Patterns of comorbidity and mortality risk in blacks and whites

Risk predictors of race disparity in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting: a propensity-matched analysis

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to compare long-term prognosis after isolated coronary artery bypass grafting between white and black patients and to investigate risk factors for poorer outcomes among the latest.

METHODS

All consecutive 4766 black and white patients undergoing isolated coronary artery bypass grafting between May 2005 and June 2021 at our institution were included. Primary outcomes were long-term incidence of all-cause death and major adverse cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events in black versus white patients. A propensity-matched analysis was used 2 compare groups.

RESULTS

After matching, 459 patients were included in each black and white groups while groups were correctly balanced. The mean age was 70.4 vs 70.6 years old (P = 0.7) in black and white groups, respectively. Intraoperatively, mean operating room time and blood product transfusion, were higher in the black group while incidence of extubation in the operating room was higher in the white one. Postoperatively, hospital length of stay was higher in the black cohort. Thirty-day all-cause mortality was not different among groups. The median follow-up time was 4 years. Primary outcome of all-cause death was higher in the black versus the white, respectively. Major adverse cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events incidence was twice higher in the black compared to the white cohort (7.6% vs 3.7%, P = 0.013). Risk predictors for all-cause death and major adverse cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events in blacks were creatinine level, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, ejection fraction <50% and preoperative atrial fibrillation.

CONCLUSIONS

Racial disparities persist in a high-volume centre. Despite no preoperative difference, black minority has a higher incidence of major adverse cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events.

Morbidity Measures Predicting Mortality in Inpatients: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVES

Morbidity is an important risk factor for mortality and a variety of morbidity measures have been developed to predict patients' health outcomes. The objective of this systematic review was to compare the capacity of morbidity measures in predicting mortality among inpatients admitted to internal medicine, geriatric, or all hospital wards.

DESIGN

A systematic literature search was conducted from inception to March 6, 2019 using 4 databases: Medline, Embase, Cochrane, and CINAHL. Articles were included if morbidity measures were used to predict mortality (registration CRD42019126674).

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

Inpatients with a mean or median age ≥65 years.

MEASUREMENTS

Morbidity measures predicting mortality.

RESULTS

Of the 12,800 articles retrieved from the databases, a total of 34 articles were included reporting on inpatients admitted to internal medicine, geriatric, or all hospital wards. The Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI) was reported most frequently and a higher CCI score was associated with greater mortality risk, primarily at longer follow-up periods. Articles comparing morbidity measures revealed that the Geriatric Index of Comorbidity was better predicting mortality risk than the CCI, Cumulative Illness Rating Scale, Index of Coexistent Disease, and disease count.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Higher morbidity measure scores are better in predicting mortality at longer follow-up period. The Geriatric Index of Comorbidity was best in predicting mortality and should be used more often in clinical practice to assist clinical decision making.

Sex and Race Differences in the Utilization and Outcomes of Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting Among Medicare Beneficiaries, 1999-2014

BACKGROUND

With over a decade of directed efforts to reduce sex and racial differences in coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) utilization, and post-CABG outcomes, we sought to evaluate how the use of CABG and its outcomes have evolved in different sex and racial subgroups.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Using data on all fee-for-service Medicare beneficiaries undergoing CABG in the United States from 1999 to 2014, we examined differences by sex and race in calendar-year trends for CABG utilization and post-CABG outcomes (in-hospital, 30-day, and 1-year mortality and 30-day readmission). A total of 1 863 719 Medicare fee-for-service beneficiaries (33.6% women, 4.6% black) underwent CABG from 1999 to 2014, with a decrease from 611 to 245 CABG procedures per 100 000 person-years. Men compared with women and whites compared with blacks had higher CABG utilization, with declines in all subgroups. Higher post-CABG annual declines in mortality (95% confidence interval) were observed in women (in-hospital, -2.70% [-2.97, -2.44]; 30-day, -2.29% [-2.54, -2.04]; and 1-year mortality, -1.67% [-1.88, -1.46]) and blacks (in-hospital, -3.31% [-4.02, -2.60]; 30-day, -2.80% [-3.49, -2.12]; and 1-year mortality, -2.38% [-2.92, -1.84]), compared with men and whites, respectively. Mortality rates remained higher in women and blacks, but differences narrowed over time. Annual adjusted 30-day readmission rates remained unchanged for all patient groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Women and black patients had persistently higher CABG mortality than men and white patients, respectively, despite greater declines over the time period. These findings indicate progress, but also the need for further progress.

Impact Of Ambulance Diversion: Black Patients With Acute Myocardial Infarction Had Higher Mortality Than Whites

This study investigated whether emergency department crowding affects blacks more than their white counterparts and the mechanisms behind which this might occur. Using a nonpublic database of patients in California with acute myocardial infarction between 2001 and 2011 and hospital-level data on ambulance diversion, we found that hospitals treating a high share of black patients with acute myocardial infarction were more likely to experience diversion and that black patients fared worse compared to white patients experiencing the same level of emergency department crowding as measured by ambulance diversion. The ninety-day and one-year mortality rates among blacks exposed to high diversion levels were 2.88 and 3.09 percentage points higher, respectively, relative to whites, representing a relative increase of 19 percent and 14 percent for ninety-day and one-year death, respectively. Interventions that decrease the need for diversion in hospitals serving a high volume of blacks could reduce these disparities.

Development of a research tool to document self-reported chronic conditions in primary care

BACKGROUND

Researchers interested in multimorbidity often find themselves in the dilemma of identifying or creating an operational definition in order to generate data. Our team was invited to propose a tool for documenting the presence of chronic conditions in participants recruited for different research studies.

OBJECTIVE

To describe the development of such a tool.

DESIGN

A scoping review in which we identified relevant studies, selected studies, charted the data, and collated and summarized the results. The criteria considered for selecting chronic conditions were: (1) their relevance to primary care services; (2) the impact on affected patients; (3) their prevalence among the primary care users; and (4) how often the conditions were present among the lists retrieved from the scoping review.

RESULTS

Taking into account the predefined criteria, we developed a list of 20 chronic conditions/categories of conditions that could be self-reported. A questionnaire was built using simple instructions and a table including the list of chronic conditions/categories of conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

We developed a questionnaire to document 20 self-reported chronic conditions/categories of conditions intended to be used for research purposes in primary care. Guided by previous literature, the purpose of this questionnaire is to evaluate the self-reported burden of multimorbidity by participants and to encourage comparability among research studies using the same measurement.

The new measuring multimorbidity index predicted mortality better than Charlson and Elixhauser indices among the general population

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study was to develop and validate an updated morbidity index for short-term mortality risk, using chronic conditions identified from routine hospital admission ICD-10 data.

STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING

Retrospective cohort study of all adult New Zealand (NZ) residents at January 1, 2012. Adult NZ residents aged 18 years and over, defined by enrollment with a Primary Healthcare Organisation or accessing public health care in preceding year. Data were split into two data sets for index development (70%, n = 2,331,645) and validation (30%, n = 1,000,166).

RESULTS

The M3 index was constructed using log hazard ratios for 1-year mortality modeled from presence of 61 chronic conditions. Validation results were improved for the M3 index for predicting 1-year mortality compared to Charlson and Elixhauser on the c-statistic (M3: 0.931, Charlson: 0.921, Elixhauser: 0.922; difference M3 vs. Charlson = 0.010, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.008, 0.012; M3 vs. Elixhauser = 0.009, 95% CI: 0.007, 0.012) and integrated discriminative improvement (M3 vs. Charlson = 0.024, 95% CI: 0.021, 0.026; M3 vs. Elixhauser = 0.024, 95% CI: 0.022, 0.027).

CONCLUSION

The M3 index had improved predictive performance for 1-year mortality risk over Charlson and Elixhauser indices, allowing better adjustment for mortality risk from chronic conditions. This provides an important tool for population-level analyses of health outcomes.

The costs and benefits of reducing racial-ethnic disparities in mental health care

OBJECTIVE

Previous studies have found that timely mental health treatment can result in savings in both mental health and general medical care expenditures. This study examined whether reducing racial-ethnic disparities in mental health care offsets costs of care.

METHODS

Data were from a subsample of 6,206 individuals with probable mental illness from the 2004-2010 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS). First, disparities in mental health treatment were analyzed. Second, two-year panel data were used to determine the offset of year 1 mental health outpatient and pharmacy treatment on year 2 mental and general medical expenditures. Third, savings were estimated by combining results from steps 1 and 2.

RESULTS

Compared with whites, blacks and Latinos with year 1 outpatient mental health care spent less on inpatient and emergency general medical care in year 2. Latinos receiving mental health care in year 1 spent less than others on inpatient general medical care in year 2. Latinos taking psychotropic drugs in year 1 showed reductions in inpatient general medical care. Reducing racial-ethnic disparities in mental health care and in psychotropic drug use led to savings in acute medical care expenditures.

CONCLUSIONS

Savings in acute care expenditures resulting from eliminating disparities in racial-ethnic mental health care access were greater than costs in some but not all areas of acute mental health and general medical care. For blacks and Latinos, the potential savings from eliminating disparities in inpatient general medical expenditures are substantial (as much as $1 billion nationwide), suggesting that financial and equity considerations can be aligned when planning disparity reduction programs.

Comorbidities of COPD have a major impact on clinical outcomes, particularly in African Americans

BACKGROUND

COPD patients have a great burden of comorbidity. However, it is not well established whether this is due to shared risk factors such as smoking, if they impact patients exercise capacity and quality of life, or whether there are racial disparities in their impact on COPD.

METHODS

We analyzed data from 10,192 current and ex-smokers with (cases) and without COPD (controls) from the COPDGene® cohort to establish risk for COPD comorbidities adjusted for pertinent covariates. In adjusted models, we examined comorbidities prevalence and impact in African-Americans (AA) and Non-Hispanic Whites (NHW).

RESULTS

Comorbidities are more common in COPD compared to those with normal spirometry (controls), and the risk persists after adjustments for covariates including pack-years smoked. After adjustment for confounders, eight conditions were independently associated with worse exercise capacity, quality of life and dyspnea. There were racial disparities in the impact of comorbidities on exercise capacity, dyspnea and quality of life, presence of osteoarthritis and gastroesophageal reflux disease having a greater negative impact on all three outcomes in AAs than NHWs (p<0.05 for all interaction terms).

CONCLUSIONS

Individuals with COPD have a higher risk for comorbidities than controls, an important finding shown for the first time comprehensively after accounting for confounders. Individual comorbidities are associated with worse exercise capacity, quality of life, and dyspnea, in African-Americans compared to non-Hispanic Whites.

Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Amputation and Revascularization

This study investigates whether ethnic minorities presenting with critical limb ischemia (CLI) are more likely to undergo major limb amputation compared to white patients. The Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) database was used to identify all patients admitted with CLI; lower extremity revascularization; and major lower extremity amputation from 1998 to 2005. The NIS identified 240 139 patients presenting with CLI—68.2% white, 19.5% black, 9.0% Hispanic, and 1.24% Asian. In all, 83 328 patients underwent revascularization—73.7% white, 15.9% black, 7.4% Hispanic, and 1.1% Asian. The majority of the interventions were open. In all, 111 548 patients underwent a major lower extremity amputation—61% white, 25.4% black, 10.1% Hispanic, and 1.1% Asian. The mean Charlson comorbidity scores for amputation were 2.1 for whites, 2.0 for blacks, 2.3 for Hispanics, and 2.5 for Asians (for all data, P < .05).Blacks make up a disproportionately higher proportion of patients admitted for CLI and undergoing amputation, with a lower proportion undergoing revascularization.

The coexistence of terms to describe the presence of multiple concurrent diseases

Background

Consensus on terminology for multiple diseases is lacking. Because of the clinical relevance and social impact of multiple concurrent diseases, it is important that concepts are clear.

Objective

To highlight the diversity of terms in the literature referring to the presence of multiple concurrent diseases/conditions and make recommendations.

Design

A bibliometric analysis of English-language publications indexed in the MEDLINE database from 1970 to 2012 for the terms comorbidity, multimorbidity, polymorbidity, polypathology, pluripathology, multipathology, and multicondition, and a review of definitions of multimorbidity found in English-language publications indexed from 1970 to 2012 in the MEDLINE and SCOPUS databases.

Results

Comorbidity was used in 67,557 publications, multimorbidity in 434, and the other terms in three to 31 publications. At least 144 publications used the term comorbidity without referring to an index disease. Thirteen general definitions of multimorbidity were identified, but only two were frequently used (91% of publications). The most frequently used definition (48% of publications) was “more than one or multiple chronic or long-term diseases/conditions”. Multimorbidity was not defined in 51% of the publications using the term.

Conclusions

Comorbidity was overwhelmingly used to describe any clinical entity coexisting with an index disease under study. Multimorbidity was the term most frequently used when no index disease was designated. Several definitions of multimorbidity were found. However, most authors using the term did not define it. The use of clearly defined terms in the literature is recommended until a general consensus on the terminology of multiple coexistent diseases is reached.

Journal of Comorbidity 2013;3:4–9

Influence of comorbidity on racial differences in receipt of surgery among US veterans with early-stage non-small-cell lung cancer

PURPOSE

It is unclear why racial differences exist in the frequency of surgery for lung cancer treatment. Comorbidity is an important consideration in selection of patients for lung cancer treatment, including surgery. To assess whether comorbidity contributes to the observed racial differences, we evaluated racial differences in the prevalence of comorbidity and their impact on receipt of surgery.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A total of 1,314 patients (1,135 white, 179 black) in the Veterans Health Administration diagnosed with early-stage non-small-cell lung cancer in 2007 were included. The effect of comorbidity on surgery was determined by using generalized linear models with a logit link accounting for patient clustering within Veterans Administration Medical Centers.

RESULTS

Compared with whites, blacks had greater prevalence of hypertension, liver disease, renal disease, illicit drug abuse, and poor performance status, but lower prevalence of respiratory disease. The impact of most individual comorbidities on receipt of surgery was similar between blacks and whites, and comorbidity did not influence the race-surgery association in a multivariable analysis. The proportion of blacks not receiving surgery as well as refusing surgery was greater than that among whites.

CONCLUSION

Blacks had a greater prevalence of several comorbid conditions and poor performance status; however, the overall comorbidity score did not differ by race. In general, the effect of comorbidity on receipt of surgery was similar in blacks and whites. Racial differences in comorbidity do not fully explain why blacks undergo lung cancer surgery less often than whites.

Food deserts in Leon County, FL: disparate distribution of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program-accepting stores by neighborhood characteristics

OBJECTIVE

Examine whether neighborhood characteristics of racial composition, income, and rurality were related to distribution of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)-accepting stores in Leon County, Florida.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional; neighborhood and food store data collected in 2008.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

Forty-eight census tracts as proxy of neighborhoods in Leon County, Florida. All stores and SNAP-accepting stores were identified from a commercial business directory and a United States Department of Agriculture SNAP-accepting store list, respectively (n = 288).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Proportion of SNAP-accepting stores across neighborhoods.

ANALYSIS

Descriptive statistics to describe distribution of SNAP-accepting stores by neighborhood characteristics. Proportions of SNAP-accepting stores were compared by neighborhood characteristics with Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis tests.

RESULTS

Of 288 available stores, 45.1% accepted SNAP benefits. Of the 48 neighborhoods, 16.7% had no SNAP-accepting stores. Proportions of SNAP-accepting grocery stores were significantly different by neighborhood racial composition and income. Primarily black neighborhoods did not have any supermarkets. Results were mixed with regard to distribution of food stores and SNAP-accepting stores by neighborhood racial composition, income, and rurality.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

This study suggests disparities in distribution of SNAP-accepting stores across neighborhood characteristics of racial composition, income, and rurality.

Cardiometabolic risk variables in overweight and obese children: a worldwide comparison

The growing prevalence rate of pediatric obesity, which is frequently accompanied by several cardiometabolic risk factors, has become a serious global health issue. To date, little is known regarding differences for cardiometabolic risk factors (prevalence and means) in children from different countries. In the present review, we aimed to provide a review for the available evidence regarding cardiometabolic risk factors in overweight pediatric populations. We therefore provided information with respect to the prevalence of impaired fasting glucose/impaired glucose tolerance, high triglycerides, low HDL-cholesterol and hypertension (components of the metabolic syndrome) among cohorts from different countries. Moreover, we aimed to compare the means of glucose and lipid levels (triglycerides and HDL-cholesterol) and systolic/diastolic blood pressure values. After careful selection of articles describing cohorts with comparable age and sex, it was shown that both prevalence rates and mean values of cardiometabolic risk factors varied largely among cohorts of overweight children. After ranking for high/low means for each cardiometabolic risk parameter, Dutch-Turkish children and children from Turkey, Hungary, Greece, Germany and Poland were in the tertile with the most unfavorable risk factor profile overall. In contrast, cohorts from Norway, Japan, Belgium, France and the Dominican Republic were in the tertile with most favorable risk profile. These results should be taken with caution, given the heterogeneity of the relatively small, mostly clinical cohorts and the lack of information concerning the influence of the values of risk parameters on true cardiometabolic outcome measures in comparable cohorts. The results of our review present a fair estimation of the true differences between cardiometabolic risk profiles among pediatric cohorts worldwide, based on available literature.

Crowd-out and exposure effects of physical comorbidities on mental health care use: implications for racial-ethnic disparities in access

OBJECTIVES

In disparities models, researchers adjust for differences in "clinical need," including indicators of comorbidities. We reconsider this practice, assessing (1) if and how having a comorbidity changes the likelihood of recognition and treatment of mental illness; and (2) differences in mental health care disparities estimates with and without adjustment for comorbidities.

DATA

Longitudinal data from 2000 to 2007 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (n=11,083) split into pre and postperiods for white, Latino, and black adults with probable need for mental health care.

STUDY DESIGN

First, we tested a crowd-out effect (comorbidities decrease initiation of mental health care after a primary care provider [PCP] visit) using logistic regression models and an exposure effect (comorbidities cause more PCP visits, increasing initiation of mental health care) using instrumental variable methods. Second, we assessed the impact of adjustment for comorbidities on disparity estimates.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

We found no evidence of a crowd-out effect but strong evidence for an exposure effect. Number of postperiod visits positively predicted initiation of mental health care. Adjusting for racial/ethnic differences in comorbidities increased black-white disparities and decreased Latino-white disparities.

CONCLUSIONS

Positive exposure findings suggest that intensive follow-up programs shown to reduce disparities in chronic-care management may have additional indirect effects on reducing mental health care disparities.

Race and survival following brachytherapy-based treatment for men with localized or locally advanced adenocarcinoma of the prostate

PURPOSE

We investigated whether race was associated with risk of death following brachytherapy-based treatment for localized prostate cancer, adjusting for age, cardiovascular comorbidity, treatment, and established prostate cancer prognostic factors.

METHODS

The study cohort was composed of 5,360 men with clinical stage T1-3N0M0 prostate cancer who underwent brachytherapy-based treatment at 20 centers within the 21st Century Oncology consortium. Cox regression multivariable analysis was used to evaluate the risk of death in African-American and Hispanic men compared to that in Caucasian men, adjusting for age, pretreatment prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level, Gleason score, clinical T stage, year and type of treatment, median income, and cardiovascular comorbidities.

RESULTS

After a median follow-up of 3 years, there were 673 deaths. African-American and Hispanic races were significantly associated with an increased risk of all-cause mortality (ACM) (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.77 and 1.79; 95% confidence intervals, 1.3-2.5 and 1.2-2.7; p < 0.001 and p = 0.005, respectively). Other factors significantly associated with an increased risk of death included age (p < 0.001), Gleason score of 8 to 10 (p = 0.04), year of brachytherapy (p < 0.001), and history of myocardial infarction treated with stent or coronary artery bypass graft (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

After adjustment for prostate cancer prognostic factors, age, income level, and revascularized cardiovascular comorbidities, African-American and Hispanic races were associated with higher ACM in men with prostate cancer. Additional causative factors need to be identified.

Understanding how race/ethnicity and gender define age-trajectories of disability: an intersectionality approach

A number of studies have demonstrated wide disparities in health among racial/ethnic groups and by gender, yet few have examined how race/ethnicity and gender intersect or combine to affect the health of older adults. The tendency of prior research to treat race/ethnicity and gender separately has potentially obscured important differences in how health is produced and maintained, undermining efforts to eliminate health disparities. The current study extends previous research by taking an intersectionality approach (Mullings & Schulz, 2006), grounded in life course theory, conceptualizing and modeling trajectories of functional limitations as dynamic life course processes that are jointly and simultaneously defined by race/ethnicity and gender. Data from the nationally representative 1994-2006 US Health and Retirement Study and growth curve models are utilized to examine racial/ethnic/gender differences in intra-individual change in functional limitations among White, Black and Mexican American Men and Women, and the extent to which differences in life course capital account for group disparities in initial health status and rates of change with age. Results support an intersectionality approach, with all demographic groups exhibiting worse functional limitation trajectories than White Men. Whereas White Men had the lowest disability levels at baseline, White Women and racial/ethnic minority Men had intermediate disability levels and Black and Hispanic Women had the highest disability levels. These health disparities remained stable with age-except among Black Women who experience a trajectory of accelerated disablement. Dissimilar early life social origins, adult socioeconomic status, marital status, and health behaviors explain the racial/ethnic disparities in functional limitations among Men but only partially explain the disparities among Women. Net of controls for life course capital, Women of all racial/ethnic groups have higher levels of functional limitations relative to White Men and Men of the same race/ethnicity. Findings highlight the utility of an intersectionality approach to understanding health disparities.

Activity of daily living staging, chronic health conditions, and perceived lack of home accessibility features for elderly people living in the community

OBJECTIVE

To examine the cross-sectional associations between activity of daily living (ADL) limitation stage and specific physical and mental conditions, global perceived health, and unmet needs for home accessibility features of community-dwelling adults aged 70 and older.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional.

SETTING

Community.

PARTICIPANTS

Nine thousand four hundred forty-seven community-dwelling persons interviewed through the Second Longitudinal Study of Aging (LSOA II).

MEASUREMENTS

Six ADLs organized into five stages ranging from no difficulty (0) to unable (IV).

RESULTS

ADL stage showed strong ordered associations with perceived health, dementia severe enough to require proxy use, and history of stroke. For example, the relative risks (RRs) defined as risk of being at Stages I, II, III, or IV divided by risk of being at Stage 0 for those with dementia ranged from 3.2 (95% confidence interval (CI)=2.4-4.4) to 41.9 (95% CI=19.6-89.6) times the RRs for those without dementia. The RR ratios (RRR) comparing respondents who perceived unmet need for accessibility features in the home to those without these perceptions peaked at Stage III (RRR=17.8, 95% CI=13.0-24.5) and then declined at Stage IV. All models were adjusted for age, sex, and race.

CONCLUSIONS

ADL stages showed clinically logical associations with other health-related concepts, supporting external validity. Findings suggest that specificity of chronic conditions will be important in developing strategies for disability reduction. People with partial rather than complete ADL limitation appeared most vulnerable to unmet needs for home accessibility features.

Multiple morbidity combinations impact on medical expenditures among older adults

This study aims to explore the medical needs of patients who have different combinations of multiple chronic diseases in order to improve care strategy for chronic patients. This study was based on a national probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling to older adults over 50 years old. We collaborated the files of the 2000-2001 health insurance claims and selected 8 types of common chronic diseases among seniors, for the discussion of multiple combinations of chronic diseases, including hypertension, diabetes, heart disease, stroke, dementia, cancer, arthritis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Among the NHI users, there are 50.6% of the cases suffering from at least one chronic disease, 27.3% suffering from two types of chronic diseases and above. From possible combinations of eight common chronic diseases, it is found hypertension has the highest prevalence rate (7.5%); arthritis ranks the next (6.2%); the combination of hypertension and heart disease ranks the third (3.4%). In the 22 types of major chronic disease clusters, the average total medical expense for people who have five or more chronic diseases ranks the highest, USD 4465; the combination of hypertension, diabetes, heart disease, and arthritis ranks the next, USD 2703; the combination of hypertension, diabetes, and heart disease ranks the third, USD 2550; cancer only ranks the fourth, USD 2487. Our study may provide statistical data concerning co-morbidity among older adults and their medical needs. Through our analysis, the major population that exhausts the medical resources may be discovered.

Comorbidity among older American Indians: the native elder care study

Comorbidity is a growing challenge and the older adult population is most at risk of developing comorbid conditions. Comorbidity is associated with increased risk of mortality, increased hospitalizations, increased doctor visits, increased prescription medications, nursing home placement, poorer mental health, and physical disability. American Indians experience some of the highest rates of chronic conditions, but to date there have been only two published studies on the subject of comorbidity in this population. With a community-based sample of 505 American Indians aged 55 years or older, this study identified the most prevalent chronic conditions, described comorbidity, and identified socio-demographic, functional limitations, and psychosocial correlates of comorbidity. Results indicated that older American Indians experience higher rates of hypertension, diabetes, back pain, and vision loss compared to national statistics of older adults. Two-thirds of the sample experienced some degree of comorbidity according to the scale used. Older age, poorer physical functioning, more depressive symptomatology, and lower personal mastery were all correlates of higher comorbidity scores. Despite medical advances increasing life expectancy, morbidity and mortality statistics suggest that the health of older American Indians lags behind the majority population. These findings highlight the importance of supporting chronic care and management services for the older American Indian population.

The measurement of multiple chronic diseases--a systematic review on existing multimorbidity indices

BACKGROUND

Multimorbidity, defined as the coexistence of 2 or more chronic diseases, is a common phenomenon especially in older people. Numerous efforts to establish a standardized instrument to assess the level of multimorbidity have failed until now, and indices are primarily characterized by their high heterogeneity. Thus, the objective is to provide a comprehensive overview on existing instruments on the basis of a systematic literature review.

METHODS

The review was performed in MedLine. All articles published between January 1, 1960 and August 31, 2009 in German or English language, with the primary focus either on the development of a weighted index or on the effect of multimorbidity on different outcomes, were identified.

RESULTS

A total of 39 articles met the inclusion criteria. In the majority of studies (59.0%), the list of included diseases was presented without any selection criteria. Only the high prevalence of diseases (17.9%), their impact on mortality, function, and health status served as a point of reference. Information on the prevalence of chronic conditions mostly rely on self-reports. On average, the 39 indices included 18.5 diseases, ranging between 4 and 102 different conditions. Most frequently mentioned diseases were diabetes mellitus (in 97.5% of indices), followed by stroke (89.7%), hypertension, and cancer (each 84.6%). Overall, three different weighting methods could be distinguished.

CONCLUSIONS

The systematic literature further emphasis the heterogeneity of existing multimorbidity indices. However, one important similarity is that the focus is on diseases with a high prevalence and a severe impact on affected individuals.

Racial differences in the impact of comorbidities on survival among elderly men with prostate cancer

This study investigates differences in the effects of comorbidities on survival in Medicare beneficiaries with prostate cancer. Medicare data were used to assemble a cohort of 65- to 76-year-old Black (n = 6,402) and White (n = 47,458) men with incident localized prostate cancer in 1999 who survived >or=1 year postdiagnosis. Comorbidities were more prevalent among Blacks than among Whites. For both races, greater comorbidity was associated with decreasing survival rates; however, the effect among Blacks was smaller than in Whites. After adjusting for age, socioeconomic status, and community characteristics, the association between increasing comorbidities and survival remained weaker for Blacks than for Whites, and racial disparity in survival decreased with increasing number of comorbidities. Differential effects of comorbidities on survival were also evident when examining different classes of comorbid conditions. Adjusting for treatment had little impact on these results, despite variation in the racial difference in receipt of prostatectomy with differing comorbidity levels.

A selection-bias free method to estimate the prevalence of hypertension from an administrative primary health care database in the Girona Health Region, Spain

The prevalence of common illnesses could be estimated using general practice databases, providing certain advantages when compared to other alternative sources of information, in particular being relatively more cost-effective. The main limitation is that it is a threat of selection bias. Some individuals have a higher probability of having used primary health care, implying that the potential result, 'contact registration', is overrepresented in the sample observed. The selection bias would provide inconsistent estimators of prevalence. The objective of this study is to propose a bias-free selection method to estimate prevalence using an administrative primary health care database. It proposes re-weighting the estimations of prevalence obtained from the database according to the probability of their being present in the same. These probabilities will be appropriately estimated from a health survey using a treatment effects model with a discrete response, i.e. a hurdle model. As an application, it was estimated the prevalence of hypertension in the population covered by public primary health care providers in the Girona Health Region, Spain, in 2005. Using this bias-free selection method the prevalence of hypertension has been estimated that 15.5% of individuals aged 15 and above (14.1% among men and 16.9% among women) suffer from hypertension. Likewise, the prevalence is estimated at 31.1% (30.3% men and 32.0% women) in individuals aged 45 and over; 48.3% (44.1% men and 51.9% women) among those aged 65 and over; and 13.1% (11.8% men and 13.9% women) in the general population. The proposed method provides estimators of the prevalence of hypertension very close to those obtained directly from the 2006 Catalan Health Survey. It is concluded that the proposed method could be used to estimate the prevalence of hypertension in an approximately unbiased form. Given the use of the administrative primary health care database corresponding to all users of primary health care in the 23 public managed Health Areas of the Girona Health Region during 2005, the proposed method will be more cost-effective and will provide much more population information than health questionnaires.

African American older adults coping with chronic health conditions

This study's purpose is to identify strategies used by community-dwelling African American elders to cope with their chronic health conditions. A focus group study of 28 African American elders with multiple chronic conditions was conducted. Data collection occurred during the last 4 months of 2003. The five focus groups were audiotaped and transcribed verbatim. Content analysis was performed on the data to ascertain coping strategies employed to manage daily life with chronic conditions. Categories of coping strategies identified are (a) dealing with it, (b) engaging in life, (c) exercising, (d) seeking information, (e) relying on God, (f) changing dietary patterns, (g) medicating, (h) self-monitoring, and (i) self-advocacy. This study expands nurses' knowledge of the repertoire of coping strategies used by African American elders to ameliorate the effects of their chronic health conditions. Study findings will be valuable for planning intervention studies aimed at promoting successful coping.

Racial disparities in the prevalence of cardiovascular disease among incident end-stage renal disease patients

BACKGROUND

Prevalence of coronary heart disease (CHD) and heart failure (HF) is higher among blacks as compared with whites in general population. This study describes unexpected racial differences in the prevalence of CHD and HF among incident dialysis patients, with whites being at a disadvantage.

METHODS

Data were obtained from Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) 2728 form for incident dialysis patients in Georgia, North Carolina and South Carolina in 1995-2003. The CHD and HF prevalence between races were compared using adjusted odds ratios (ORs). The potential for case ascertainment bias was assessed.

RESULTS

Compared with whites (n = 23 951), black patients (n = 32 642) had lower prevalence of CHD (15.7 vs 31.2%) and HF (28.1 vs 34.1%). After controlling for age, gender, diabetes, hypertension and smoking, the association of race with CHD varied by gender and diabetes status: OR ranged from 0.36 (0.34-0.39) for non-diabetic males to 0.57 (0.53-0.61) for diabetic females. Racial differences were not fully explained by case ascertainment bias. The race-HF association varied by age, gender and diabetes: among patients aged <55, blacks tended to have higher prevalence than whites (OR ranged from 0.99 (0.90-1.09) for diabetic males to 1.25 (1.13-1.39) for non-diabetic females), but among those aged above 55, blacks were less likely to HF (OR ranged from 0.62 (0.58-0.67) for diabetic males to 0.79 (0.73-0.85) for non-diabetic females).

CONCLUSIONS

Substantial racial disparities exist in CHD/HF prevalence among incident dialysis patients that persist after controlling for confounders and cannot be fully explained by disease misclassification.

Primary Care Attributes, Health Care System Hassles, and Chronic Illness

BACKGROUND

Patients with a chronic illness are likely to report difficulties in their encounters with the health care system. Although most patients with a chronic illness are managed by primary care clinicians, little is known about how the attributes of primary care might be related to health care system hassles.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to examine the relationship between attributes of primary care and health care system hassles among veterans with one or more chronic illnesses.

RESEARCH DESIGN

This was a cross-sectional mailed survey.

SUBJECTS

We included veterans with one or more chronic illnesses who were cared for in the South Texas Veteran's health care system.

MEASURES

The Components of Primary Care Instrument was used to measure 4 attributes of primary care: accumulated knowledge of the patient by the clinician, coordination of care, communication, and preference for first contact with their primary care clinician. A 16-item health care systems hassles scale was constructed and demonstrated good face validity and reliability with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.94.

RESULTS

Of the 720 surveys administered by mail, 422 (59%) were returned. Patients with multiple chronic illnesses reported a higher level of hassles than patients with a single chronic illness. After controlling for patient characteristics, primary care communication and coordination of care were inversely associated with patient hassles score: as communication and coordination improved, the reported level of hassles decreased.

CONCLUSIONS

Effective delivery of primary care to patients with one or more chronic illnesses may be important in decreasing the level of hassles they experience as they interact with the health care delivery system.

Understanding nitric oxide physiology in the heart: a nanomedical approach

Nitric oxide (NO) is a ubiquitous signaling molecule synthesized from L-arginine and oxygen. The process is catalyzed by NO synthase (NOS), an enzyme expressed in both constitutive (endothelial, neuronal) and inducible forms. Uncoupling of constitutive NOS leads to overproduction of superoxide (O2-) and peroxynitrite (ONOO-), 2 potent oxidants. Nanosensing techniques have been developed to monitor the physiology of NO in the beating heart in vivo. These methods involve the application of nanosensors to monitor real-time dynamics of NO production in the heart as well as the dynamics of oxidative species (oxidative stress) produced in the failing heart. Results of a recent study using nanotechnology demonstrated that African Americans have an inherent imbalance of NO, O2-, and ONOO- production in the endothelium. The overproduction of O2- and ONOO- triggers the release of aggressive radicals and damages cardiac muscle (necrosis), which may explain why African Americans are at greater risk for developing cardiovascular diseases, such as hypertension and heart failure, and are more likely to have complications than European Americans. Potential therapeutic strategies to prevent or ameliorate damage to the heart during cardiac events are prevention of O2- and ONOO- production, supplementation of NO (NO donors), and scavenging of O2- (antioxidants).

Collaborative care needs and preferences of primary care patients with multimorbidity

OBJECTIVE To explore the collaborative care needs and preferences in primary care patients with multiple chronic illnesses. DESIGN Focus groups utilizing a series of open-ended questions elicited self-identified problems, experiences in communicating with providers, self-management needs, and preferences for monitoring and follow-up. Responses were organized and interpreted in light of the essential elements of collaborative care for chronic illness. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS Sixty patients having two or more chronic illnesses at eight geographically dispersed primary care clinics within the Veterans Health Administration in the United States. RESULTS Identified problems included poor functioning, negative psychological reactions, negative effects on relationships and interference with work or leisure. Polypharmacy was a major concern. Problematic interactions with providers and the health care system were also mentioned, often in relation to specialty care and included incidents in which providers had ignored concerns or provided conflicting advice. Most participants, however, expressed overall satisfaction with their care and appreciation of their primary care physicians. Knowledge and skills deficits interfered with self-management. Participants were willing to use technology for monitoring or educational purposes if it did not preclude human contact, and were receptive to non-physician providers as long as they were used to augment, not eliminate, a physician's care. CONCLUSIONS Findings are consistent with the basic tenets of patient-centred, collaborative care, and suggested that health care can be organized and delivered to meet the complex needs of patients with multimorbidity.

Psychosocial factors and cardiovascular diseases

Rapidly accruing evidence from a diversity of disciplines supports the hypothesis that psychosocial factors are related to morbidity and mortality due to cardiovascular diseases. We review relevant literature on (a) negative emotional states, including depression, anger and hostility, and anxiety; (b) chronic and acute psychosocial stressors; and (c) social ties, social support, and social conflict. All three of these psychosocial domains have been significantly associated with increased risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. We also discuss critical pathophysiological mechanisms and pathways that likely operate in a synergistic and integrative way to promote atherogenesis and related clinical manifestations. We conclude by discussing some of the important challenges and opportunities for future investigations.

Probabilities of death from breast cancer and other causes among female breast cancer patients

BACKGROUND

Among cancer patients, probabilities of death from that cancer and other causes in the presence of competing risks are optimal measures of prognosis and of mortality across demographic groups. We used data on breast cancer patients from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program in a competing-risk analysis.

METHODS

We determined vital status and cause of death for 395,251 white and 35,259 black female patients with breast cancer diagnosed from January 1, 1973, through December 31, 2000, by use of SEER data. We calculated probabilities of death from breast cancer and other causes according to stage, race, and age at diagnosis; for cases diagnosed from January 1, 1990, to December 31, 2000, we also calculated some such probabilities according to tumor size and estrogen receptor (ER) status. All statistical tests were two-sided.

RESULTS

The probability of death from breast cancer after nearly 28 years of follow-up ranged from 0.03 to 0.10 for patients with in situ disease to 0.70 to 0.85 for patients with distant disease, depending on race and age. The probability of death from breast cancer at the end of the follow-up period generally declined with age at diagnosis; the probability among the oldest (> or =70 years) compared with the youngest (<50 years) patients was 33% lower for white and 46% lower for black patients with localized disease and 14% lower for white patients and 13% lower for black patients with distant disease. The probability of death from breast cancer exceeded that from all other causes for patients diagnosed with localized disease before age 50 years, with regional disease before age 60 years, and with distant disease at any age. The probability of death from breast cancer for patients diagnosed with localized or regional disease was statistically significantly greater in black patients than in white patients (all six P values < or =.01 for age groups 30-49 to 60-69 years; two P values < or =.04 for ages > or =70 years). Among patients with localized or regional disease and known ER status, the probability of death from breast cancer after nearly 11 years of follow-up ranged from 0.04 to 0.11 for patients with localized ER-positive tumors of 2 cm or less to 0.37 to 0.53 for patients with regional ER-negative tumors.

CONCLUSIONS

The probability of death from breast cancer versus other causes varied substantially according to stage, tumor size, ER status, and age at diagnosis in both white and black patients.

Patterns and impact of comorbidity and multimorbidity among community-resident American Indian elders

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to suggest a new approach to identifying patterns of comorbidity and multimorbidity.

DESIGN AND METHODS

A random sample of 1,039 rural community-resident American Indian elders aged 60 years and older was surveyed. Comorbidity was investigated with four standard approaches, and with cluster analysis.

RESULTS

Most respondents (57%) reported 3 or more of 11 chronic conditions. Cluster analysis revealed a four-cluster comorbidity structure: cardiopulmonary, sensory-motor, depression, and arthritis. When the impact of comorbidity on four health-related quality of life outcomes was tested, the use of the clusters offered more explanatory power than the other approaches.

IMPLICATIONS

Our study improves understanding of comorbidity within an understudied and underserved population by characterizing comorbidity in conventional and novel ways. The cluster approach has four advantages over previous approaches. In particular, cluster analysis identifies specific health problems that have to be addressed to alter American Indian elders' health-related quality of life.

Racial/ethnic differences in survival rates in a population-based series of men with breast carcinoma

BACKGROUND

A rare occurrence, about 1500 men in the United States develop breast carcinoma each year. Little is known about survival patterns at the population level, particularly about racial/ethnic variation.

METHODS

Using data from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program, we examined survival rates in 1979 men diagnosed with primary invasive breast carcinoma between 1973 and 1997. Race was defined as non-Hispanic white, non-Hispanic black, and other race/ethnicity (predominantly Asian/Pacific Islander and Hispanic). The two outcomes were all-cause and breast carcinoma- specific mortality. Survival curves were drawn using Kaplan-Meier estimates and Cox regression was used to estimate the risk of death with hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals. For both outcomes, the racial/ethnic survival curves differed significantly when the log rank test was used. Therefore, separate models were run for each racial/ethnic group. Covariates included age, stage, histology, surgery, radiation therapy, and year of diagnosis. Estrogen and progesterone receptor status were available for 616 men.

RESULTS

Survival rates differed significantly by race/ethnicity. Overall, 5-year survival rates were 66% for whites, 57% for blacks, and 75% for men of other race/ethnicity. Blacks presented with more advanced disease. By stage, whites and blacks had worse survival rates compared with men of other race/ethnicity. The effects of prognostic factors such as age, surgery type, and radiation were similar, but not always significant, for all groups. Diagnosis year and estrogen receptor status did not affect survival.

CONCLUSIONS

Survival following male breast carcinoma differed by race/ethnicity, whereas the prognostic factors associated with survival were similar.

Hospitalized congestive heart failure after renal transplantation in the United States

PURPOSE

African Americans have increased risk for congestive heart failure (CHF) compared to Caucasians in the general population, but the risk of CHF in African American renal transplant recipients has not been studied in a national renal transplant population.

METHODS

Therefore, 33,479 renal transplant recipients in the United States Renal Data System (USRDS) from 1 July, 1994 to 30 June, 1997 were analyzed in an historical cohort study of the incidence, associated factors, and mortality of hospitalizations with a primary discharge diagnosis of CHF [International Classification of Diseases-9 (ICD9) Code 428.x].

RESULTS

African American renal transplant recipients had increased age-adjusted risk of hospitalizations for congestive heart failure compared to African Americans in the general population [rate ratio 4.60, 95% confidence interval (CI) 4.59-4.62]. In logistic regression analysis, African American recipients had increased risk of congestive heart failure after renal transplantation, independent of other factors. Among other significant factors associated with congestive heart failure, the strongest were graft loss and allograft rejection. No maintenance immunosuppressive medications were associated with CHF. In Cox regression analysis patients hospitalized for CHF had increased all-cause mortality compared with all other recipients (hazard ratio 3.69, 95% CI, 2.23-6.10), but African American recipients with CHF were not at significantly increased risk of mortality compared to Caucasian recipients with CHF.

CONCLUSIONS

African Americans recipients were at high risk for CHF after transplant independent of other factors. The reasons for this increased risk should be the subject of further study. All potential transplant recipients should receive particular attention for the diagnosis and prevention of CHF in the transplant evaluation process, which includes preservation of allograft function.

Factors limiting the rate of living-related kidney donation to children in an inner city setting

A recent review of our center experience revealed that only 38% of our pediatric renal transplants come from living-related donors (LRD), which is 11% lower than the national average. The present study was designed to identify factors that limit the availability of LRD in our population pool. Retrospective chart reviews and subsequent telephone interviews were conducted with parents of all children who received renal replacement therapy (RRT) at our institution from 1990 to 1999. The availability of parents and their willingness to donate a kidney were noted. Self-reported willingness was defined as the verbal expression of a desire to donate. Firm willingness was defined as the completion of the steps necessary for donation, unless excluded by the medical team. Factors that may impact the ability to donate, such as donor age, ethnicity, religion, educational attainment, employment, and presence of other siblings younger than 18 yr of age, were evaluated. Statistical analyses were performed using the Student's t-test and chi-square analysis. Significant results were entered into a single-step multiple regression analysis. Sixty children were identified with RRT, of whom 60% were Blacks, 30% Hispanics, 7% Caucasians, and 3% Asian. Fifty-five mothers were available for interview. Forty-four mothers reported a desire to donate, nine were unwilling to donate, and two were undecided. However, only 35 attended for screening. Only 30 fathers were available and, of these, 27 reported willingness to donate, yet only 20 attended for screening. Seventy-four per cent (26 out of 35) of mothers screened and 55% (11 out of 20) of fathers screened were medically unsuitable for kidney donation. Nineteen potential donors had hypertension, diabetes and/or obesity, seven had renal disease, four had anemia, two had hepatitis C, and five had other conditions. Expressed unwillingness to donate was associated with a greater number of children (3.1 compared to 1.5 children in addition to the child with end-stage renal disease [ESRD]) (odds ratio 2.91, p < 0.05) and employment (26.3% vs. 4.0%, p < 0.05) (odds ratio 31.2, p = 0.05). Comparing mothers who were firmly willing to donate with mothers who did not complete screening and evaluation, unwilling mothers had, likewise, a greater number of children (2.9 vs. 1.2 in addition to the child with ESRD) (odds ratio 3.23, p < 0.01) and a greater number of years of education (12.4 vs. 10.4) (odds ratio 2.14, p < 0.05). Hence, the availability of living kidney donors for our inner city children is severely limited by a high rate of single parenthood and a high rate of comorbid conditions in the parental donor pool. Furthermore, there is a diminished capacity of the available parent, particularly the mother, to donate as she tends to have numerous other dependents.

Prevalence of morbidity and multimorbidity in elderly male populations and their impact on 10-year all-cause mortality: The FINE study (Finland, Italy, Netherlands, Elderly)

Older males are known to carry, more likely than younger people, one or more chronic diseases with an expected impact on mortality. This study was aimed at identifying the relationship of prevalent chronic diseases in elderly populations of different countries with all-cause mortality. Men aged 65-84 from defined areas were enrolled in Finland (N=716), the Netherlands (N=887) and Italy (N=682). They were survivors of cohorts studied for 25 years within the Seven Countries Study. Major chronic diseases were diagnosed at entry. Ten-year follow-up for mortality was completed. Entry prevalence of selected chronic diseases was higher in Finland (56%) than in Italy (51%) and the Netherlands (44%). Ten-year age-adjusted death rates from all causes were higher in Finland (565 per 1000) and lower in the Netherlands (478 per 1000) and Italy (445 per 1000). The absolute risk of death related to chronic disease was high in the three countries, but was higher in Finland than in the Netherlands and Italy. The most lethal condition was stroke, with 10-year death rates of 806 per 1000 in Finland and 707 and 729 per 1000 in the Netherlands and Italy, respectively. The relative risk of all-cause mortality for a set of seven chronic diseases (coronary heart disease, heart failure, claudicatio intermittens, cerebrovascular accidents, diabetes, COPD and cancer) adjusted by age, other diseases and cohort was less than two for each condition, except cerebrovascular accidents in the Netherlands (RR 2.20). In general, relative risk was higher in Finland, intermediate in the Netherlands and lower in Italy, where only cerebrovascular accidents, intermittent claudication, diabetes and the presence of any chronic condition had a significant relative risk. About one third of men had one chronic disease, and between 10% and 15% had two diseases. The coexistence of any two or three chronic conditions was associated with a relative risk of 2 or more in Finland and the Netherlands and less than 2 in Italy. In these elderly men prevalent morbidity and comorbidity was relatively common and it explained a large proportion of excess in all-cause mortality in 10 years of follow-up.

Causes and consequences of comorbidity: a review

A literature search was carried out to identify and summarize the existing information on causes and consequences of comorbidity of chronic somatic diseases. A selection of 82 articles met our inclusion criteria. Very little work has been done on the causes of comorbidity. On the other hand, much work has been done on consequences of comorbidity, although comorbidity is seldom the main subject of study. We found comorbidity in general to be associated with mortality, quality of life, and health care. The consequences of specific disease combinations, however, depended on many factors. We recommend more etiological studies on shared risk factors, especially for those comorbidities that occur at a higher rate than expected. New insights in this field can lead to better prevention strategies. Health care workers need to take comorbid diseases into account in monitoring and treating patients. Future studies on consequences of comorbidity should investigate specific disease combinations.

Physical activity, physical fitness, and Framingham 10-year risk score: the cross-cultural activity participation study

PURPOSE

Although physical activity and physical fitness are inversely and causally associated with coronary heart disease (CHD) morbidity and mortality, available equations for estimating CHD risk do not include scores for activity or fitness. Therefore, this study evaluated the association of physical fitness and moderate-intensity physical activity with the 10-year Framingham CHD risk estimate.

METHODS

Cross-sectional analyses were performed on data from 137 healthy middle-aged women (53.9 +/- 9.9 yr; 28.3 +/- 6.0 kg/m2). Health histories, body composition, blood pressure, and blood samples were obtained from a clinical examination. Levels of moderate (3-6 METS) intensity physical activity, expressed as MET-minutes/day of energy expenditure, were derived from multiple 24-hour physical activity records. Physical fitness was quantified as duration of a symptom-limited maximal treadmill exercise test.

RESULTS

After adjustment for race, body mass index (BMI), and hormone replacement status, a graded reduction in the Framingham risk score was observed across low (5.8%), moderate (4.0%), and high (3.6%) fitness levels (P for trend = 0.009). Women in both the moderate and high fitness categories had a lower (P < 0.01) risk score compared with their low fit counterparts. Significant differences in risk were not seen among low (3.9%), moderate (4.9%), and high (4.4%) physical activity groups. The lack of association between the risk score by physical activity may have been due to the homogeneity of activity levels among participants. Our findings reinforce existing data that show enhanced levels of fitness are associated with lower risk for CHD.

Cardiorespiratory fitness and coronary heart disease risk factors: the LDS Hospital Fitness Institute cohort

BACKGROUND

Cardiorespiratory fitness is favorably associated with most modifiable coronary heart disease (CHD) risk factors. Findings are limited, however, by few data for women, persons with existing CHD, and low-risk populations. In the present study, we described cross-sectional associations between cardiorespiratory fitness and CHD risk factors in a large cohort of middle-aged men and women, of whom the majority were LDS Church members (Mormons), with and without existing CHD.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Comprehensive health examinations were performed on 3232 men (age 45.9+/-10.8 years) and 1128 women (age 43.8+/-12.8 years) between 1975 and 1997. Maximal treadmill exercise testing was used to categorize those with (12% of the men and 10% of the women) and those without CHD into age- and sex-specific cardiorespiratory fitness quintiles. After adjustments for age, body fat, smoking status, and family history of CHD, favorable associations were observed between fitness and most CHD risk factors among men and women, regardless of CHD status.

CONCLUSIONS

These data indicate that enhanced levels of cardiorespiratory fitness may confer resistance to elevations in CHD risk factors even in a low-risk sample of middle-aged men and women. Furthermore, these findings reinforce current public health recommendations that advocate increased national levels of physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness for primary and secondary CHD prevention.

Obesity in North America. An overview

The terms "obesity" and "overweight" mean different things to different people. This article discusses such issues as prevalence, morbidity, mortality, and psychosocial effects. Definitions and various classifications of obesity are discussed also.

A clinic and community-based approach to hypertension control for an underserved minority population: design and methods

This paper describes the design and methodology of the Community Hypertension Intervention Project (CHIP). CHIP is investigating the environmental and psychosocial factors related to treatment adherence and examining the effects of combining usual hypertension care with the effects of three interventions designed to improve patient compliance with treatment for high blood pressure in a high-risk, underserved minority population. Thirteen hundred and sixty-seven inner-city hypertension patients (75% black and 25% Hispanic) have agreed to participate in the 4-year longitudinal study. These participants were randomized to usual care or one of three intervention groups: individualized counseling sessions; home visits/discussion groups; or computerized appointment-tracking system. Participants are representative of the surrounding, predominantly low-income minority community and are treated in a hospital-based clinic and in a private clinic in the community. About 65% have blood pressure levels considered to be out of control. It was concluded that structural changes at the clinic site, along with the targeted interventions, would improve patient satisfaction, increase treatment adherence, and improve blood pressure control.

Impact of race on the treatment for peripheral arterial occlusive disease

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of race on the treatment of peripheral artery occlusive disease (PAOD) and to examine the role of access to care and disease distribution on the observed racial disparity.

METHODS

The study was performed as a retrospective analysis of hospital discharge abstracts from 1992 to 1995 in 202 non-federal, acute-care hospitals in the state of Florida. The subjects were patients older than 44 years of age who underwent major lower extremity amputation or revascularization (bypass grafting or angioplasty) for PAOD. The main outcome measures were incidence of intervention, incidence per demographic group, multivariate predictors of amputation versus revascularization, multivariate predictors of amputation versus revascularization among those patients with access to sophisticated care (hospital with arteriographic capabilities), and multivariate predictors of surgical bypass graft type (aortoiliac vs infrainguinal).

RESULTS

A total of 51,819 procedures (9.1 per 10,000 population) were performed for PAOD during the study period and included 15,579 major lower extremity amputations (30.1%) and 36,240 revascularizations (69.9%). Although the incidence of a procedure for PAOD was comparable between African Americans and whites (9.0 vs 9.6 per 10, 000 demographic group), the incidence of amputation (5.0 vs 2.5 per 10,000 demographic group) was higher and the incidence of revascularization (4.0 vs 7.1 per 10,000 demographic group) was lower among African Americans. Furthermore, multivariate analysis results showed that African Americans (odds ratio, 3.79; 95% confidence interval [CI], 3.34 to 4.30) were significantly more likely than whites to undergo amputation as opposed to revascularization. The secondary multivariate analyses results revealed that African Americans (odds ratio, 2.29; 95% CI, 1.58 to 3. 33) were more likely to undergo amputation among those patients (n = 9193) who underwent arteriography during the procedural admission and to undergo infrainguinal bypass grafting (odds ratio, 2.00; 95% CI, 1.48 to 2.71) among those patients (n = 27,796) who underwent surgical bypass grafting.

CONCLUSION

There is a marked racial disparity in the treatment of patients with PAOD that may be caused in part by differences in the severity of disease or disease distribution.