Endocytosis and secretion in trypanosomatid parasites — Tumultuous traffic in a pocket

Identification of a basal body-localized epsilon-tubulin in Leishmania

Epsilon-tubulins have been identified in only a few organisms to date. We identified an epsilon-tubulin in Leishmania major (Lmε-tubulin) exhibiting significant sequence similarity and conservation of functional domains with its counterparts. It is expressed in both promastigote and amastigote forms of the parasite. For localization studies, we generated a Leishmania strain expressing the endogenous Lmε-tubulin tagged with mNeonGreen by CRISPR-Cas9. Imaging of this strain revealed that Lmε-tubulin is located near the kinetoplast and at the flagellar base, indicating basal body localization. Lmε-tubulin is not part of the microtubular network since its localization remained unaltered upon treatment with nocodazole, a microtubule disruptor. This is the first experimental identification of an ε-tubulin not only in Leishmania but in the entire Trypanosomatidae family.

Continuous endosomes form functional subdomains and orchestrate rapid membrane trafficking in trypanosomes

Endocytosis is a common process observed in most eukaryotic cells, although its complexity varies among different organisms. In Trypanosoma brucei, the endocytic machinery is under special selective pressure because rapid membrane recycling is essential for immune evasion. This unicellular parasite effectively removes host antibodies from its cell surface through hydrodynamic drag and fast endocytic internalization. The entire process of membrane recycling occurs exclusively through the flagellar pocket, an extracellular organelle situated at the posterior pole of the spindle-shaped cell. The high-speed dynamics of membrane flux in trypanosomes do not seem compatible with the conventional concept of distinct compartments for early endosomes (EE), late endosomes (LE), and recycling endosomes (RE). To investigate the underlying structural basis for the remarkably fast membrane traffic in trypanosomes, we employed advanced techniques in light and electron microscopy to examine the three-dimensional architecture of the endosomal system. Our findings reveal that the endosomal system in trypanosomes exhibits a remarkably intricate structure. Instead of being compartmentalized, it constitutes a continuous membrane system, with specific functions of the endosome segregated into membrane subdomains enriched with classical markers for EE, LE, and RE. These membrane subdomains can partly overlap or are interspersed with areas that are negative for endosomal markers. This continuous endosome allows fast membrane flux by facilitated diffusion that is not slowed by multiple fission and fusion events.

FAZ assembly in bloodstream form Trypanosoma brucei requires kinesin KIN-E

Trypanosoma brucei, the causative agent of African sleeping sickness, uses its flagellum for movement, cell division, and signaling. The flagellum is anchored to the cell body membrane via the flagellum attachment zone (FAZ), a complex of proteins, filaments, and microtubules that spans two membranes with elements on both flagellum and cell body sides. How FAZ components are carried into place to form this complex is poorly understood. Here, we show that the trypanosome-specific kinesin KIN-E is required for building the FAZ in bloodstream-form parasites. KIN-E is localized along the flagellum with a concentration at its distal tip. Depletion of KIN-E by RNAi rapidly inhibits flagellum attachment and leads to cell death. A detailed analysis reveals that KIN-E depletion phenotypes include failure in cytokinesis completion, kinetoplast DNA missegregation, and transport vesicle accumulation. Together with previously published results in procyclic form parasites, these data suggest KIN-E plays a critical role in FAZ assembly in T. brucei.

Hemoglobin uptake and utilization by human protozoan parasites: a review

The protozoan disease is a major global health concern. Amoebiasis, leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, and African sleeping sickness affect several million people worldwide, leading to millions of deaths annually and immense social and economic problems. Iron is an essential nutrient for nearly all microbes, including invading pathogens. The majority of iron in mammalian hosts is stored intracellularly in proteins, such as ferritin and hemoglobin (Hb). Hb, present in blood erythrocytes, is a very important source of iron and amino acids for pathogenic microorganisms ranging from bacteria to eukaryotic pathogens, such as worms, protozoa, yeast, and fungi. These organisms have developed adequate mechanisms to obtain Hb or its byproducts (heme and globin) from the host. One of the major virulence factors identified in parasites is parasite-derived proteases, essential for host tissue degradation, immune evasion, and nutrient acquisition. The production of Hb-degrading proteases is a Hb uptake mechanism that degrades globin in amino acids and facilitates heme release. This review aims to provide an overview of the Hb and heme-uptake mechanisms utilized by human pathogenic protozoa to survive inside the host.

Leishmania Vesicle-Depleted Exoproteome: What, Why, and How?

Leishmaniasis, a vector-borne parasitic protozoan disease, is among the most important neglected tropical diseases. In the absence of vaccines, disease management is challenging. The available chemotherapy is suboptimal, and there are growing concerns about the emergence of drug resistance. Thus, a better understanding of parasite biology is essential to generate new strategies for disease control. In this context, in vitro parasite exoproteome characterization enabled the identification of proteins involved in parasite survival, pathogenesis, and other biologically relevant processes. After 2005, with the availability of genomic information, these studies became increasingly feasible and revealed the true complexity of the parasite exoproteome. After the discovery of Leishmania extracellular vesicles (EVs), most exoproteome studies shifted to the characterization of EVs. The non-EV portion of the exoproteome, named the vesicle-depleted exoproteome (VDE), has been mostly ignored even if it accounts for a significant portion of the total exoproteome proteins. Herein, we summarize the importance of total exoproteome studies followed by a special emphasis on the available information and the biological relevance of the VDE. Finally, we report on how VDE can be studied and disclose how it might contribute to providing biologically relevant targets for diagnosis, drug, and vaccine development.

To the Surface and Back: Exo- and Endocytic Pathways in Trypanosoma brucei

Trypanosoma brucei is one of only a few unicellular pathogens that thrives extracellularly in the vertebrate host. Consequently, the cell surface plays a critical role in both immune recognition and immune evasion. The variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) coats the entire surface of the parasite and acts as a flexible shield to protect invariant proteins against immune recognition. Antigenic variation of the VSG coat is the major virulence mechanism of trypanosomes. In addition, incessant motility of the parasite contributes to its immune evasion, as the resulting fluid flow on the cell surface drags immunocomplexes toward the flagellar pocket, where they are internalized. The flagellar pocket is the sole site of endo- and exocytosis in this organism. After internalization, VSG is rapidly recycled back to the surface, whereas host antibodies are thought to be transported to the lysosome for degradation. For this essential step to work, effective machineries for both sorting and recycling of VSGs must have evolved in trypanosomes. Our understanding of the mechanisms behind VSG recycling and VSG secretion, is by far not complete. This review provides an overview of the trypanosome secretory and endosomal pathways. Longstanding questions are pinpointed that, with the advent of novel technologies, might be answered in the near future.

Trypanosoma brucei transferrin receptor: Functional replacement of the GPI anchor with a transmembrane domain

The transferrin receptor of Trypanosoma brucei (TbTfR) is a heterodimer of a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored ESAG6 subunit and an ESAG7 subunit. To investigate whether the GPI-anchor is essential for the function of the TbTfR, an ESAG6 with a transmembrane domain instead of a GPI-anchor (ESAG6tmd) was inducibly expressed in bloodstream form trypanosomes. It is shown that the ESAG6tmd is able to dimerise with ESAG7 to form a TbTfR that can bind transferrin. Fractionation experiments clearly demonstrated that the transmembrane-anchored TbTfR is exclusively associated with the membrane fraction. No difference in the uptake of transferrin was observed between trypanosomes inducibly expressing a transmembrane-anchored TbTfR and trypanosomes inducibly expressing a GPI-anchored TbTfR. Differences in glycosylation pattern of ESAG6tmd and native ESAG6 may indicate different intracellular trafficking of transmembrane- and GPI-anchored TbTfRs. The findings suggest that the GPI-anchor is not essential for the function of the TbTfR in bloodstream forms of T. brucei.

The First Non-LRV RNA Virus in Leishmania

In this work, we describe the first Leishmania-infecting leishbunyavirus-the first virus other than Leishmania RNA virus (LRV) found in trypanosomatid parasites. Its host is Leishmania martiniquensis, a human pathogen causing infections with a wide range of manifestations from asymptomatic to severe visceral disease. This virus (LmarLBV1) possesses many characteristic features of leishbunyaviruses, such as tripartite organization of its RNA genome, with ORFs encoding RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, surface glycoprotein, and nucleoprotein on L, M, and S segments, respectively. Our phylogenetic analyses suggest that LmarLBV1 originated from leishbunyaviruses of monoxenous trypanosomatids and, probably, is a result of genomic re-assortment. The LmarLBV1 facilitates parasites' infectivity in vitro in primary murine macrophages model. The discovery of a virus in L. martiniquensis poses the question of whether it influences pathogenicity of this parasite in vivo, similarly to the LRV in other Leishmania species.

Analysis of Predicted Host-Parasite Interactomes Reveals Commonalities and Specificities Related to Parasitic Lifestyle and Tissues Tropism

The study of molecular host–parasite interactions is essential to understand parasitic infection and adaptation within the host system. As well, prevention and treatment of infectious diseases require a clear understanding of the molecular crosstalk between parasites and their hosts. Yet, large-scale experimental identification of host–parasite molecular interactions remains challenging, and the use of computational predictions becomes then necessary. Here, we propose a computational integrative approach to predict host—parasite protein—protein interaction (PPI) networks resulting from the human infection by 15 different eukaryotic parasites. We used an orthology-based approach to transfer high-confidence intraspecies interactions obtained from the STRING database to the corresponding interspecies homolog protein pairs in the host–parasite system. Our approach uses either the parasites predicted secretome and membrane proteins, or only the secretome, depending on whether they are uni- or multi-cellular, respectively, to reduce the number of false predictions. Moreover, the host proteome is filtered for proteins expressed in selected cellular localizations and tissues supporting the parasite growth. We evaluated the inferred interactions by analyzing the enriched biological processes and pathways in the predicted networks and their association with known parasitic invasion and evasion mechanisms. The resulting PPI networks were compared across parasites to identify common mechanisms that may define a global pathogenic hallmark. We also provided a study case focusing on a closer examination of the human–S. mansoni predicted interactome, detecting central proteins that have relevant roles in the human–S. mansoni network, and identifying tissue-specific interactions with key roles in the life cycle of the parasite. The predicted PPI networks can be visualized and downloaded at http://orthohpi.jensenlab.org.

Pharmacological Validation of N-Myristoyltransferase as a Drug Target in Leishmania donovani

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL), caused by the protozoan parasites Leishmania donovani and L. infantum, is responsible for ∼30 000 deaths annually. Available treatments are inadequate, and there is a pressing need for new therapeutics. N-Myristoyltransferase (NMT) remains one of the few genetically validated drug targets in these parasites. Here, we sought to pharmacologically validate this enzyme in Leishmania. A focused set of 1600 pyrazolyl sulfonamide compounds was screened against L. major NMT in a robust high-throughput biochemical assay. Several potent inhibitors were identified with marginal selectivity over the human enzyme. There was little correlation between the enzyme potency of these inhibitors and their cellular activity against L. donovani axenic amastigotes, and this discrepancy could be due to poor cellular uptake due to the basicity of these compounds. Thus, a series of analogues were synthesized with less basic centers. Although most of these compounds continued to suffer from relatively poor antileishmanial activity, our most potent inhibitor of LmNMT (DDD100097, K i of 0.34 nM) showed modest activity against L. donovani intracellular amastigotes (EC50 of 2.4 μM) and maintained a modest therapeutic window over the human enzyme. Two unbiased approaches, namely, screening against our cosmid-based overexpression library and thermal proteome profiling (TPP), confirm that DDD100097 (compound 2) acts on-target within parasites. Oral dosing with compound 2 resulted in a 52% reduction in parasite burden in our mouse model of VL. Thus, NMT is now a pharmacologically validated target in Leishmania. The challenge in finding drug candidates remains to identify alternative strategies to address the drop-off in activity between enzyme inhibition and in vitro activity while maintaining sufficient selectivity over the human enzyme, both issues that continue to plague studies in this area.

The Leishmania donovani histidine acid ecto-phosphatase LdMAcP: insight into its structure and function

Acid ecto-phosphatase activity has been implicated in Leishmania donovani promastigote virulence. In the present study, we report data contributing to the molecular/structural and functional characterization of the L. donovani LdMAcP (L. donovani membrane acid phosphatase), member of the histidine acid phosphatase (HAcP) family. LdMAcP is membrane-anchored and shares high sequence identity with the major secreted L. donovani acid phosphatases (LdSAcPs). Sequence comparison of the LdMAcP orthologues in Leishmania sp. revealed strain polymorphism and species specificity for the L. donovani complex, responsible for visceral leishmaniasis (Khala azar), proposing thus a potential value of LdMAcP as an epidemiological or diagnostic tool. The extracellular orientation of the LdMAcP catalytic domain was confirmed in L. donovani promastigotes, wild-type (wt) and transgenic overexpressing a recombinant LdMAcP–mRFP1 (monomeric RFP1) chimera, as well as in transiently transfected mammalian cells expressing rLdMAcP–His. For the first time it is demonstrated in the present study that LdMAcP confers tartrate resistant acid ecto-phosphatase activity in live L. donovani promastigotes. The latter confirmed the long sought molecular identity of at least one enzyme contributing to this activity. Interestingly, the L. donovani rLdMAcP–mRFP1 promastigotes generated in this study, showed significantly higher infectivity and virulence indexes than control parasites in the infection of J774 mouse macrophages highlighting thereby a role for LdMAcP in the parasite's virulence.

Acid ecto-phosphatase activity has been linked to Leishmania donovani virulence. In the present study, we confirm the molecular identity and characterize molecular and functional properties of an enzyme contributing to this activity, the LdMAcP, an L. donovani specific membrane histidine acid phosphatase (HAcP).

Structure of the SAS-6 cartwheel hub from Leishmania major

Centrioles are cylindrical cell organelles with a ninefold symmetric peripheral microtubule array that is essential to template cilia and flagella. They are built around a central cartwheel assembly that is organized through homo-oligomerization of the centriolar protein SAS-6, but whether SAS-6 self-assembly can dictate cartwheel and thereby centriole symmetry is unclear. Here we show that Leishmania major SAS-6 crystallizes as a 9-fold symmetric cartwheel and provide the X-ray structure of this assembly at a resolution of 3.5 Å. We furthermore demonstrate that oligomerization of Leishmania SAS-6 can be inhibited by a small molecule in vitro and provide indications for its binding site. Our results firmly establish that SAS-6 can impose cartwheel symmetry on its own and indicate how this process might occur mechanistically in vivo. Importantly, our data also provide a proof-of-principle that inhibition of SAS-6 oligomerization by small molecules is feasible.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01812.001

Many cells have tiny hair-like structures called cilia on their surface that are important for communicating with other cells and for detecting changes in the cell’s surroundings. Some cilia also beat to move fluids across the cell surface—for example, to move mucus out of the lungs—or act as flagella that undergo rapid whip-like movements to propel cells along. Cilia are formed when a small cylindrical structure in the cell called a centriole docks against the cell membrane and subsequently grows out. However, many of the details of this process are poorly understood.

One of the earliest events in centriole assembly is the formation of a central structure that looks like a cartwheel. This cartwheel acts as a scaffold onto which the rest of the centriole is then added. It has been proposed that a protein called SAS-6 can build this cartwheel just by interacting with itself. However, this has so far not been shown clearly. Now, using a technique called X-ray crystallography, van Breugel et al. directly confirm this hypothesis. This is significant because it demonstrates that the simple self interaction of a protein could lie at the heart of building a complex structure like a centriole.

The single-celled human parasites that spread diseases such as Leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, and sleeping sickness rely on flagella to move around and interact with their surroundings. If SAS-6 cannot assemble into the cartwheel structure, flagella cannot form correctly, potentially stopping the parasites. By screening a library of small molecules, van Breugel et al. found one that partially disrupted the interactions of SAS-6 with itself in the test tube. This small molecule interacted only very weakly with SAS-6 and was not specific for SAS-6 from the disease-causing organism. These unfavourable properties therefore make this compound of no immediate use. However, this result nevertheless shows that small molecules can impair SAS-6 function at least in the test tube and that the development of a more efficient inhibitor might therefore be possible.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01812.002

LdFlabarin, a new BAR domain membrane protein of Leishmania flagellum

During the Leishmania life cycle, the flagellum undergoes successive assembly and disassembly of hundreds of proteins. Understanding these processes necessitates the study of individual components. Here, we investigated LdFlabarin, an uncharacterized L. donovani flagellar protein. The gene is conserved within the Leishmania genus and orthologous genes only exist in the Trypanosoma genus. LdFlabarin associates with the flagellar plasma membrane, extending from the base to the tip of the flagellum as a helicoidal structure. Site-directed mutagenesis, deletions and chimera constructs showed that LdFlabarin flagellar addressing necessitates three determinants: an N-terminal potential acylation site and a central BAR domain for membrane targeting and the C-terminal domain for flagellar specificity. In vitro, the protein spontaneously associates with liposomes, triggering tubule formation, which suggests a structural/morphogenetic function. LdFlabarin is the first characterized Leishmania BAR domain protein, and the first flagellum-specific BAR domain protein.

Evolutionary and functional insights into Leishmania META1: evidence for lateral gene transfer and a role for META1 in secretion

Background

Leishmania META1 has for long been a candidate molecule for involvement in virulence: META1 transcript and protein are up-regulated in metacyclic Leishmania. Yet, how META1 contributes to virulence remains unclear. We sought insights into the possible functions of META1 by studying its evolutionary origins.

Results

Using multiple criteria including sequence similarity, nucleotide composition, phylogenetic analysis and selection pressure on gene sequence, we present evidence that META1 originated in trypanosomatids as a result of a lateral gene transfer of a bacterial heat-inducible protein, HslJ. Furthermore, within the Leishmania genome, META1 sequence is under negative selection pressure against change/substitution. Using homology modeling of Leishmania META1 based on solved NMR structure of HslJ, we show that META1 and HslJ share a similar structural fold. The best hit for other proteins with similar fold is MxiM, a protein involved in the type III secretion system in Shigella. The striking structural similarity shared by META1, HslJ and MxiM suggests a possibility of shared functions. Upon structural superposition with MxiM, we have observed a putative hydrophobic cavity in META1. Mutagenesis of select hydrophobic residues in this cavity affects the secretion of the secreted acid phosphatase (SAP), indicating META1's involvement in secretory processes in Leishmania.

Conclusions

Overall, this work uses an evolutionary biology approach, 3D-modeling and site-directed mutagenesis to arrive at new insights into functions of Leishmania META1.

Paromomycin affects translation and vesicle-mediated trafficking as revealed by proteomics of paromomycin -susceptible -resistant Leishmania donovani

Leishmania donovani is a protozoan parasite that causes visceral leishmaniasis (VL) and is responsible for significant mortality and morbidity. Increasing resistance towards antimonial drugs poses a great challenge in chemotherapy of VL. Paromomycin is an aminoglycosidic antibiotic and is one of the drugs currently being used in the chemotherapy of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis. To understand the mode of action of this antibiotic at the molecular level, we have investigated the global proteome differences between the wild type AG83 strain and a paromomycin resistant (PRr) strain of L. donovani. Stable isotope labeling of amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) followed by quantitative mass spectrometry of the wild type AG83 strain and the paromomycin resistant (PRr) strain identified a total of 226 proteins at ≥95% confidence. Data analysis revealed upregulation of 29 proteins and down-regulation of 21 proteins in the PRr strain. Comparative proteomic analysis of the wild type and the paromomycin resistant strains showed upregulation of the ribosomal proteins in the resistant strain indicating role in translation. Elevated levels of glycolytic enzymes and stress proteins were also observed in the PRr strain. Most importantly, we observed upregulation of proteins that may have a role in intracellular survival and vesicular trafficking in the PRr strain. Furthermore, ultra-structural analysis by electron microscopy demonstrated increased number of vesicular vacuoles in PRr strain when compared to the wild-type strain. Drug affinity pull-down assay followed by mass spectrometery identified proteins in L. donovani wild type strain that were specifically and covalently bound to paromomycin. These results provide the first comprehensive insight into the mode of action and underlying mechanism of resistance to paromomycin in Leishmania donovani.

Ciliary diffusion barrier: the gatekeeper for the primary cilium compartment

The primary cilium is a cellular antenna that detects and transmits chemical and mechanical cues in the environment through receptors and downstream signal proteins enriched along the ciliary membrane. While it is known that ciliary membrane proteins enter the cilium by way of vesicular and intraflagellar transport, less is known about how ciliary membrane proteins are retained in, and how apical membrane proteins are excluded from the cilium. Here, we review evidence for a membrane diffusion barrier at the base of the primary cilium, and highlight the recent finding of a septin cytoskeleton diffusion barrier. We also discuss candidate ciliopathy genes that may be involved in formation of the barrier, and the role of a diffusion barrier as a common mechanism for compartmentalizing membranes and lipid domains.

Serine protease activities in Leishmania (Leishmania) chagasi promastigotes

The present work reports the isolation, biochemical characterization, and subcellular location of serine proteases from aqueous, detergent soluble, and culture supernatant of Leishmania chagasi promastigote extracts, respectively, LCSII, LCSI, and LCSIII. The active enzyme molecular masses of LCSII were about 105, 66, and 60 kDa; of LCSI, 60 and 58 kDa; and of LCSIII, approximately 76 and 68 kDa. Optimal pH for the enzymes was 7.0 for LCSI and LCSIII and 8.5 for LCSII, and the optimal temperature for all enzymes was 37°C, using α-N-ρ-tosyl-L: -arginine methyl ester as substrate. Assay of thermal stability indicated that LCSIII is the more stable enzyme. Hemoglobin, bovine serum albumin, and ovalbumin were hydrolyzed by LCSII and LCSI but not by LCSIII. Inhibition studies suggested that enzymes belong to the serine protease class modulated by divalent cations. Rabbit antiserum against 56-kDa serine protease of Leishmania amazonensis identified proteins in all extracts of L. chagasi. Furthermore, immunocytochemistry demonstrated that serine proteases are located in flagellar pocket region and cytoplasmic vesicles of L. chagasi promastigotes. These findings indicate that L. chagasi serine proteases differ from L. amazonensis proteases and all known flagellate proteases, but display some similarities with serine proteases from other Leishmania species, suggesting a conservation of this enzymatic activity in the genus.

Trafficking activity of myosin XXI is required in assembly of Leishmania flagellum

Actin-based myosin motors have a pivotal role in intracellular trafficking in eukaryotic cells. The parasitic protozoan organism Leishmania expresses a novel class of myosin, myosin XXI (Myo21), which is preferentially localized at the proximal region of the flagellum. However, its function in this organism remains largely unknown. Here, we show that Myo21 interacts with actin, and its expression is dependent of the growth stage. We further reveal that depletion of Myo21 levels results in impairment of the flagellar assembly and intracellular trafficking. These defects are, however, reversed by episomal complementation. Additionally, it is shown that deletion of the Myo21 gene leads to generation of ploidy, suggesting an essential role of Myo21 in survival of Leishmania cells. Together, these results indicate that actin-dependent trafficking activity of Myo21 is essentially required during assembly of the Leishmania flagellum.

In situ immunolocalization and stage-dependent expression of a secretory serine protease in Leishmania donovani and its role as a vaccine candidate

Proteases have been found to play essential roles in many biological processes, including the pathogenesis of leishmaniasis. Most parasites rely on their intracellular and extracellular protease repertoire to invade and multiply in mammalian host cells. However, few studies have addressed serine proteases in Leishmania and their role in host pathogenesis. Here we report the intracellular distribution of a novel L. donovani secretory serine protease in the flagellar pocket, as determined by immunogold labeling. Flow cytometry and confocal immunofluorescence analysis revealed that the expression of the protease diminishes sequentially from virulent to attenuated strains of this species and is also highly associated with the metacyclic stage of L. donovani promastigotes. The level of internalization of parasites treated with the anti-115-kDa antibody into host macrophages was significantly reduced from that of non-antibody-treated parasites, suggesting that this serine protease probably plays a role in the infection process. In vivo studies confirmed that this serine protease is a potential vaccine candidate. Altogether, the 115-kDa serine protease might play vital roles in L. donovani pathogenesis and hence could be recognized as a potential candidate for drug design.

Leishmania cell surface prohibitin: role in host-parasite interaction

Proteins selectively upregulated in infective parasitic forms could be critical for disease pathogenesis. A mammalian prohibitin orthologue is upregulated in infective metacyclic promastigotes of Leishmania donovani, a parasite that causes visceral leishmaniasis. Leishmania donovani prohibitin shares 41% similarity with mammalian prohibitin and 95-100% within the genus. Prohibitin is concentrated at the surface of the flagellar and the aflagellar pole, the aflagellar pole being a region through which host-parasite interactions occur. Prohibitin is attached to the membrane through a GPI anchor. Overexpression of wild-type prohibitin increases protein surface density resulting in parasites with higher infectivity. However, parasites overexpressing a mutant prohibitin with an amino acid substitution at the GPI anchor site to prevent surface expression through GPI-link show lesser surface expression and lower infective abilities. Furthermore, the presence of anti-prohibitin antibodies during macrophage-Leishmania interaction in vitro reduces infection. The cognate binding partner for Leishmania prohibitin on the host cell appears to be macrophage surface HSP70, siRNA mediated downregulation of which abrogates the capability of the macrophage to bind to parasites. Leishmania prohibitin is able to generate a strong humoral response in visceral leishmaniasis patients. The above observations suggest that prohibitin plays an important role in events leading to Leishmania-host interaction.

Purification and subcellular localization of a secreted 75 kDa Trypanosoma cruzi serine oligopeptidase

An extracellular serine peptidase was purified 460-fold from Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes culture supernatant with (NH(4))(2)SO(4) precipitation followed by affinity chromatography aprotinin-agarose and continuous elution electrophoresis, yielding a total recovery of 65%. The molecular mass of the active enzyme estimated by reducing and non-reducing SDS-PAGE was about 75kDa. The optimal pH and temperature of this glycosylated peptidase were 8.0 and 37 degrees C using alpha-N-rho-tosyl-L-arginine-methyl ester (L-TAME) as substrate. The enzyme did not hydrolyze polypeptide substrates but was active against short peptide substrates containing arginine at the P1 site, in both ester and amide bonds. The peptidase was inhibited by TPCK and TCLK but not by other protease inhibitors suggesting that the enzyme belongs to the serine peptidase class. Interestingly, the enzyme seems to demonstrate some metal dependence since its activity was reduced by 1,10-phenanthroline, calcium and zinc ions. Rabbit anti-T. cruzi extracellular serine peptidase antiserum was used to show that the enzyme was restricted to intracellular structures, including the flagellar pocket, plasma membrane and cytoplasmic vesicles resembling reservosomes. These results suggest that the serine oligopeptidase is secreted into the extracellular environment through the flagellar pocket and the intracellular location could suggest its participation in certain proteolysis events in reservosomes. These findings show that this peptidase is a novel T. cruzi serine oligopeptidase, which differs not only from other peptidases described in the same parasite but also in other species of Trypanosoma.

Biogenesis of the trypanosome endo-exocytotic organelle is cytoskeleton mediated

Trypanosoma brucei is a protozoan parasite that is used as a model organism to study such biological phenomena as gene expression, protein trafficking, and cytoskeletal biogenesis. In T. brucei, endocytosis and exocytosis occur exclusively through a sequestered organelle called the flagellar pocket (FP), an invagination of the pellicular membrane. The pocket is the sole site for specific receptors thus maintaining them inaccessible to components of the innate immune system of the mammalian host. The FP is also responsible for the sorting of protective parasite glycoproteins targeted to, or recycling from, the pellicular membrane, and for the removal of host antibodies from the cell surface. Here, we describe the first characterisation of a flagellar pocket cytoskeletal protein, BILBO1. BILBO1 functions to form a cytoskeleton framework upon which the FP is made and which is also required and essential for FP biogenesis and cell survival. Remarkably, RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated ablation of BILBO1 in insect procyclic-form parasites prevents FP biogenesis and induces vesicle accumulation, Golgi swelling, the aberrant repositioning of the new flagellum, and cell death. Cultured bloodstream-form parasites are also nonviable when subjected to BILBO1 RNAi. These results provide the first molecular evidence for cytoskeletally mediated FP biogenesis.

Trypanosomes are ubiquitous unicellular parasites that infect humans, animals, insects, and plants. African, Asian, and some South American trypanosomes have evolved the amazing ability to change their surface coat proteins, an essential strategy for their survival. The surface coat proteins are recycled and targeted to the surface of the parasite via an endocytic and exocytotic organelle called the flagellar pocket, which is sequestered in the trypanosome cell's cytoplasm. The flagellar pocket is also used to remove host-derived antibodies that are bound to the surface of the parasite, making this organelle critical for the parasite's evasion of the host immune system. We describe a novel protein, “BILBO1,” which was identified from the insect-form parasite of the African trypanosome Trypanosoma brucei. We show that BILBO1 is part of a ring or horseshoe-like cytoskeletal structure that is located in a region of the flagellar pocket called the collar. When BILBO1 transcripts were knocked down with inducible RNA interference, trypanosome cells became arrested in a post-mitotic cell-cycle stage. Induced cells lost the normal flagellum-to-cell-body attachment, were unable to regulate endocytosis and exocytosis, and most importantly, were unable to construct a new flagellar pocket. These results provide molecular evidence for the idea that flagellar pocket biogenesis is cytoskeletally mediated.

RNAi of the parasite protein BILBO1 prevents the biogenesis of the endocytic and exocytotic organelle in Trypanosoma brucei, kills the parasite, and reveals novel insights into how this pathogen organizes and uses one of its distinctive organelles.

Proteomic analysis of the secretome of Leishmania donovani

Analysis of Leishmania-conditioned medium resulted in the identification of 151 proteins apparently secreted by the parasitic protozoan Leishmania donovani and suggested a vesicle-based secretion system.

Background

Leishmania and other intracellular pathogens have evolved strategies that support invasion and persistence within host target cells. In some cases the underlying mechanisms involve the export of virulence factors into the host cell cytosol. Previous work from our laboratory identified one such candidate leishmania effector, namely elongation factor-1α, to be present in conditioned medium of infectious leishmania as well as within macrophage cytosol after infection. To investigate secretion of potential effectors more broadly, we used quantitative mass spectrometry to analyze the protein content of conditioned medium collected from cultures of stationary-phase promastigotes of Leishmania donovani, an agent of visceral leishmaniasis.

Results

Analysis of leishmania conditioned medium resulted in the identification of 151 proteins apparently secreted by L. donovani. Ratios reflecting the relative amounts of each leishmania protein secreted, as compared to that remaining cell associated, revealed a hierarchy of protein secretion, with some proteins secreted to a greater extent than others. Comparison with an in silico approach defining proteins potentially exported along the classic eukaryotic secretion pathway suggested that few leishmania proteins are targeted for export using a classic eukaryotic amino-terminal secretion signal peptide. Unexpectedly, a large majority of known eukaryotic exosomal proteins was detected in leishmania conditioned medium, suggesting a vesicle-based secretion system.

Conclusion

This analysis shows that protein secretion by L. donovani is a heterogeneous process that is unlikely to be determined by a classical amino-terminal secretion signal. As an alternative, L. donovani appears to use multiple nonclassical secretion pathways, including the release of exosome-like microvesicles.

Targeting proteins to the ciliary membrane

Most vertebrate cell types display solitary nonmotile cilia on their surface that serve as cellular antennae to sense the extracellular environment. These organelles play key roles in the development of mammals by coordinating the actions of a single cell with events occurring around them. Severe defects in cilia lead to midgestational lethality in mice while more subtle defects lead to pathology in most organs of the body. These pathologies range from cystic diseases of the kidney, liver, and pancreas, to retinal degeneration, to bone and skeletal defects, hydrocephaly, and obesity. The sensory functions of cilia rely on proteins localized specifically to the ciliary membrane. Even though the ciliary membrane is a subdomain of the plasma membrane and is continuous with the plasma membrane, cells have the ability to specifically localize proteins to this domain. In this chapter, we will review what is currently known about the structure and function of the ciliary membrane. We will further discuss ongoing work to understand how the ciliary membrane is assembled and maintained, and discuss protein machinery that is thought to play a role in sorting or trafficking proteins to the ciliary membrane.

The major surface protease (MSP or GP63) in the intracellular amastigote stage of Leishmania chagasi

The Leishmania spp. protozoa have an abundant surface metalloprotease called MSP (major surface protease), which in Leishmania chagasi is encoded by three distinct gene classes (MSPS, MSPL, MSPC). Although MSP has been characterized primarily in extracellular promastigotes, it also facilitates survival of intracellular amastigotes. Promastigotes express MSPS, MSPL, and two forms of MSPC RNAs, whereas amastigotes express only MSPL RNA and one MSPC transcript. We confirmed the presence of MSPC protein in both promastigotes and amastigotes by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). More than 10 MSP isoforms were visualized in both amastigotes and promastigotes using two-dimensional immunoblots, but amastigote MSPs migrated at a more acidic pI. Promastigote MSPs were N-glycosylated, whereas most amastigote MSPs were not. Immuno-electron microscopy showed that two-thirds of the promastigote MSP is distributed along the cell surface. In contrast, most amastigote MSP localized at the flagellar pocket, the major site of leishmania endocytosis/exocytosis. Biochemical analyses indicated that most amastigote MSP is soluble in the cytosol, vesicles or organelles, whereas most promastigote MSP is membrane-associated and GPI anchored. Activity gels and immunoblots confirmed the presence of a novel proteolytically active amastigote MSP of higher Mr than the promastigote MSPs. Furthermore, promastigote MSP is shed extracellularly whereas MSP is not shed from axenic amastigotes. We conclude that amastigotes and promastigotes both express multiple MSP isoforms, but these MSPs differ biochemically and localize differently in the two parasite stages. We hypothesize that MSP plays different roles in the extracellular versus intracellular forms of Leishmania spp.

Loss of actin does not affect export of newly synthesized proteins to the surface of Trypanosoma brucei

Vesicle traffic to and from the surface is highly polarized in African trypanosomes. Actin is required for polarized endocytic traffic in bloodstream forms of African trypanosomes but its role in other pathways has remained equivocal. A combination of metabolic pulse chase labelling and surface biotinylation during the chase period along with the use of conditional RNA interference was employed to demonstrate that substantial loss of actin had no effect on the export of newly synthesized proteins to the surface of bloodstream and procyclic forms of Trypanosoma brucei. These results indicated that this trafficking pathway to the surface operates as normal even when actin levels are significantly lower than normal and endocytic activity is abolished. Taken together the data support the view that the secretory and endocytic pathways are not obligatorily coupled.

Sorting signals required for trafficking of the cysteine-rich acidic repetitive transmembrane protein in Trypanosoma brucei

In trypanosomatids, endocytosis and exocytosis are restricted to the flagellar pocket (FP). The cysteine-rich acidic repetitive transmembrane (CRAM) protein is located at the FP of Trypanosoma brucei and potentially functions as a receptor or an essential component for lipoprotein uptake. We characterized sorting determinants involved in efficient trafficking of CRAM to and from the FP of T. brucei. Previous studies indicated the presence of signals in the CRAM C terminus, specific for its localization to the FP and for efficient endocytosis (H. Yang, D. G. Russell, B. Zeng, M. Eiki, and M.G.-S. Lee, Mol. Cell. Biol. 20:5149-5163, 2000.) To delineate functional domains of putative sorting signals, we performed a mutagenesis series of the CRAM C terminus. Subcellular localization of CRAM mutants demonstrated that the amino acid sequence between -5 and -14 (referred to as a transport signal) is essential for exporting CRAM from the endoplasmic reticulum to the FP, and mutations of amino acids at -12 (V), -10 (V), or -5 (D) led to retention of CRAM in the endoplasmic reticulum. Comparison of the endocytosis efficiency of CRAM mutants demonstrated that the sequence from amino acid -5 to -23 (referred to as a putative endocytosis signal) is required for efficient endocytosis and overlaps with the transport signal. Apparently the CRAM-derived sorting signal can efficiently interact with the T. brucei micro1 adaptin, and mutations at amino acids essential for the function of the transport signal abolished the interaction of the signal with T. brucei micro1, strengthening the hypothesis of the involvement of the clathrin- and adaptor-dependent pathway in trafficking of CRAM via the FP.

Characterization of a Trypanosoma cruzi antigen with homology to intracellular mammalian lectins

Two cDNAs, isolated from a Trypanosoma cruzi amastigote library immunoscreened with sera from patients with Chagas disease, encode proteins with sequence homology to eukaryotic components of the cellular sorting and recycling machinery. These proteins, denominated TcAGL, present an N-terminal lectin domain and a C-terminal region containing repetitive amino acids and a poly-glutamine tract. They are products of polymorphic alleles of a single copy gene constitutively expressed during the parasite life cycle. Polyclonal antibodies obtained from mice immunized with the recombinant antigen recognize proteins with apparent molecular weight ranging from 95 to 120 kDa in cell lysates from all three life stages and in various strains of the parasite. Sera from Chagas disease patients recognize the recombinant antigen in ELISA and immunoprecipitation assays but not in Western blot assays under denaturing conditions. Consistent with its proposed role in the glycoprotein secreting pathway, immunofluorescence analyses and expression of a green fluorescent protein-tagged TcAGL protein indicate a sub-cellular localization in the vicinity of the flagellar pocket membrane and the Golgi complex of the parasite.

Rab5b localization to early endosomes in the protozoan human pathogen Leishmania donovani

Leishmania donovani is a primitive trypanosomatid pathogen of humans. This protozoan is apically polarized such that the flagellar reservoir, the exclusive site of endocytosis and exocytosis, is situated at the anterior end. Recent evidence for the existence of an endocytic pathway in Leishmania has prompted us to investigate candidate temporal markers for endocytosis. In this study we identify the L. donovani Rab5b gene, and demonstrate the localization of a Rab5b chimera to early endosomes. A full-length Rab5b protein was fused to green fluorescent protein (GFP) to generate a chimeric protein GFP::Rab5b. Transfected L. donovani promastigotes carrying this chimeric construct displayed GFP::Rab5b localization. Additionally, incubation of transfected promastigotes with the fluid-phase marker Texas Red dextran demonstrated anterior co-localization of GFP::Rab5b and dye. This suggests Rab5b may act as a marker for early endosomes in L. donovani.

Trypanosomes change their transferrin receptor expression to allow effective uptake of host transferrin

In its mammalian host, Trypanosoma brucei covers its iron requirements by receptor-mediated uptake of host transferrin (Tf). The Tf-receptor (Tf-R) is a heterodimeric membrane protein encoded by expression site-associated gene (ESAG) 6 and 7 located promoter-proximal in a polycistronic expression site (ES). Each of the 20 ESs encodes a slightly different Tf-R; these differences strongly affect the binding affinity for Tfs of different hosts. The Tf-R encoded in the 221 ES has a low affinity for dog Tf. Transfer of trypanosomes with an active 221 ES to dilute dog serum leads to growth arrest, which they can overcome by switching to another ES encoding a Tf-R with higher affinity for dog Tf. Here we show that trypanosomes can also adapt to dilute dog serum without switching but by replacing the ESAG7 gene in the 221 ES by one from another ES, by deleting ESAG7 from the 221 ES with concomitant upregulation of transcription of ESAG7 in 'silent' ESs, by grossly overproducing the 221 Tf-R or by combinations of these alterations. Our results illustrate the striking genetic flexibility of trypanosomes.

GPI valence and the fate of secretory membrane proteins in African trypanosomes

Progression of GPI-anchored proteins in bloodstream African trypanosomes correlates with GPI-valence: homodimeric VSG (2 GPI) is a surface protein; heterodimeric transferrin receptor (1 GPI) localizes in the flagellar pocket; homodimeric GPI-minus VSG (0 GPI) is rapidly degraded in the lysosome. We test this relationship using three native secretory/endocytic proteins as monomeric GPI-plus and -minus reporters. GPI-minus procyclin trafficks to the lysosome and is degraded. GPI-plus procyclin trafficks to the flagellar pocket/cell surface and is released (∼50%) with an intact anchor, the remainder (∼50%) is degraded in the lysosome. GPI-plus BiPNHP, derived from the ER marker BiP, is released quantitatively (>80%), while GPI-plus p67HP, derived from the lysosomal marker p67, turns over by both release (∼15%) and lysosomal degradation (>50%). Turnover of endogenous transferrin receptor occurs primarily by lysosomal degradation (>90%). Thus shedding of monovalent GPI reporters correlates inversely with lysosomal targeting. We propose that mono-GPI reporters cycle through the flagellar pocket and endosome until they are disposed of by either shedding or lysosomal targeting. Partitioning between these fates may be a function of individual physical properties. Release is likely due to the exclusive use of C-14:0 myristate in the bloodstream stage GPI anchor. Up-regulation of transferrin receptor by culture in dog serum resulted in prominent cell surface localization, but not in elevated release. Surface receptor was non-functional for ligand binding suggesting that it may be bivalent homodimers of the GPI-anchored ESAG6 receptor subunit.

Ubiquitination of plasma membrane ectophosphatase in bloodstream forms of Trypanosoma brucei

Bloodstream forms of Trypanosoma brucei contain plasma-membrane-integral acidic ectophosphatase. Here, it is shown by N-terminal sequencing that the ectophosphatase found in ricin-binding material was modified by ubiquitin. Three different ubiquitinated species corresponding to single, double and triple ubiquitinated forms of the enzyme were identified. Immunofluorescence studies with live bloodstream-form parasites showed that the ectophosphatase was localized in the flagellar pocket-the sole site for endocytosis in trypanosomes. As ubiquitin modification of plasma membrane proteins serves as an internalization signal, it is suggested that ubiquitinated ectophosphatase is labelled for endocytosis.

Leishmania donovani amastigotes mobilize organic and inorganic osmolytes during regulatory volume decrease

The protozoan parasite Leishmania donovani encounters large fluctuations in osmolality as it cycles between its insect vector and human host. The flagellated promastigote exhibits regulatory volume responses involving organic and inorganic osmolytes, but little is known about volume regulation in the clinically relevant amastigote that multiplies within the parasitophorous vacuoles of mammalian host cells. Using a combination of morphological, X-ray microanalytical, and biochemical approaches we determined that non-motile amastigotes respond to hypotonic stress with (1) an amino acid and l-alanine-mediated regulatory volume decrease, and (2) a parallel release of Na+, K+, P (presumably as negatively charged phosphates), and subsequently Cl- from cytoplasm and the cell as a whole. In addition P, Zn2+, and subsequently Ca2+ increase in acidocalcisomes as Cl- content declines in this compartment. This evidence is the first to document subcellular translocation of, and thus a potential role for, zinc in volume regulatory responses. These coordinated changes in organic and inorganic osmolytes demonstrate that amastigote subcellular compartments, particularly acidocalcisomes, function in maintaining ionic homeostasis in the response of Leishmania amastigotes to hypo-osmotic stress.

Pathogenomics analysis of Leishmania spp.: flagellar gene families of putative virulence factors

The trypanosomatid flagellar apparatus contains conventional and unique features, whose roles in infectivity are still enigmatic. Although the flagellum and the flagellar pocket are critical organelles responsible for all vesicular trafficking between the cytoplasm and cell surface, still very little is known about their roles in pathogenesis and how molecules get to and from the flagellar pocket. The ongoing analysis of the genome sequences and proteome profiles of Leishmania major and L infantum, Trypanosoma cruzi, T. brucei, and T. gambiensi ( www.genedb.org ), coupled with our own work on L. chagasi (as part of the Brazilian Northeast Genome Program- www.progene.ufpe.br ), prompted us to scrutinize flagellar genes and proteins of Leishmania spp. promastigotes that could be virulence factors in leishmaniasis. We have identified some overlooked parasite factors such as the MNUDC-1 (a protein involved in nuclear development and genomic fusion) and SQS (an enzyme of sterol biosynthesis), among the described flagellar gene families. A database concerning the results of this work, as well as of other studies of Leishmania and its organelles, is available at http://nugen.lcc.uece.br/LPGate . It will serve as a convenient bioinformatics resource on genomics and pathology of the etiological agents of leishmaniasis.

Characterization of an extracellular serine protease of Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis

A serine protease was purified 942-fold from culture supernatant of L. amazonensis promastigotes using (NH4)2SO4 precipitation followed by affinity chromatography on aprotinin-agarose and continuous elution electrophoresis by Prep Cell, yielding a total recovery of 61%. The molecular mass of the active enzyme estimated by SDS-PAGE under conditions of reduction was 56 kDa and 115 kDa under conditions of non-reduction, suggesting that the protease is a dimeric protein. Additionally, it was found to be a non-glycosylated enzyme, with a pI of 5.0. The optimal pH and temperature of the enzyme were 7.5 and 28 degrees C respectively, using alpha-N-rho-tosyl-L-arginine-methyl ester (L-TAME) as substrate. Assays of thermal stability indicated that 61% of the enzyme activity was preserved after 1 h of pre-treatment at 42 degrees C. Haemoglobin, bovine serum albumin (BSA), ovalbumin, fibrinogen, collagen, gelatin and peptide substrates containing arginine in an ester bond and amide substrates containing hydrophobic residues at the P1 site were hydrolysed by this extracellular protease. The insulin beta-chain was also hydrolysed by the enzyme and many peptidic bonds were susceptible to the protease action, and 4 of them (L11-V12, E3-A14, L15-Y16 and Y16-L17) were identified. Inhibition studies suggested that the enzyme belongs to the serine protease class inhibited by calcium and manganese and activated by zinc. These findings show that this enzyme of L. amazonensis is a novel serine protease, which differs from all known flagellate proteases characterized.

Clathrin-dependent targeting of receptors to the flagellar pocket of procyclic-form Trypanosoma brucei

In trypanosomatids, endocytosis and exocytosis occur exclusively at the flagellar pocket, which represents about 0.43% of the pellicle membrane and is a deep invagination of the plasma membrane where the flagellum extends from the cell. Receptor molecules are selectively retained at the flagellar pocket. We studied the function of clathrin heavy chain (TbCLH) in the trafficking of the flagellar pocket receptors in Trypanosoma brucei by using the double-stranded RNA interference approach. It appears that TbCLH is essential for the survival of both the procyclic form and the bloodstream form of T. brucei, even though structures resembling large coated endocytic vesicles are absent in procyclic-form trypanosomes. Down-regulation of TbCLH by RNA interference (RNAi) for 24 h rapidly and drastically reduced the uptake of macromolecules via receptor-mediated endocytosis in procyclic-form trypanosomes. This result suggested the importance of TbCLH in receptor-mediated endocytosis of the procyclic-form trypanosome, in which the formation of large coated endocytic vesicles may not be required. Surprisingly, induction of TbCLH RNAi in the procyclic T. brucei for a period of 48 h prohibited the export of the flagellar pocket-associated transmembrane receptor CRAM from the endoplasmic reticulum to the flagellar pocket, while trafficking of the glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored procyclin coat was not significantly affected. After 72 h of induction of TbCLH RNAi, procyclics exhibited morphological changes to an apolar round shape without a distinct structure of the flagellar pocket and flagellum. Although trypanosomes, like other eukaryotes, use similar organelles and machinery for protein sorting and transport, our studies reveal a novel role for clathrin in the secretory pathway of trypanosomes. We speculate that the clathrin-dependent trafficking of proteins to the flagellar pocket may be essential for the biogenesis and maintenance of the flagellar pocket in trypanosomes.

Subcellular localization of an intracellular serine protease of 68 kDa in Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis promastigotes

Here we report the subcellular localization of an intracellular serine protease of 68 kDa in axenic promastigotes of Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis, using subcellular fractionation, enzymatic assays, immunoblotting, and immunocytochemistry. All fractions were evaluated by transmission electron microscopy and the serine protease activity was measured during the cell fractionation procedure using alpha-N-r-tosyl-L-arginine methyl ester (L-TAME) as substrate, phenylmethylsulphone fluoride (PMSF) and L-1-tosylamino-2-phenylethylchloromethylketone (TPCK) as specific inhibitors. The enzymatic activity was detected mainly in a membranous vesicular fraction (6.5-fold enrichment relative to the whole homogenate), but also in a crude plasma membrane fraction (2.0-fold). Analysis by SDS-PAGE gelatin under reducing conditions demonstrated that the major proteolytic activity was found in a 68 kDa protein in all fractions studied. A protein with identical molecular weight was also recognized in immunoblots by a polyclonal antibody against serine protease (anti-SP), with higher immunoreactivity in the vesicular fraction. Electron microscopic immunolocalization using the same polyclonal antibody showed the enzyme present at the cell surface, as well as in cytoplasmic membranous compartments of the parasite. Our findings indicate that the internal location of this serine protease in L. amazonensis is mainly restricted to the membranes of intracellular compartments resembling endocytic/exocytic elements.

A bioinformatic analysis of the RAB genes of Trypanosoma brucei

RAB proteins are small GTPases with vital roles in eukaryotic intracellular transport; orthologous RABs appear to fulfil similar functions in diverse organisms. Trypanosoma brucei spp., the causative organisms of Old World trypanosomiasis of humans and domestic animals, have extremely effective endocytic and exocytic mechanisms that are likely to be involved in maintenance of infection, making study of these systems of importance. Taking advantage of the essential completion of the T. brucei genome, we have re-examined the T. brucei RABs (TbRABs) so far described and identified a total of 16. BLAST searches and phylogenetic analysis show that nine of the TbRABs can confidently be assigned as orthologues or homologues of known RAB proteins from higher eukaryotes, and four more with reasonable probability. The core endocytic pathway is probably similar in complexity to yeast, whilst the early exocytic pathway appears to be more complex than in yeast. Two of the TbRAB family (RAB23 and 28) with clear mammalian orthologues appear to be unusual, and may be involved in nuclear processes and are described in more detail in an accompanying paper. Three TbRABs appear, however, to have no close homologues and may fulfil specialised functions in this organism. The availability of a complete set of TbRABs--which includes orthologues of the RABs responsible for control of the core of the endomembrane system (i.e. RAB1, 2, 4-7 and 11)--provides a first overview of the trafficking complexity that is present within a kinetoplastid parasite. Based on these homologies we suggest a systematic nomenclature for the TbRABs to reflect their functional homologies. This information is of importance both from the perspective of understanding the evolution and diversity of eukaryotic trafficking, but also in providing a framework by which to understand protein processing, trafficking, endocytosis and other related processes in these parasites.

Characterization of Two Protein Disulfide Isomerases from the Endocytic Pathway of Bloodstream Forms of Trypanosoma brucei

Proteins from the endocytic pathway in bloodstream forms of Trypanosome brucei are modified by the addition of linear poly-N-acetyllactosamine side chains, which permits their isolation by tomato lectin affinity chromatography. Antibodies against this tomato lectin binding fraction were employed to screen a cDNA expression library from bloodstream forms of T. brucei. Two cDNAs were prominent among those selected. These cDNAs coded for two putative protein disulfide isomerases (PDIs) that respectively contained one and two double-cysteine redox-active sites and corresponded to a single domain PDI and a class 1 PDI. Assays of the purified recombinant proteins demonstrated that both proteins possess isomerase activity, but only the single domain PDI had a reducing activity. These PDIs possess a number of unusual features that distinguish them from previously characterized PDIs. The expression of both is developmentally regulated, they both co-localize with markers of the endocytic pathway, and both are modified by N-glycosylation. The larger PDI possesses N-glycans containing poly-N-acetyllactosamine, a modification that is indicative of processing in the Golgi and suggests the presence of a novel trafficking pathway for PDIs in trypanosomes. Although generally PDIs are considered essential, neither activity appeared to be essential for the growth of trypanosomes, at least in vitro.

Hemoglobin receptor in Leishmania is a hexokinase located in the flagellar pocket

Hb endocytosis in Leishmania is mediated through a 46-kDa protein located in the flagellar pocket. To understand the nature of the Hb receptor (HbR), we have purified the 46-kDa protein to homogeneity from Leishmania promastigote membrane. Purified HbR specifically binds Hb. The gene for HbR was cloned, and sequence analysis of the full-length HbR gene indicates the presence of hexokinase (HK) signature sequences, ATP-binding domain, and PTS-II motif. Four lines of evidence indicate that HbR in Leishmania is a hexokinase: 1) the recombinant HbR binds Hb, and the Hb-binding domain resides in the N terminus of the protein; 2) recombinant proteins and cell lysate prepared from HbR-overexpressing Leishmania promastigotes show enhanced HK activity in comparison with untransfected cells; 3) immunolocalization studies using antibodies against the N-terminal fragment (Ld-HbR-DeltaC) of Ld-HbR indicate that this protein is located in the flagellar pocket of Leishmania; and 4) binding and uptake of (125)I-Hb by Leishmania is significantly inhibited by anti-Ld-HbR-DeltaC antibody and Ld-HbR-DeltaC, respectively. Taken together, these results indicate that HK present in the flagellar pocket of Leishmania is involved in Hb endocytosis.

Cytoplasmic Targeting Signals in Transmembrane Invariant Surface Glycoproteins of Trypanosomes

Protein targeting mechanisms in flagellated protozoan parasites have received considerable interest because of a huge bias in these organisms toward the glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor as a mechanism for the membrane attachment of cell surface macromolecules. In this study, the trafficking of invariant surface glycoprotein 65 (ISG65), a family of type I transmembrane proteins, was examined. Analysis of the C-terminal domains of ISG65 family members demonstrated a high level of conservation and, in particular, the presence of three lysine residues contained within the cytoplasmic tails of all ISG65s. ISG65 was expressed on the cell surface, in agreement with earlier work, but an intracellular pool of ISG65 was also detected within a Rab5A early endosome. Transplantation of the C-terminal 74 amino acids of ISG65 (encompassing the 23 C-terminal residues of the extracellular domain, the transmembrane peptide, and the cytoplasmic domain) onto the N-terminal domain of BiP (BiPN) was sufficient to target the chimera to the same internal compartments as native ISG65. Further, site-directed mutagenesis indicated that the cytoplasmic tail was required for endoplasmic reticulum exit and that at least two of the cytoplasmic domain lysine residues are needed for endosomal targeting, as removal of all three led to surface expression. Kinetic measurements demonstrate that the BiPN fusion protein (containing the ISG65 C terminus) has a short half-life, indicating rapid turnover. In contrast, BiPN fusion proteins containing a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor instead of the ISG65 C-terminal region are stably expressed on the surface, confirming the requirement for the ISG65 sequence for endosomal targeting. We suggest that the lack of surface expression of the BiPN-ISG65 fusion protein is likely due to more efficient internalization compared with ISG65. Taken together, these data demonstrate the presence of a lysine-dependent endocytosis signal in the ISG65 family.

Trypanosoma brucei glycoproteins contain novel giant poly-N-acetyllactosamine carbohydrate chains

The flagellar pocket of the bloodstream form of the African sleeping sickness parasite Trypanosoma brucei contains material that binds the beta-d-galactose-specific lectin ricin (Brickman, M. J., and Balber, A. E. (1990) J. Protozool. 37, 219-224). Glycoproteins were solubilized from bloodstream form T. brucei cells in 8 M urea and 3% SDS and purified by ricin affinity chromatography. Essentially all binding of ricin to these glycoproteins was abrogated by treatment with peptide N-glycosidase, showing that the ricin ligands are attached to glycoproteins via N-glycosidic linkages to asparagine residues. Glycans released by peptide N-glycosidase were resolved by Bio-Gel P-4 gel filtration into two fractions: a low molecular mass mannose-rich fraction and a high molecular mass galactose and N-acetylglucosamine-rich fraction. The latter fraction was further separated by high pH anion exchange chromatography and analyzed by gas chromatography mass spectrometry, one- and two-dimensional NMR, electrospray mass spectrometry, and methylation linkage analysis. The high molecular mass ricin-binding N-glycans are based on a conventional Manalpha1-3(Manalpha1-6)Manbeta1-4-GlcNAcbeta1-4GlcNAc core structure and contain poly-N-acetyllactosamine chains. A significant proportion of these structures are extremely large and of unusual structure. They contain an average of 54 N-acetyllactosamine (Galbeta1-4GlcNAc) repeats per glycan, linked mostly by -4GlcNAcbeta1-6Galbeta1-interrepeat linkages, with an average of one -4GlcNAcbeta1-3(-4GlcNAcbeta1-6)Galbeta1- branch point in every six repeats. These structures, which also bind tomato lectin, are twice the size reported for the largest mammalian poly-N-acetyllactosamine N-linked glycans and also differ in their preponderance of -4GlcNAcbeta1-6Galbeta1- over -4GlcNacbeta1-3Galbeta1- interrepeat linkages. Molecular modeling suggests that -4GlcNAcbeta1-6Galbeta1- interrepeat linkages produce relatively compact structures that may give these giant N-linked glycans unique physicochemical properties. Fluorescence microscopy using fluorescein isothiocyanatericin indicates that ricin ligands are located mainly in the flagellar pocket and in the endosomal/lysosomal system of the trypanosome.

Rafts and sphingolipid biosynthesis in the kinetoplastid parasitic protozoa

Summary relatively large rafts are a feature of activated mammalian cells. These studies allow us to consider the functional role of lipid rafts in kinetoplastid parasites, which are particularly rich in lipid-anchored surface molecules. Morphological, biochemical and genetic studies indicate that lipid rafts (and sphingolipid biosythesis) are important in the differentiation of extracellular Leishmania to mammalian-infective metacyclic promastigotes, perhaps orchestrating the clearly observable reorganization of the plasma membrane during this process that leads to an activated metacyclic primed for invasion. However, the first step in the sphingolipid biosynthetic pathway (mediated by serine palmitoyltransferase), and at least regulated, de novo sphingoid base and ceramide synthesis, are not essential for the pathogenesis of intramacrophage Leishmania amastigotes.