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Lehouritis P, Hogan G, Tangney M. Designer bacteria as intratumoural enzyme biofactories. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2017; 118:8-23. [PMID: 28916496 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2017.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2017] [Revised: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial-directed enzyme prodrug therapy (BDEPT) is an emerging form of treatment for cancer. It is a biphasic variant of gene therapy in which a bacterium, armed with an enzyme that can convert an inert prodrug into a cytotoxic compound, induces tumour cell death following tumour-specific prodrug activation. BDEPT combines the innate ability of bacteria to selectively proliferate in tumours, with the capacity of prodrugs to undergo contained, compartmentalised conversion into active metabolites in vivo. Although BDEPT has undergone clinical testing, it has received limited clinical exposure, and has yet to achieve regulatory approval. In this article, we review BDEPT from the system designer's perspective, and provide detailed commentary on how the designer should strategize its development de novo. We report on contemporary advancements in this field which aim to enhance BDEPT in terms of safety and efficacy. Finally, we discuss clinical and regulatory barriers facing BDEPT, and propose promising approaches through which these hurdles may best be tackled.
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Ranjitha S, Rajarajan G, Gnanendra TS, Anbarasan PM, Aroulmoji V. Structural and optical properties of Purpurin for dye-sensitized solar cells. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2015; 149:997-1008. [PMID: 26037779 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2015.04.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2014] [Revised: 03/20/2015] [Accepted: 04/16/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we reported a combined experimental and theoretical study on molecular structure, vibrational spectra and Homo-Lumo analysis of Purpurin and TiO2/Purpurin. The geometries, electronic structures, molecular orbital analysis of natural dye sensitizer Purpurin were studied based on density functional theory (DFT) using the hybrid functional B3LYP. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and FT-Raman spectra have been recorded and extensive spectroscopic investigations have been carried out on Purpurin. The optimized geometries, wave number and intensity of the vibrational bands of Purpurin have been calculated using density functional level of theory (DFT/B3LYP) employing 6-311G (d,p) basis set. Based on the comparison between calculated and experimental results, assignments of the fundamental vibrational modes are examined. Features of the electronic absorption spectrum in the visible and near-UV regions were assigned based on TD-DFT calculations. The calculated results suggest that the three excited states with the lowest excited energies in 1,2,4, trihydroxy 9-10 anthraquinone was due to photo-induced electron transfer processes. Frontier molecular orbitals (FMO), LUMO, HOMO, and energy gap, of these dyes have been analyzed to show their effect on the process of electron injection and dye regeneration. Interaction between HOMO and LUMO of Purpurin are investigated to understand the recombination process and charge transfer process involving these dyes. We also performed analysis of I-V characteristics to investigate the role of charge transfer and the stability of the dye molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Ranjitha
- Velalar College of Engineering and Technology, Thindal, Erode, Tamilnadu, India.
| | - G Rajarajan
- Selvam College of Technology, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - T S Gnanendra
- Center for Research and Development, Mahendra Educational Institutions, Mahendhirapuri, Mallasamudram, Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - P M Anbarasan
- Department of Physics, Periyar University, Salem, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - V Aroulmoji
- Center for Research and Development, Mahendra Educational Institutions, Mahendhirapuri, Mallasamudram, Namakkal District, Tamil Nadu, India
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Park H, Shim JS, Kim BS, Jung HJ, Huh TL, Kwon HJ. Purpurin inhibits adipocyte-derived leucine aminopeptidase and angiogenesis in a zebrafish model. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2014; 450:561-7. [PMID: 24928393 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2014] [Accepted: 06/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Adipocyte-derived leucine aminopeptidase (A-LAP) is a novel member of the M1 family of zinc metallopeptidases, which has been reported to play a crucial role in angiogenesis. In the present study, we conducted a target-based screening of natural products and synthetic chemical libraries using the purified enzyme to search novel inhibitors of A-LAP. Amongst several hits isolated, a natural product purpurin was identified as one of the most potent inhibitors of A-LAP from the screening. In vitro enzymatic analyses demonstrated that purpurin inhibited A-LAP activity in a non-competitive manner with a Ki value of 20 M. In addition, purpurin showed a strong selectivity toward A-LAP versus another member of M1 family of zinc metallopeptidase, aminopeptidase N (APN). In angiogenesis assays, purpurin inhibited the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-induced invasion and tube formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). Moreover, purpurin inhibited in vivo angiogenesis in zebrafish embryo without toxicity. These data demonstrate that purpurin is a novel specific inhibitor of A-LAP and could be developed as a new anti-angiogenic agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyomi Park
- Chemical Genomics National Research Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Translational Research Center for Protein Function Control, College of Life Science & Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul 120-749, Republic of Korea
| | - Joong Sup Shim
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Av. Universidade, Taipa, Macau Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Beom Seok Kim
- Chemical Genomics National Research Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Translational Research Center for Protein Function Control, College of Life Science & Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul 120-749, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Jin Jung
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, University of Sun Moon, Asansi, Chungnam 336-708, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae-Lin Huh
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Kyungpook National University, Puk-Gu, Sankyuk-Dong, 702-701 Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Ho Jeong Kwon
- Chemical Genomics National Research Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Translational Research Center for Protein Function Control, College of Life Science & Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul 120-749, Republic of Korea; Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Yonsei University, Seoul 120-752, Republic of Korea.
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Pfeffer JM, Clarke AJ. Identification of the first known inhibitors of O-acetylpeptidoglycan esterase: a potential new antibacterial target. Chembiochem 2012; 13:722-31. [PMID: 22351512 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201100744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The O-acetylation of peptidoglycan (PG) is now known to occur in 53 species, including numerous human pathogens such as, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus anthracis, species of Enterococcus, Campylobacter jejuni, Helicobacter pylori, Neisseria gonorrhoeae and N. meningitidis. This modification, which occurs at the C-6 hydroxyl of N-acetylmuramoyl residues within PG, serves to regulate autolytic activity during PG metabolism and contributes to pathogenesis and persistence within a host. O-Acetylpeptidoglycan esterase (Ape) was recently discovered as an enzyme responsible for the removal of O-acetyl groups from PG, thus permitting the continued maintenance and metabolism of the sacculus. Recombinant Ape1 from N. gonorrhoeae was purified to apparent homogeneity and optimal storage conditions for the enzyme were determined. Using 4-methylumbelliferyl acetate as substrate, a fluorogenic assay amenable for the high-throughput screening for potential inhibitors was developed and Ape1 was screened against a subset of compounds of the Canadian Compound Collection. The overall Z' score for the screen was 0.62, indicative of a well-suited assay with a sufficient signal window, and the threshold was set at 65 %. After eliminating a number of false-positives, seven compounds were identified as true inhibitors of Ape1, the first to be identified for this class of enzyme. Dose-response curves were generated leading to the identification of five of these compounds with IC(50) values ranging between 0.3 and 23 μM. Of these, purpurin was selected for further analysis and it was found to inhibit the growth of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria that produce both O-acetylated PG and Ape.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Pfeffer
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada
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Kang K, Fong WP, Tsang PWK. Novel antifungal activity of purpurin against Candida species in vitro. Med Mycol 2010; 48:904-11. [PMID: 20392152 DOI: 10.3109/13693781003739351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The antifungal activity of purpurin (1,2,4-trihydroxy-9,10-anthraquinone), a natural red anthraquinone pigment in madder root (Rubia tinctorum L.), was evaluated by a broth microdilution assay against a total of 24 Candida isolates representing six species. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) range of purpurin was 1.28-5.12 μg/ml. Mechanistic studies using the rhodamine 6G extrusion assay indicated that purpurin inhibited the energy-dependent efflux pumps of the Candida isolates in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, purpurin demonstrated a dose-dependent depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential, one of the biochemical checkpoints regulating cell death in eukaryotic cells, suggesting a possible linkage between purpurin antifungal mechanism and Candida apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Kang
- Department of Biochemistry, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
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Kaur P, Chandel M, Kumar S, Kumar N, Singh B, Kaur S. Modulatory role of alizarin from Rubia cordifolia L. against genotoxicity of mutagens. Food Chem Toxicol 2009; 48:320-5. [PMID: 19852997 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2009.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2009] [Revised: 10/06/2009] [Accepted: 10/14/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Rubia cordifolia L. (Rubiaceae) is an important medicinal plant used in the Ayurvedic medicinal system. Its use as a traditional therapeutic has been related to the treatment of skin disorders and cancer. Besides its medicinal value, anthraquinones from this plant are used as natural food colourants and as natural hair dyes. Dyes derived from natural sources have emerged as important alternatives to synthetic dyes. Alizarin (1,2-dihydroxyanthraquinone) was isolated and characterized from R. cordifolia L. and evaluated for its antigenotoxic potential against a battery of mutagens viz. 4-nitro-o-phenylenediamine (NPD) and 2-aminofluorene (2-AF) in Ames assay using TA98 tester strain of Salmonella typhimurium; hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) and 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide (4NQO) in SOS chromotest using PQ37 strain of Escherichia coli and in Comet assay using human blood lymphocytes. Our results showed that alizarin possessed significant modulatory role against the genotoxicity of mutagens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prabhjit Kaur
- Department of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab 143005, India
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Takahashi E, Arimoto S, Okamoto K, Negishi T. Enhancement of phase II enzyme activity by purpurin resulting in the suppression of MeIQx-DNA-adduct formation in mice. Mutat Res 2007; 626:128-34. [PMID: 17137831 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2006.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2006] [Revised: 09/16/2006] [Accepted: 09/21/2006] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
We previously demonstrated using a bacterial system that the antigenotoxic activity of the anthraquinone compounds purpurin and alizarin was due to the suppression of microsomal enzyme activity involved in the activation of mutagens. In the present study we determined the effect of purpurin and alizarin on (i) MeIQx-DNA-adduct formation in mouse tissues and (ii) the activity of phases I and II enzymes in liver fractions, the liver being the target tissue of MeIQx. The amount of MeIQx-DNA adduct formed was determined using 32P-postlabeling methods. Methoxyresorufin-O-demethylase (MROD) and ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) enzyme activities, which reflect CYP 1A activity, were measured as markers for phase I enzymes, and UDP-glucuronyltransferase (UGT) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) activities were determined as markers for phase II enzymes. Mice fed with a diet containing 0.5% purpurin for 3 days prior to MeIQx administration had 70% fewer MeIQx-DNA adducts in the lung and kidney, and fewer DNA adducts (insignificant, statistically) in the liver compared with mice fed a diet lacking purpurin. MROD and EROD activities in the liver of these mice increased six- and eight-fold, respectively, and were higher than those determined for the control mice within 1 day following commencement of purpurin treatment. These elevated activities were maintained during treatment and declined immediately following removal of purpurin from the diet. GST and UGT activities gradually increased 2.5- and 3-fold, respectively, following purpurin treatment, and were maintained at significantly high levels even after purpurin administration ceased. Alizarin did not significantly affect DNA-adduct formation and enzyme activity, except in the case of UGT. Taken together, our results show that purpurin reduced MeIQx-DNA-adduct formation by maintaining elevated phase II enzyme activities, thereby facilitating accelerated excretion of MeIQx.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eizo Takahashi
- Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tsushima, Okayama 700-8530, Japan
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Bányai P, Kuzovkina IN, Kursinszki L, Szőke É. HPLC Analysis of Alizarin and Purpurin Produced by Rubia tinctorum L. Hairy Root Cultures. Chromatographia 2006. [DOI: 10.1365/s10337-006-0792-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Arimoto-Kobayashi S, Machida M, Okamoto K, Yamaguchi A. Evaluation of photo-mutagenicity and photo-cytotoxicity of food coloring agents. Mutagenesis 2005; 20:229-33. [PMID: 15843386 DOI: 10.1093/mutage/gei030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Pigments extracted from natural products are widely used for food coloration in Japan. An investigation concerning the photo-mutagenicity and photo-carcinogenicity of frequently used colorants in Japan was performed. Colorants examined were from Laccifer lacca (lac-color), Coccus cacti (cochineal-color), Carthamus tinctorius (carthamus yellow), Gardenia augusta (gardenia yellow and gardenia blue), Monascus anka and Monascus purpureus (monascus red), the skin of Vitis vinifera and Vitis labrusca (grape-skin color), Tamarindus indica (tamarind brown) and Beta vulgaris (beet red). No significant increase in bacterial mutation was found when Salmonella typhimurium TA98, TA100 and TA102 were simultaneously treated with colorants and subjected to UVA irradiation for 30 min. When colorant solutions were subjected to UVA irradiation for 4 h, irradiated solutions containing lac-color became slightly mutagenic toward S.typhimurium TA98 without metabolic activation. A decrease in cell survival resulted when WTK-1 cells were subjected to UVA irradiation for 60 min in the presence of purpurin at 1 mg/ml. Delayed cytotoxicity was also observed following 24 h incubation in fresh medium of samples that were subjected to UVA irradiation for 60 min in the presence of colorant (carthamus yellow, grape-skin color, gardenia blue, cochineal-color, monascus red or purpurin).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakae Arimoto-Kobayashi
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, 1-1-1 Tsushima, Okayama 700-8530, Japan.
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Takahashi E, Fujita KI, Kamataki T, Arimoto-Kobayashi S, Okamoto K, Negishi T. Inhibition of human cytochrome P450 1B1, 1A1 and 1A2 by antigenotoxic compounds, purpurin and alizarin. Mutat Res 2002; 508:147-56. [PMID: 12379470 DOI: 10.1016/s0027-5107(02)00212-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Recently we have shown that anthraquinone food pigments such as purpurin and alizarin suppress the genotoxic activities of several mutagens including heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Drosophila DNA repair test and in the Ames test. To investigate the mechanism of this inhibition, we have now examined the effects of these anthraquinone pigments on enzymes that metabolize xenobiotics. The activities of eight human recombinant cytochrome P450 (CYP) isozymes were measured in the presence of purpurin, alizarin or carminic acid. Purpurin and alizarin strongly inhibited the activities of CYP1A1, CYP1A2 and CYP1B1, and weakly suppressed those of CYP2A6 and CYP2E1 in a dose-dependent manner, but did not inhibit those of CYP2C19, CYP3A4 and CYP3A5. Carminic acid did not affect the activities of any CYPs tested. CYP1B1 was the most strongly affected CYP molecule by purpurin and alizarin among CYPs examined in this study. From kinetic analysis, it was shown that the inhibition by purpurin on CYP1B1 was both competitive and non-competitive, and that by alizarin was competitive. The values of slopes obtained from Lineweaver-Burk plots are proportional to the square of purpurin concentration. This observation suggests that two molecules of purpurin are interacting with one molecule of CYP1B1. The K(m) value of CYP1B1 was 11 microM, and the K(i) value of purpurin and alizarin against CYP1B1 was 0.7 microM(2) and 0.5 microM, respectively. We also examined the effects of these pigments on the mutagenicities of MeIQx and B[a]P in the Ames test, using Salmonella typhimurium TA1538 co-expressing each form of human CYP and NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (OR). The mutagenicity of MeIQx in TA1538 1A2/OR or 1B1/OR was suppressed by purpurin and alizarin but not by carminic acid. Purpurin also reduced the mutagenicity of B[a]P in TA1538 1A1/OR or 1B1/OR. These results suggest that the antigenotoxic activities of purpurin and alizarin can be explained by inhibition of CYP activities responsible for activating the mutagens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eizo Takahashi
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Tsushima, Okayama 700-8530, Japan
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Takahashi E, Marczylo TH, Watanabe T, Nagai S, Hayatsu H, Negishi T. Preventive effects of anthraquinone food pigments on the DNA damage induced by carcinogens in Drosophila. Mutat Res 2001; 480-481:139-45. [PMID: 11506807 DOI: 10.1016/s0027-5107(01)00177-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We have previously demonstrated the inhibitory effect of chlorophyllin, a green food additive, on the genotoxicities of various carcinogens in Drosophila. Recently, we reported that purpurin, a component of a red food additive produced from madder root (Rubia tinctorium), inhibits the bacterial mutagenicity of heterocyclic amines. In the present study, we examined antigenotoxic activities of various pigments that are either constituents of food or food additives, using Drosophila in vivo DNA repair assay. Third instar larvae of Drosophila were fed a mutagen with or without pigment. The resulting adult flies were monitored for their male (repair deficient)/female (repair proficient) ratios, which reflect the DNA damage. We tested a total of 20 pigments, which are mainly of plant origins, including flavonoids, carotenoids, anthocyanins, anthraquinones and beta-diketone (curcumin)-derivatives, against the genotoxicities of eight carcinogens; IQ, MeIQx, AFB1, NDMA, 2-AAF, DMBA, 4NQO, and MNU. Four anthraquinone pigments (alizarin, purpurin, lac color, and cochineal extract) showed significant antigenotoxic activities. Alizarin and purpurin suppressed the DNA damage induced by IQ, MeIQx, AFB1, NDMA, 2-AAF, DMBA, and MNU. Lac color and cochineal extract showed inhibition against IQ, MeIQx, AFB1, 2-AAF and DMBA. In these inhibitions, suppression of metabolic enzymes may be involved. Since purpurin and alizarin suppressed the activity of MNU, a direct alkylating agent, there may also be a mechanism distinct from enzyme inhibitions in these anthraquinone-mediated suppressions of DNA damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Takahashi
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, Tsushima, Okayama 700-8530, Japan
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Bedner E, Du L, Traganos F, Darzynkiewicz Z. Caffeine dissociates complexes between DNA and intercalating dyes: Application for bleaching fluorochrome-stained cells for their subsequent restaining and analysis by laser scanning cytometry. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2000. [DOI: 10.1002/1097-0320(20010101)43:1<38::aid-cyto1017>3.0.co;2-s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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