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Slagboom J, Mladić M, Xie C, Kazandjian TD, Vonk F, Somsen GW, Casewell NR, Kool J. High throughput screening and identification of coagulopathic snake venom proteins and peptides using nanofractionation and proteomics approaches. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0007802. [PMID: 32236099 PMCID: PMC7153897 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Revised: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite is a neglected tropical disease that results in a variety of systemic and local pathologies in envenomed victims and is responsible for around 138,000 deaths every year. Many snake venoms cause severe coagulopathy that makes victims vulnerable to suffering life-threating haemorrhage. The mechanisms of action of coagulopathic snake venom toxins are diverse and can result in both anticoagulant and procoagulant effects. However, because snake venoms consist of a mixture of numerous protein and peptide components, high throughput characterizations of specific target bioactives is challenging. In this study, we applied a combination of analytical and pharmacological methods to identify snake venom toxins from a wide diversity of snake species that perturb coagulation. To do so, we used a high-throughput screening approach consisting of a miniaturised plasma coagulation assay in combination with a venom nanofractionation approach. Twenty snake venoms were first separated using reversed-phase liquid chromatography, and a post-column split allowed a small fraction to be analyzed with mass spectrometry, while the larger fraction was collected and dispensed onto 384-well plates. After fraction collection, any solvent present in the wells was removed by means of freeze-drying, after which it was possible to perform a plasma coagulation assay in order to detect coagulopathic activity. Our results demonstrate that many snake venoms simultaneously contain both procoagulant and anticoagulant bioactives that contribute to coagulopathy. In-depth identification analysis from seven medically-important venoms, via mass spectrometry and nanoLC-MS/MS, revealed that phospholipase A2 toxins are frequently identified in anticoagulant venom fractions, while serine protease and metalloproteinase toxins are often associated with procoagulant bioactivities. The nanofractionation and proteomics approach applied herein seems likely to be a valuable tool for the rational development of next-generation snakebite treatments by facilitating the rapid identification and fractionation of coagulopathic toxins, thereby enabling specific targeting of these toxins by new therapeutics such as monoclonal antibodies and small molecule inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Slagboom
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules Medicines and Systems, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Marija Mladić
- Animal Sciences and Health, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Chunfang Xie
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules Medicines and Systems, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Taline D. Kazandjian
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Freek Vonk
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Govert W. Somsen
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules Medicines and Systems, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nicholas R. Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules Medicines and Systems, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Spolaore B, Fernández J, Lomonte B, Massimino ML, Tonello F. Enzymatic labelling of snake venom phospholipase A 2 toxins. Toxicon 2019; 170:99-107. [PMID: 31563525 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Almost all animal venoms contain secretory phospholipases A2 (PLA2s), 14 kDa disulfide-rich enzymes that hydrolyze membrane phospholipids at the sn-2 position, releasing lysophospholipids and fatty acids. These proteins, depending on their sequence, show a wide variety of biochemical, toxic and pharmacological effects and deserve to be studied for their numerous possible applications, and to improve antivenom drugs. The cellular localization and activity of a protein can be studied by conjugating it with a tag. In this work, we applied an enzymatic labelling method, using Streptomyces mobaraense transglutaminase, on three snake venom PLA2s: a recombinant neuro- and myotoxic group I PLA2 from Notechis scutatus scutatus, and two myotoxic group II PLA2s from Bothrops asper - one of them a natural catalytically inactive variant. We demonstrate that TGase can be used to produce active mono- or bi-derivatives of these three PLA2s modified at specific Lys residues, and that all three of these proteins, conjugated with fluorescent peptides, are internalized in primary myotubes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Spolaore
- Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco, Università di Padova, Via F. Marzolo, 5, 35131, Padova, Italy.
| | - Julián Fernández
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, 11501, Costa Rica
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, 11501, Costa Rica
| | | | - Fiorella Tonello
- Istituto di Neuroscienze, CNR, Viale G. Colombo, 3, 35121, Padova, Italy.
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Massimino ML, Simonato M, Spolaore B, Franchin C, Arrigoni G, Marin O, Monturiol-Gross L, Fernández J, Lomonte B, Tonello F. Cell surface nucleolin interacts with and internalizes Bothrops asper Lys49 phospholipase A 2 and mediates its toxic activity. Sci Rep 2018; 8:10619. [PMID: 30006575 PMCID: PMC6045611 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-28846-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Phospholipases A2 are a major component of snake venoms. Some of them cause severe muscle necrosis through an unknown mechanism. Phospholipid hydrolysis is a possible explanation of their toxic action, but catalytic and toxic properties of PLA2s are not directly connected. In addition, viperid venoms contain PLA2-like proteins, which are very toxic even if they lack catalytic activity due to a critical mutation in position 49. In this work, the PLA2-like Bothrops asper myotoxin-II, conjugated with the fluorophore TAMRA, was found to be internalized in mouse myotubes, and in RAW264.7 cells. Through experiments of protein fishing and mass spectrometry analysis, using biotinylated Mt-II as bait, we found fifteen proteins interacting with the toxin and among them nucleolin, a nucleolar protein present also on cell surface. By means of confocal microscopy, Mt-II and nucleolin were shown to colocalise, at 4 °C, on cell membrane where they form Congo-red sensitive assemblies, while at 37 °C, 20 minutes after the intoxication, they colocalise in intracellular spots going from plasmatic membrane to paranuclear and nuclear area. Finally, nucleolin antagonists were found to inhibit the Mt-II internalization and toxic activity and were used to identify the nucleolin regions involved in the interaction with the toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Morena Simonato
- Istituto di Neuroscienze, CNR, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Barbara Spolaore
- Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco, Università di Padova, Via F. Marzolo, 5, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Cinzia Franchin
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy
- Centro di Proteomica, Università di Padova e Azienda Ospedaliera di Padova, Via G. Orus 2/B, 35129, Padova, Italy
| | - Giorgio Arrigoni
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy
- Centro di Proteomica, Università di Padova e Azienda Ospedaliera di Padova, Via G. Orus 2/B, 35129, Padova, Italy
| | - Oriano Marin
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Laura Monturiol-Gross
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, 11501, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Julián Fernández
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, 11501, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, 11501, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Fiorella Tonello
- Istituto di Neuroscienze, CNR, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy.
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Functional and structural studies of a Phospholipase A2-like protein complexed to zinc ions: Insights on its myotoxicity and inhibition mechanism. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2017; 1861:3199-3209. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2016.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Revised: 08/05/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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In vitro antiplasmodial activity of phospholipases A2 and a phospholipase homologue isolated from the venom of the snake Bothrops asper. Toxins (Basel) 2012; 4:1500-16. [PMID: 23242318 PMCID: PMC3528259 DOI: 10.3390/toxins4121500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2012] [Revised: 11/23/2012] [Accepted: 11/30/2012] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The antimicrobial and antiparasite activity of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) from snakes and bees has been extensively explored. We studied the antiplasmodial effect of the whole venom of the snake Bothrops asper and of two fractions purified by ion-exchange chromatography: one containing catalytically-active phospholipases A2 (PLA2) (fraction V) and another containing a PLA2 homologue devoid of enzymatic activity (fraction VI). The antiplasmodial effect was assessed on in vitro cultures of Plasmodium falciparum. The whole venom of B. asper, as well as its fractions V and VI, were active against the parasite at 0.13 ± 0.01 µg/mL, 1.42 ± 0.56 µg/mL and 22.89 ± 1.22 µg/mL, respectively. Differences in the cytotoxic activity on peripheral blood mononuclear cells between the whole venom and fractions V and VI were observed, fraction V showing higher toxicity than total venom and fraction VI. Regarding toxicity in mice, the whole venom showed the highest lethal effect in comparison to fractions V and VI. These results suggest that B. asper PLA2 and its homologue have antiplasmodial potential.
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Experimental pathology of local tissue damage induced by Bothrops asper snake venom. Toxicon 2009; 54:958-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.01.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2008] [Revised: 01/22/2009] [Accepted: 01/23/2009] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Cogo JC, Lilla S, Souza GHMF, Hyslop S, de Nucci G. Purification, sequencing and structural analysis of two acidic phospholipases A2 from the venom of Bothrops insularis (jararaca ilhoa). Biochimie 2006; 88:1947-59. [PMID: 17140721 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2006.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2005] [Accepted: 10/05/2006] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Bothrops snake venoms contain a variety of phospholipases (PLA(2)), some of which are myotoxic. In this work, we used reverse-phase HPLC and mass spectrometry to purify and sequence two PLA(2) from the venom of Bothrops insularis. The two enzymes, designated here as BinTX-I and BinTx-II, were acidic (pI 5.05 and 4.49) Asp49 PLA(2), with molecular masses of 13,975 and 13,788, respectively. The amino acid sequence and molecular mass of BinTX-I were identical to those of a PLA(2) previously isolated from this venom (PA2_BOTIN, SwissProt accession number ) while those of BinTX-II indicated that this was a new enzyme. Multiple sequence alignments with other Bothrops PLA(2) showed that the amino acids His48, Asp49, Tyr52 and Asp99, which are important for enzymatic activity, were fully conserved, as were the 14 cysteine residues involved in disulfide bond formation, in addition to various other residues. A phylogenetic analysis showed that BinTX-I and BinTX-II grouped with other acidic Asp49 PLA(2) from Bothrops venoms, and computer modeling indicated that these enzymes had the characteristic structure of bothropic PLA(2) that consisted of three alpha-helices, a beta-wing, a short helix and a calcium-binding loop. BinTX-I (30 microg/paw) produced mouse hind paw edema that was maximal after 1h compared to after 3h with venom (10 and 100 microg/paw); in both cases, the edema decreased after 6h. BinTX-1 and venom (40 microg/ml each) produced time-dependent neuromuscular blockade in chick biventer cervicis preparations that reached 40% and 95%, respectively, after 120 min. BinTX-I also produced muscle fiber damage and an elevation in CK, as also seen with venom. These results indicate that BinTX-I contributes to the neuromuscular activity and tissue damage caused by B. insularis venom in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- José C Cogo
- Laboratório de Fisiologia e Farmacodinâmica, Instituto de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento, e Serpentário do Centro de Estudos da Natureza (CEN), Universidade do Vale do Paraíba (UNIVAP), Av. Shishima Hifumi 2911, Urbanova, São José dos Campos, SP, Brazil
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Zuliani JP, Gutiérrez JM, Casais e Silva LL, Coccuzzo Sampaio S, Lomonte B, Pereira Teixeira CDF. Activation of cellular functions in macrophages by venom secretory Asp-49 and Lys-49 phospholipases A2. Toxicon 2005; 46:523-32. [PMID: 16085208 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2005.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2005] [Revised: 06/24/2005] [Accepted: 06/29/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The in vitro effects of myotoxin III (MT-III), an Asp-49 catalytically-active phospholipase A(2), and myotoxin II (MT-II), a catalytically-inactive Lys-49 variant, isolated from Bothrops asper snake venom, on phagocytosis and production of hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) by thioglycollate-elicited macrophages were investigated. MT-II and MT-III were cytotoxic to mouse peritoneal macrophages at concentrations higher than 25 microg/ml. At non-cytotoxic concentrations, MT-II stimulated Fcgamma, complement, mannose and beta-glucan receptors-mediated phagocytosis, whereas MT-III stimulated only the mannose and beta-glucan receptors-mediated phagocytosis. Moreover, both myotoxins induced the release of H(2)O(2) by thioglycollate-elicited macrophages, MT-III being the most potent stimulator. MT-II induced the release of H(2)O(2) only at a concentration of 3.2 microg/ml (130% increment) while MT-III induced this effect at all concentrations tested (0.5-2.5 microg/ml; average of 206% increment). It is concluded that, at non-cytotoxic concentrations, MT-II and MT-III activate defense mechanisms in macrophages up regulating phagocytosis, mainly via mannose and beta-glucan receptors, and the respiratory burst.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Pavan Zuliani
- Laboratorio de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, Av.Vital Brazil, 1500-CEP 05503-900 Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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Chen YH, Wang YM, Hseu MJ, Tsai IH. Molecular evolution and structure-function relationships of crotoxin-like and asparagine-6-containing phospholipases A2 in pit viper venoms. Biochem J 2004; 381:25-34. [PMID: 15032748 PMCID: PMC1133758 DOI: 10.1042/bj20040125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2004] [Revised: 03/16/2004] [Accepted: 03/22/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Some myotoxic or neurotoxic PLA2s (phospholipases A2) from pit viper venoms contain characteristic N6 substitutions. Our survey of the venoms of more than ten pit viper genera revealed that N6-PLA2s exist only in limited Asian pit vipers of two genera, Protobothrops and Gloydius, and exist as either monomers or the basic subunits of heterodimers in some New World pit vipers. For the newly identified N6-PLA2s, the neuromuscular blocking activities were assayed with the chick biventer cervicis neuromuscular tissue, whereas the increased serum creatine kinase level assessed their myotoxicities. The purified N6-PLA2s from Protobothrops mangshanensis and Gloydius intermedius saxatilis were found to be presynaptic neurotoxins. In contrast, all N6-PLA2s from the venoms of Sistrurus miliarius strackeri, S. m. barbouri, Crotalus viridis viridis, C. lepidus lepidus, Cerrophidion godmani and Bothreichis schlegelii were myotoxins without neurotoxicity even in the presence of crotoxin A. Crotoxin-like complexes were for the first time purified from the venoms of Sitrurus catenatus tergeminus, C. mitchelli mitchelli, C. horridus atricaudatus, C. basiliscus and C. durissus cumanensis. The cDNAs encoding six novel N6-PLA2s and subunits of the crotoxin-like complex from S. c. tergeminus were cloned and fully sequenced. Phylogeny analysis showed that two structural subtypes of N6-PLA2s with either F24 or S24 substitution have been evolved in parallel, possibly descended respectively from species related to present-day Protobothrops and Gloydius. Calmodulin binds all the N6-PLA2s but crotoxin A may inhibit its binding to crotoxin B and to other neurotoxic N6-PLA2s. Structure-activity relationships at various regions of the PLA2 molecules were extensively discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Hsuan Chen
- *Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, POB 23-106, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ying-Ming Wang
- *Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, POB 23-106, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Jhy Hseu
- *Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, POB 23-106, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Inn-Ho Tsai
- *Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, POB 23-106, Taipei, Taiwan
- †Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- To whom correspondence should be addressed (e-mail )
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Roberto PG, Kashima S, Soares AM, Chioato L, Faça VM, Fuly AL, Astolfi-Filho S, Pereira JO, França SC. Cloning and expression of an acidic platelet aggregation inhibitor phospholipase A2 cDNA from Bothrops jararacussu venom gland. Protein Expr Purif 2004; 37:102-8. [PMID: 15294287 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2004.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2004] [Revised: 05/03/2004] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The phospholipase A2 (PLA2, E.C. 3.1.1.4) superfamily is defined by enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of the sn-2 bond of phosphoglycerides. Most PLA2s from the venom of Bothrops species are basic proteins, which have been well characterized both structurally and functionally, however, little is known about acidic PLA2s from this venom. Nevertheless, it has been demonstrated that they are non-toxic, with high catalytic and hypotensive activities and show the ability to inhibit platelet aggregation. To further understand the function of these proteins, we have isolated a cDNA that encodes an acidic PLA2 from a cDNA library prepared from the poly(A)+ RNA of venom gland of Bothrops jararacussu. The full-length nucleotide sequence of 366 base pairs encodes a predicted gene product with 122 amino acid with theoretical isoelectric point and size of 5.28 and 13,685 kDa, respectively. This acidic PLA2 sequence was cloned into expression vector pET11a (+) and expressed as inclusion bodies in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3)pLysS. The N-terminal amino acid sequence of the 14 kDa recombinant protein was determined. The recombinant acidic PLA2 protein was submitted to refolding and to be purified by RP-HPLC chromatography. The structure and function of the recombinant protein was compared to that of the native protein by circular dichroism (CD), enzymatic activity, edema-inducing, and platelet aggregation inhibition activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia G Roberto
- Unidade de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Ribeirão Preto, UNAERP, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
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Soares AM, Giglio JR. Chemical modifications of phospholipases A2 from snake venoms: effects on catalytic and pharmacological properties. Toxicon 2004; 42:855-68. [PMID: 15019487 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2003.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Phospholipases A2 (PLA2s) constitute major components of snake venoms and have been extensively investigated not only because they are very abundant in these venoms but mainly because they display a wide range of biological effects, including neurotoxic, myotoxic, cytotoxic, edema-inducing, artificial membrane disrupting, anti-coagulant, platelet aggregation inhibiting, hypotensive, bactericidal, anti-HIV, anti-tumoral, anti-malarial and anti-parasitic. Due to this functional diversity, these structurally similar proteins aroused the interest of many researchers as molecular models for study of structure-function relationships. One of the main experimental strategies used for the study of myotoxic PLA2s is the traditional chemical modification of specific amino acid residues (His, Met, Lys, Tyr, Trp and others) and examination of the consequent effects upon the enzymatic, toxic and pharmacological activities. This line of research has provided useful insights into the structural determinants of the action of these enzymes and, together with additional strategies, supports the concept of the presence of 'pharmacological sites' distinct from the catalytic site in snake venom myotoxic PLA2s.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreimar M Soares
- Departamento de Biotecnologia, Universidade de Ribeirão Preto (UNAERP), Ribeirão Presto, SP, Brazil.
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Lizano S, Domont G, Perales J. Natural phospholipase A(2) myotoxin inhibitor proteins from snakes, mammals and plants. Toxicon 2004; 42:963-77. [PMID: 15019494 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2003.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A renewed interest in the phenomenon of inter- and intra-species resistance towards the toxicity of snake venoms, coupled with the search for new strategies for treatment of snake envenomations, has prompted the discovery of proteins which neutralize the major toxic components of these venoms. Among these emerging groups of proteins are inhibitors of toxic phospholipases A2 (PLA2s), many of which exhibit a wide range of toxic effects including muscle-tissue damage, neurotoxicity, and inflammation. These proteins have been isolated from both venomous and non-venomous snakes, mammals, and most recently from medicinal plant extracts. The snake blood-derived inhibitors have been grouped into three major classes, alpha, beta, and gamma, based on common structural motifs found in other proteins with diverse physiological properties. In mammals, DM64, an anti-myotoxic protein isolated from opossum serum, belongs to the immunoglobulin super gene family and is homologous to human alpha1B-glycoprotein and DM43, a metalloproteinase inhibitor from the same organism. In plants, a short note is made of WSG, a newly described anti-toxic-PLA2 glycoprotein isolated from Withania somnifera (Ashwaganda), a medicinal plant whose aqueous extracts neutralize the PLA2 activity of the Naja naja venom. The implications of these new groups of PLA2 toxin inhibitors in the context of our current understanding of snake biology as well as in the development of novel therapeutic reagents in the treatment of snake envenomations worldwide are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Lizano
- Facultad de Microbiología, Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
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Lomonte B, Angulo Y, Calderón L. An overview of lysine-49 phospholipase A2 myotoxins from crotalid snake venoms and their structural determinants of myotoxic action. Toxicon 2003; 42:885-901. [PMID: 15019489 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2003.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 223] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In 1984, the first venom phospholipase A2 (PLA2) with a lysine substituting for the highly conserved aspartate 49 was discovered, in the North American crotalid snake Agkistrodon p. piscivorus [J. Biol. Chem. 259 (1984) 13839]. Ten years later, the first mapping of a 'toxic region' on a Lys49 PLA2 was reported, in Bothrops asper myotoxin II [J. Biol. Chem. 269 (1994) 29867]. After a further decade of research on the Lys49 PLA2s, a better understanding of their structural determinants of toxicity and mode of action is rapidly emerging, with myotoxic effector sites identified at the C-terminal region in at least four proteins: B. asper myotoxin II, A. p. piscivorus K49 PLA2, A. c. laticinctus ACL myotoxin, and B. jararacussu bothropstoxin I. Although important features still remain to be established, their toxic mode of action has now been understood in its more general concepts, and a consistent working hypothesis can be experimentally supported. It is proposed that all the toxic activities of Lys49 PLA2s are related to their ability to destabilize natural (eukaryotic and prokaryotic) and artificial membranes, using a cationic/hydrophobic effector site located at their C-terminal loop. This review summarizes the general properties of the Lys49 PLA2 myotoxins, emphasizing the development of current concepts and hypotheses concerning the molecular basis of their toxic activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Lomonte
- Facultad de Microbiología, Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica.
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Yang WL, Peng LS, Zhong XF, Wei JW, Jiang XY, Ye LT, Zou L, Tu HB, Wu WY, Xu AL. Functional expression and characterization of a recombinant phospholipase A2 from sea snake Lapemis hardwickii as a soluble protein in E. coli. Toxicon 2003; 41:713-21. [PMID: 12727275 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(03)00047-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Three full-length phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) cDNAs from sea snake Lapemis hardwickii venom were cloned and sequenced in our previous study. In order to investigate their biological functions, we established a fusion expression system for PLA(2)-9 in E. coli. The open reading frame encoding mature peptide of PLA(2)-9 was subcloned into the vector pTRX. The Trx-PLA(2)-9 fusion protein was expressed as a soluble protein by IPTG induction at 23 degrees C. The fusion protein was purified with metal-chelate affinity chromatography and then cleaved by enterokinase. The mature recombinant PLA(2)-9 was further purified by ion-exchange chromatography and a final yield of approximately 2.5mg pure PLA(2)-9 from 1l of bacteria culture was obtained. The catalytic activity of recombinant PLA(2)-9 (rPLA(2)-9) was measured and found to be similar to native enzyme. As the Austrelaps superbus PLA(2), which shares 90% nucleotide sequence similarity to PLA(2)-9, the rPLA(2)-9 displayed the anti-platelet aggregation effect. Site-directed mutagenesis of the two conserved residues, His-48 and Asp-49, resulted in the loss of catalytic activity, however did not affect the inhibition effect of platelet aggregation suggesting that these two activities of sea snake PLA(2)-9 may be dissociated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Li Yang
- The Open Laboratory for Marine Functional Genomics of State High-Tech Development, Department of Biochemistry, College of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen (Zhongshan) University, Guangzhou 510275, People's Republic of China
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