has been linked to feelings of loneliness in adulthood, this study examines whether insecure attachment could explain the relationship between CM and loneliness. Also, the moderating role of a diagnosis of persistent depressive disorder (PDD) is investigated, a disorder characterized by high levels of CM and loneliness.

METHOD

60 patients with PDD (DSM-5) and 60 gender- and age-matched non-clinical control participants (NC) completed self-report questionnaires measuring attachment, loneliness, and CM. Mediation analyses (PDD as a moderator) were performed.

RESULTS

PDD patients reported higher levels of CM, attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance, and loneliness than NC. CM was positively associated with loneliness in both groups. Mediation analyses demonstrated that the relationship between CM and loneliness was mediated by avoidant, but not anxious attachment, regardless of a diagnosis of PDD.

LIMITATIONS

Caution when interpreting these results is crucial as the study lacked a clinical control group, relied on self-report measures, and the cross-sectional design limits the ability to draw causal inferences.

CONCLUSIONS

All constructs studied were present to a greater degree in PDD. Above, findings provide initial evidence that avoidant attachment may explain the relationship between CM and loneliness. Potentially, adult avoidant attachment may lead to and maintain feelings of loneliness, regardless of PDD.

Family Connections and the Latino Health Paradox: Exploring the Mediating Role of Loneliness in the Relationships Between the Latina/o Cultural Value of Familism and Health

This study aims to understand Latina/o health from a social relationships perspective. Specifically, a major goal of the study is to explain how despite disadvantages (e.g., lower income and less education), Latinas/os in some cases have superior health compared to non-Latina/o whites, a phenomenon known as the Latino Health Paradox. Based on the central role of familial relationships in Latina/o culture, and utilizing Hawkley and Cacioppo's theoretical model of loneliness and health as a foundation for the study, the premise underlying this research is that the Latina/o cultural value of familism has a beneficial impact on health via reduced loneliness. Participants were 255 adults who identified as Latina/o (N = 139) or non-Latina/o white (N = 116), ranging in age from 19-88. Results indicate that being Latina/o predicted strong endorsement of familism, that predicted lower loneliness, and lower loneliness subsequently predicted better overall health, mental health, and health practices. These results suggest that the cultural value of familism provides health-related benefits for Latinas/os, which contributes to understanding the Latino health paradox. Results also underscore the value of including loneliness in studies examining the impact of cultural values on health, as only loneliness had statistically significant direct associations with all three health outcomes.

Social determinants of hypertension in high-income countries: A narrative literature review and future directions

Hypertension is a leading cause of cardiovascular disease and despite established strategies to lower blood pressure, the control of hypertension remains poor. This is true even in high-income countries with well-established welfare and medical systems. Among the social factors associated with hypertension (i.e., social determinants of hypertension, SDHT), individual socioeconomic status (SES), including education, income, and occupation, can be crucial for hypertension management (prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control). This article reviews the findings of recently published studies that examined the association between SES and hypertension management in high-income countries. It also discusses social prescribing, which targets social isolation and loneliness as modifiable SDHT to improve hypertension management.

Conceptual framework of social determinants of hypertension

Latent Profile Analysis of Positive Solitude During the Recurrent Outbreak of COVID-19

The current study aimed to identify latent profiles of positive solitude during the recurrent outbreak of COVID-19 among Chinese adults. A total of 902 adults from China completed the questionnaires. We found five different profiles of positive solitude: low positive solitude group, medium-low positive solitude group, quietness positive solitude group, medium-high positive solitude group, and high positive solitude group. Positive and negative affect were significantly different from the five profiles. In addition, gender had different effects on different positive solitude profiles. The results of the study provide a new perspective to understand the positive solitude of Chinese adults during the recurrent outbreak of COVID-19 by using the people-centered approach.

Would the Real Loneliness Please Stand Up? The Validity of Loneliness Scores and the Reliability of Single-Item Scores

Several measures that assess loneliness have been developed for adults. Across three studies, we investigated psychometric features of scores of different versions of the Rasch-Type Loneliness Scale, the University of California Los Angeles Loneliness Scale, and three single-item measures. In Study 1 (N = 697 self-ratings, N = 282 informant-ratings of 160 targets) and Study 2 (N = 1,216 individuals from 608 couples), we investigated convergent validity, self-informant agreement, and nomological nets of the item scores using correlates related to demographic aspects, personality, satisfaction, and network characteristics. In Study 3 (N = 411), we estimated a reliability of rxx>.70 for scores of three single-item measures of loneliness. Overall, scores of all measures and their nomological nets were highly correlated within and across studies, indicating that the scores of the included measures are all reliable and valid. Recommendations for choosing a loneliness measure are discussed.

Correlates of emotional and social loneliness among community dwelling older adults in Rotterdam, the Netherlands

OBJECTIVES

Loneliness is seen as an important problem, contributing to serious health problems. As a baseline measurement for the evaluation of a community project aimed at reducing loneliness in Rotterdam, loneliness was measured, as well as potential correlates. This article describes models of social and emotional loneliness among older adults.

METHODS

This study was conducted among 3,821 randomly selected community dwelling citizens of 65 years and older. Loneliness was measured by using the Jong-Gierveld loneliness questionnaire/scale. As potential correlates demographic, health and psychological and social variables were included. Data were subjected to multiple hierarchically regression analysis.

RESULTS

Emotional loneliness was reported by 60% and social loneliness by 47% of the sample. Women were more emotionally lonely than men , while men reported more social loneliness than women. Emotional social support and quality of life were strongest in predicting emotional loneliness and social capital in the neighbourhood, companionship and instrumental support were strongest predictors for social loneliness. Demographic variables predicted variability in emotional loneliness.

CONCLUSIONS

The strength of the correlates differed between the two dimensions of loneliness. In the design of interventions to prevent and reduce loneliness among older adults, strategies should be developed aimed at the specific dimensions of loneliness.

Social Isolation and Sleep: Manifestation During COVID-19 Quarantines

Although researchers have investigated the impact of social isolation on well-being, the recent quarantines due to COVID-19 resulted in a social isolation environment that was unique to any examined in the past. Because sleep is one of the endogenous drives that impacts short and long-term health and well-being, it is important to consider how social isolation during the COVID-19 government-mandated quarantines affected sleep and sleep habits. A number of researchers have addressed this question during the last 2 years by examining several concepts related to possible changes in sleep during the quarantines. To best understand these recent results, the current mini review provides a background on the pre-pandemic literature on the effects of social isolation and loneliness with a focus on sleep and then summarizes the recent literature on sleep and sleep habits. In general, sleep was negatively impacted for many people during the pandemics but not all. One group that seemed to benefit from the pandemic in terms of sleep patterns, were younger people who could more easily adapt their sleep times to match their internal chronobiology. Given the potential broad impact of sleep on health and well-being, better understanding how social isolation impacts sleep is an important consideration for individuals, work organizations, and governments.

This is what loneliness looks like: A mixed-methods study of loneliness in adolescence and young adulthood

The present study used quantitative and qualitative methods to explore how lonely young people are seen from others' perspectives, in terms of their personality, behaviour and life circumstances. Data were drawn from the Environmental Risk Longitudinal Twin Study, a cohort of 2,232 individuals born in the United Kingdom in the mid-1990s. When participants were aged 18, they provided self-reports of loneliness, and informant ratings of loneliness were provided by interviewers, as well as participants' parents and siblings. Interviewers further provided Big Five personality ratings, and detailed written notes in which they documented their perceptions of the participants and their reflections on the content of the interview. In the quantitative section of the paper, regression analyses were used to examine the perceptibility of loneliness, and how participants' loneliness related to their perceived personality traits. The informant ratings of participants' loneliness showed good agreement with self-reports. Furthermore, loneliness was associated with lower perceived conscientiousness, agreeableness and extraversion, and higher perceived neuroticism. Within-twin pair analyses indicated that these associations were partly explained by common underlying genetic influences. In the qualitative section of the study, the loneliest 5% of study participants (N=108) were selected, and thematic analysis was applied to the study' interviewers' notes about those participants. Three themes were identified and named: 'uncomfortable in own skin', 'clustering of risk', and 'difficulties accessing social resources'. These results add depth to the current conceptualisation of loneliness, and emphasise the complexity and intersectional nature of the circumstances severely lonely young adults live in.

Social isolation and suicide risk: Literature review and perspectives

Background

Suicide is a major public health problem and a cause of premature mortality. With a view to prevention, a great deal of research has been devoted to the determinants of suicide, focusing mostly on individual risk factors, particularly depression. In addition to causes intrinsic to the individual, the social environment has also been widely studied, particularly social isolation. This paper examines the social dimension of suicide etiology through a review of the literature on the relationship between suicide and social isolation.

Methods

Medline searches via PubMed and PsycINFO were conducted. The keywords were “suicid*” AND “isolation.”

Results

Of the 2,684 articles initially retrieved, 46 were included in the review.

Conclusions

Supported by proven theoretical foundations, mainly those developed by E. Durkheim and T. Joiner, a large majority of the articles included endorse the idea of a causal relationship between social isolation and suicide, and conversely, a protective effect of social support against suicide. Moreover, the association between suicide and social isolation is subject to variations related to age, gender, psychopathology, and specific circumstances. The social etiology of suicide has implications for intervention and future research.

Consequences of pandemic-associated social restrictions: Role of social support and the oxytocin system

During pandemics, governments take drastic actions to prevent the spreading of the disease, as seen during the present COVID-19 crisis. Sanctions of lockdown, social distancing and quarantine urge people to exclusively work and teach at home and to restrict social contacts to a minimum; lonely people get into further isolation, while families` nerves are strained to the extreme. Overall, this results in a dramatic and chronic increase in the level of psychosocial stress over several months mainly caused by i) social isolation and ii) psychosocial stress associated with overcrowding, social tension in families, and domestic violence. Moreover, pandemic-associated social restrictions are accompanied by loss of an essential stress buffer and important parameter for general mental and physical health: social support. Chronic psychosocial stress and, in particular, social isolation and lack of social support affect not only mental health, but also the brain oxytocin system and the immune system. Hence, pandemic-associated social restrictions are expected to increase the risk of developing psychopathologies, such as depression, anxiety-related and posttraumatic stress disorders, on the one hand, but also to induce a general inflammatory state and to impair the course of infectious disorders on the other. Due to its pro-social and stress-buffering effects, resulting in an anti-inflammatory state in case of disease, the role of the neuropeptide oxytocin will be discussed and critically considered as an emerging treatment option in cases of pandemic-induced psychosocial stress, viral infection and during recovery. In this review, we aim to critically focus on possible short- and long-term consequences of social restrictions on mental health and the immune system, while discussion oxytocin as a possible treatment option.

Shelter-in-place orders, loneliness, and collaborative behavior

The outbreak of COVID-19 resulted in numerous jurisdictions instituting "shelter-in-place'' orders (SPOs). While designed to restrict or impede normal levels of social proximity, SPOs altered the way or degree to which workers interact with each other and have likely imposed a toll on employee well-being. The authors exploit the temporal and geographic variation in U.S. SPOs to investigate their effect on loneliness among online workers. Variation in loneliness is then linked to worker behavior in a simple two-person, collaborative task (a framed stag hunt). The analysis reveals a strong positive relationship between SPOs and loneliness on average, peaking during the wave associated with the most prolonged duration of isolation. SPOs disproportionately impacted workers in occupations not substantially involving teamwork or collaboration. As reported loneliness increases, the probability of an individual collaborating in a simple interactive workplace scenario decreases significantly. In the final survey wave, SPOs are scarcer, loneliness subsides, and cooperative behavior increases dramatically.

The Effectiveness of Intervening on Social Isolation to Reduce Mortality during Heat Waves in Aged Population: A Retrospective Ecological Study

BACKGROUND

Heat waves are correlated with increased mortality in the aged population. Social isolation is known as a vulnerability factor. This study aims at evaluating the correlation between an intervention to reduce social isolation and the increase in mortality in the population over 80 during heat waves.

METHODS

This study adopted a retrospective ecologic design. We compared the excess mortality rate (EMR) in the over-80 population during heat waves in urban areas of Rome (Italy) where a program to reduce social isolation was implemented, to others where it was not implemented. We measured the mortality of the summer periods from 2015 to 2019 compared with 2014 (a year without heat waves). Winter mortality, cadastral income, and the proportion of people over 90 were included in the multivariate Poisson regression.

RESULTS

The EMR in the intervention and controls was 2.70% and 3.81%, respectively. The rate ratio was 0.70 (c.i. 0.54-0.92, p-value 0.01). The incidence rate ratio (IRR) of the interventions, with respect to the controls, was 0.76 (c.i. 0.59-0.98). After adjusting for other variables, the IRR was 0.44 (c.i. 0.32-0.60).

CONCLUSIONS

Reducing social isolation could limit the impact of heat waves on the mortality of the elderly population.

Expatriate partners’ personality and its influence on acculturation into a new cultural context: Examining the role of dispositional affectivity

Despite the vital role that trailing partners play for successful expatriation, we still know very little about what actually causes partners to thrive and integrate effectively into the new cultural context. However, as indications have emerged that the personality of partners could be key to a favorable acculturation trajectory, we set out to explore this further. More specifically, we assess the role of expatriate partners’ dispositional affectivity, that is, positive and negative affectivity. We examine this in relation to internal acculturation (in the form of interaction and general adjustment) and external acculturation (in the form of local community embeddedness and intentions to stay or to return home). Drawing on the data of 123 trailing partners, full support was found for three out of four hypotheses regarding the effects of positive affectivity. Further, a marginally significant negative association was identified for the relationship between positive affectivity and repatriation intentions. For negative affectivity, two hypotheses were met. Interestingly, no significant influence of negative affectivity on community embeddedness was found. The association between negative affectivity and interaction adjustment was marginally significant indicating some tentative support. In sum, this study corroborates that dispositional affectivity is an overall important concept to explain trailing partners’ acculturation. However, the role of positive and negative affectivity seems to vary along the different proxies of internal and external acculturation.

Lonely, but Not Alone: Qualitative Study among Immigrant and Native-Born Adolescents

This paper explores loneliness as it is understood and experienced by adolescents, with a special focus on the importance of their migration status. We recruited students from five schools following a maximum variation sampling scheme, and we conducted 15 semi-structured, individual interviews with eighth-grade adolescents (aged 14-15 years) that were immigrants, descendants, and with a Danish majority background. A thematic analysis was applied with a special focus on differences and similarities in understanding and experiencing loneliness between adolescents with diverse migration status. The results showed more similarities than differences in loneliness. Generally, loneliness was described as an adverse feeling, varying in intensity and duration, and participants referenced distressing emotions. Feeling lonely was distinguished from being alone and characterized as an invisible social stigma. A variety of perceived social deficiencies were emphasized as causing loneliness, emerging in the interrelation between characteristics of the individual and their social context. The results add to the current literature by highlighting that it is not the presence of specific individual characteristics that causes loneliness; instead, loneliness is dependent on the social contexts the individual is embedded in. Differences across migration status were few and related to variations in the adolescents' individual characteristics. The findings highlight the importance of (1) studying the characteristics of both the individual and the social context in research on the antecedents to adolescents' loneliness, and (2) applying this perspective in other studies on the importance of migration status.

Lonely societies: low trust societies? Further explanations for national variations in loneliness among older Europeans

Cross-national studies in Europe reveal sharp regional differences in the prevalence of loneliness among older adults, with the highest prevalence of loneliness in Eastern European countries. In this study, we investigate an alternative explanation for differences in loneliness prevalence based on differences in trust. Many of the Eastern European countries were ruled by totalitarian regimes that undermined people’s trust in other people and in the system, potentially leading to higher loneliness prevalence. Data are derived from the sixth round of the European Social Survey conducted in 2012, based on 12,042 respondents, of which 4827 live in post-totalitarian countries and 7215 in other European countries and Israel. We estimate a path model with trust in people, trust in the system, and social engagement included as latent variables and one dichotomous outcome (lonely or not). We control for age, gender, health limitations, marital status, income adequacy, and education. The results reveal that loneliness is partly constructed by the social–cultural and historical–political characteristics of the countries in which people live. The higher prevalence of loneliness in the Eastern-European post-totalitarian countries can be linked to a low level of trust in other people through social disengagement. Considering the role of trust in the creation of individuals feelings of loneliness contributes to the understanding of country variations in loneliness and opens a new perspective in loneliness research and the development of policies aimed at reducing loneliness.

Social isolation and social support in good times and bad times

People who are socially isolated or lonely report having lower levels of social support. Supportive social networks help buffer individuals against the deleterious effects of negative events and stressors. Supportive social networks also help individuals maximize the benefits of positive events and accomplishments. In short, those who are socially isolated suffer more when bad things happen and gain less when good things happen than those who are more socially connected.

Is Loneliness Adaptive? A Dynamic Panel Model Study of Older U.S. Adults

OBJECTIVES

Recent evolutionary psychological theory proposes that loneliness is an adaptive mechanism, designed to trigger maintenance and repair of social ties. No population representative analyses have probed loneliness effects on sociality. The present study addressed this gap.

METHOD

Data were from the 2006, 2010, 2014, and 2018 waves of the Health and Retirement Study, nationally representative of U.S. adults over age 50. Recently developed cross-lagged models with fixed effects were used to test prospective within-person associations of loneliness with specific dimensions of sociality, taking into account reverse causality as well as all time-invariant confounders with stable effects. Both gender-combined and -specific analyses were conducted.

RESULTS

Loneliness did not consistently predict overall sociality: sparse linkages were found only among women. The same null pattern held with family ties. Non-family ties, in contrast, were associated with prior loneliness, but in a gender-specific way. Loneliness positively predicted women's social interactions with friends, but seemed linked to withdrawal from these relationships among men. There were indications that lonely men instead used religious attendance as a social outlet.

DISCUSSION

Loneliness seems to induce domain- and gender-specific sociality responses. Findings suggest implications for evolutionary models of sociality as well as for psychosocial and physical health. Pending replication in independent samples, inferences remain tentative.

The Effects of Leisure Activities on Self-Efficacy and Social Adjustment: A Study of Immigrants in South Korea

This study classified leisure activity types into active, passive, and social leisure activities based on theory, and focused on determining the type that has a significant influence on the self-efficacy and social adjustment of immigrants staying in South Korea. The results of multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), including post-hoc analysis using SPSS 23.0, were as follows: in principle, immigrants who participate in active or social leisure activities perceive their self-efficacy and social adjustment to be high. Differing slightly from this, the passive leisure activity type, which includes activities such as reading alone, listening to music, and surfing the web, may relieve their stress or provide them with psychological stability, but it was not found to be helpful in their adjustment to the new culture. The significance of this study lies in the finding that leisure activities help immigrants with social adjustment, in addition to physical and psychological aids that are already well known. We hope that the findings of the present study can be used as basic data for helping immigrants with smooth social adjustment and increasing their quality of life.

Social Processes Associated With Health and Health Behaviors Linked to Early Mortality in People With a Diagnosis of a Serious Mental Illness

Individuals with serious mental illness (SMI) experience a 10- to 25-year reduced life expectancy compared with the general population. Early mortality for people with SMI has mainly been attributed to unhealthy behaviors (e.g., poor diet, sedentary lifestyle), which has led to the development of health promotion and self-management interventions specifically for people with SMI to promote health behavior change. Yet after decades of research, the mortality gap between people with SMI and the general population is increasing. To address this early mortality disparity for individuals with SMI, a new paradigm must be explored. In this article, we present the social processes impacting early mortality in people with SMI paradigm, which highlights the powerful role of social processes in shaping the health and health behaviors of people with SMI. This paradigm explores how loneliness, stigma (social and self), trauma, social exclusion, social isolation, and social norms are related to early mortality in people with SMI. This new paradigm is an important step in understanding and potentially addressing early mortality in people with SMI.

All the lonely people: Comparing the effects of loneliness as a social stressor to non-lonely stress on blood pressure recovery

OBJECTIVE

This study examined whether recalling a social stress that evoked lonely feelings produces greater affective and blood pressure responses than recalling non-social stress or a relaxing event.

METHODS

Young adults (n = 114) underwent one of three inductions: recalling a social stressor in which one felt lonely, recalling a non-social non-lonely stressor, and relaxation. Negative affect was assessed during baseline, induction, and recovery. Blood pressure was assessed continuously using a finger cuff.

RESULTS

Both the lonely and non-lonely stress conditions reported increased negative affect following the induction, with neither condition having fully recovered to baseline levels by the end of the study. For blood pressure, during recovery, blood pressure increased linearly for the lonely stress condition, but remained steady for the other conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

Recalling a social stress evoking lonely feelings may be more harmful for cardiovascular health than recalling non-social stressors. Results extend work demonstrating that in vivo stressors involving social evaluation elicit larger stress responses compared to stressors without this component.

Mortality risk associated with combinations of loneliness and social isolation. Findings from The Irish Longitudinal Study on Ageing (TILDA)

Background

Social distancing and similar measures in response to the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic have greatly increased loneliness and social isolation among older adults. Understanding the association between loneliness and mortality is therefore critically important. We examined whether combinations of loneliness and social isolation, using a metric named social asymmetry, was associated with increased mortality risk.

Methods

The sample was derived from participants in The Irish Longitudinal Study on Ageing, a nationally representative sample of community-dwelling older adults aged ≥50. Survey data were linked to official death registration records. Cox proportional hazards regressions and competing risk survival analyses were used to examine the association between social asymmetry and all-cause and cause-specific mortality.

Results

Of four social asymmetry groups, concordant low lonely (low loneliness, low isolation) included 35.5% of participants; 26.4% were concordant high lonely (high loneliness, high isolation); 19.2% were discordant robust (low loneliness, high isolation) and 18.9% discordant susceptible (high loneliness, low isolation). The concordant high lonely (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.43, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.09–1.87) and discordant robust (HR = 1.37, 95% CI: 1.04–1.81) groups had an increased mortality risk compared to those in the concordant low lonely group. The concordant high lonely group had an increased risk of mortality due to diseases of the circulatory system (sub-distribution hazard ratio = 1.52, 95% CI: 1.03–2.25).

Conclusion

We found that social asymmetry predicted mortality over a 7-year follow-up period. Our results confirm that a mismatch between subjective loneliness and objective social isolation, as well as the combination of loneliness and social isolation, were associated with an increased all-cause mortality risk.

Association between physical activity participation and perceived social isolation at older ages: Do social participation, age and sex differences matter?

BACKGROUND

Physical inactivity is a major risk factor for poor health. However, it is unclear how physical activity (PA) is associated with perceived social isolation (PSI) in older age. This study aims to explore 1) association between PA and PSI among older people in Ghana and 2) if social participation (SP), age and sex modify any associations.

METHODS

The study focused on 1,201 men and women aged ≥50 years in the AgeHeaPsyWel-HeaSeeB Study. Multivariate ordinary least squares (OLS) models were specified to estimate the regression coefficients and standard errors for the associations of PA and SP with PSI adjusting for potential confounders.

RESULTS

Multivariate OLS regressions showed that engagement in SP (b = -0.442; SE = 0.140; p < 0.001) and regular PA (b = -0.338; SE = 0.152; p < 0.005) were independently associated with decreasing PSI. Also, SP modified the PA-PSI association such that resourceful SP reinforced the link between PA and PSI (b = -0.709; SE = 0.276; p < .005). Finding revealed sex (men: b= -0.712; SE = 0.266; p < 0.005; women: p = 0.083) and age differences (65+: b = -0.437; SE = 0.206; p < 0.005; 50-64: b = -0.502; SE = 0.252; p < 0.05) in the effect of PA on PSI.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings provide insight into the importance of specific and combined effects of SP and PA on PSI in older age. Public health, clinical practice, and social policy efforts should target social healing and group PA interventions to improve older adults' emotional health.

Impacts of therapeutic horticulture on happiness and loneliness in institutionalized clients with mental health conditions

Introduction

Therapeutic horticulture (TH) can be considered a non-pharmacological approach to support psychiatric treatments for the improvement of physical and mental health, but information is lacking on whether it has advantages as compared to more conventional occupational therapies (OTs).

Method

The study focused on institutionalized 25 clients attending TH among other OTs and 15 clients attending OT other than TH. The measures used were the ‘Subjective Happiness Scale’ (SHS) and the ‘Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults’ (SELSA-S), along with sociodemographic and clinical data. The study design was descriptive, observational and cross-sectional.

Results

Scores obtained from the SHS and SELSA-S were generally similar for both groups, although 40% of clients in the TH group perceived relaxation. These are in agreement with previous studies performed with chronic schizophrenia clients reporting that TH might effectively decrease depression/anxiety symptoms, but the feeling of hopelessness and quality of life did not change, probably due to long-term institutionalization and required medication that may limit other effects. Within the TH group, clients preferred specific horticultural tasks and more days/week attending activities decreased loneliness and increased happiness.

Conclusion

TH interventions as an integrative treatment option merits further study on both process and outcome evaluation, to maximize its effectiveness.

Short-Term Analysis (8 Weeks) of Social Distancing and Isolation on Mental Health and Physical Activity Behavior During COVID-19

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, cities and states adopted social distancing, social isolation, or quarantine measurements to slow the transmission of the disease. Negative mental health outcomes including depression and anxiety have been associated with social distancing or social isolation. The purpose of the present study was to examine changes in psychological health and physical activity over an 8 week period under social distancing policies during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: Ninety (73.3% female; age 32.04 ± 11.33) individuals participated in this study. Qualifying participants answered questions using an online survey regarding their loneliness, depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, mood state, and physical activity over four time points each lasting two weeks. Results: Symptoms of depression and state anxiety were increased in the population when compared to nationwide statistics from before the COVID-19 pandemic. Time point 2, ~1 month into social isolation, showed the most significant effects on mental health. During this time point, 100% of the participants showed symptoms of depression. There were no significant changes in physical activity over the 8 weeks. Loneliness, depressive symptoms, fatigue, and mood state were negatively associated with participation in physical activity. Vigor and state anxiety were associated with participation in physical activity. Conclusion: Social isolation and social distancing practices have had a negative effect on depression, anxiety, and mood over time. It appeared that depressive symptoms and total mood disturbance was elevated during time point two. Depressive symptoms were much higher than average compared to previous epidemiological data. Physical activity amount did not change over time but was associated with poor mental health.

Psychological Impact of the Lockdown in Italy Due to the COVID-19 Outbreak: Are There Gender Differences?

The COVID-19 emergency has hit the whole world, finding all countries unprepared to face it. The first studies focused on the medical aspects, neglecting the psychological dimension of the populations that were forced to face changes in everyday life and in some cases to stay forcedly at home in order to reduce contagion. The present research was carried out in Italy, one of the countries hardest hit by the pandemic. The aim was to analyze the perception of happiness, mental health, and the sense of loneliness experienced by adults during the lockdown due to the COVID pandemic. Specifically, the variables will be examined in relation to gender difference, living alone, with partner, or with partner and children. The research followed a quantitative approach using an online questionnaire. The project involved 1100 subjects from whom 721 participants (75.5% women) were extrapolated. Of them, 17.3% claimed to live alone, 39.5% with their partner, and 43.1% with their partner and children. The results show that people in general experienced a lower level of happiness and mental health and higher levels of loneliness compared to normative sample. The lockdown and pandemic condition due to COVID-19 seems to have canceled the gender differences in the perception of happiness and mental health, while it seems to have increased the perception of loneliness experienced by males compared to the pre-pandemic condition. In addition, those who lived alone perceived a greater level of loneliness than those who lived with their partner or partner and children. Unexpectedly, no significant differences emerged regarding the level of happiness and mental health between those who had direct contact with the virus and those who did not. These data should make political decision-makers reflect on the need to pay more attention to the implications that such drastic measures as a lockdown can have on people's psychological well-being.

Qualitative study of loneliness in a senior housing community: the importance of wisdom and other coping strategies

OBJECTIVE

Older adults are at a high risk for loneliness, which impacts their health, well-being, and longevity. While related to social isolation, loneliness is a distinct, internally experienced, distressing feeling. The present qualitative study sought to identify characteristics of loneliness in older adults living independently within a senior housing community, which is typically designed to reduce social isolation.

METHOD

Semi-structured qualitative interviews regarding the experience of loneliness, risk factors, and ways to combat it were conducted with 30 older adults, ages 65-92 years. The interviews were audiotaped, transcribed, and coded using a grounded theory analytic approach based on coding, consensus, co-occurrence, and comparison.

RESULTS

Three main themes with multiple subthemes are described: (A) Risk and Protective factors for loneliness: age-associated losses, lack of social skills or abilities, and protective personality traits; (B) Experience of loneliness: Sadness and lack of meaning as well as Lack of motivation; and (C) Coping strategies to prevent or overcome loneliness: acceptance of aging, compassion, seeking companionship, and environment enables socialization.

DISCUSSION

Despite living within a communal setting designed to reduce social isolation, many older adults described feeling lonely in stark negative terms, attributing it to aging-associated losses or lack of social skills and abilities. However, interviewees also reported positive personal qualities and actions to prevent or cope with loneliness, several of which mirrored specific components of wisdom. The results support the reported inverse relationship between loneliness and wisdom and suggest a potential role for wisdom-enhancing interventions to reduce and prevent loneliness in older populations.