How do R&D and remittances affect economic growth? Evidence from middle-income countries

Sustainable development through technical progress for middle-income countries (MICs) is overlooked in growth allied studies. Despite their crucial role in alleviating poverty and resource shortages, MICs encounter challenges in global economic competition, driving persistent efforts to find practical solutions. Therefore, this study explores the integrated impact of R&D expenditure and remittances on economic growth in MICs. Using data from 25 MICs between 1996 and 2021, this study employs the "2nd generation unit root" and "panel autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL)" methods. The "feasible generalized least square (FGLS)" techniques and the "Dumitrescu-Hurlin (D-H)" causality test are employed to verify the robustness of the panel ARDL estimation. The Westerlund cointegration tests confirm a long-term cointegration between variables. The findings of the panel ARDL approach show that R&D expenditure and remittances positively and significantly influence economic growth. The robustness of the panel ARDL results is confirmed by the FGLS estimation, which produces similar outcomes. The outcomes from the FGLS and the ARDL methods are additionally validated by the D-H causality check. Therefore, encouraging R&D and remittances is crucial to accelerate middle-income nations' economic growth. The study reveals a novel mechanism of R&D expenditures, remittances, and economic growth in MICs, shaping their mutual influence on this economic landscape. The study supports middle-income countries' policymakers in creating effective policies for their financial institutions regarding R&D expenditure and remittances.

Investigating the effects of ICT, education, and R&D on economic efficiency and technology heterogeneity: A cross-country analysis

This study explores the impact of information and communication technology (ICT), education, and research and development (R&D) on countries' economic efficiency and technology heterogeneity. A panel of 52 countries, classified into developed (31 sample countries) and developing (21 sample countries) during 2011-2019, were the data sources for the analysis. We obtained relative country-level economic efficiency and technology gap inefficiency estimates from a novel Bayesian data envelopment analysis (DEA) approach. Bias-corrected estimates yielded by this technique have proven to be valid. We then regressed the estimates on ICT, education, and R&D proxy variables using a two-step and an iterative generalized method of moments (GMM) for linear dynamic panel data. Our analysis mitigates possible feedback effects between the explanatory and response variables, as well as possible endogeneity. The novelty of this work goes beyond the use of a new data analysis technique, investigating the impact of the three factors mentioned above and the country classification on technology heterogeneity caused by differences in countries' market structures, regulatory frameworks, economic and knowledge ecosystems, and cultures. Based on this study's findings, fixed broadband subscriptions have the most significant effect on economic efficiency improvement, while R&D is the main driver for reducing technology gap inefficiency. Specifically, ICT-facilitated knowledge spillovers within and across country groups through R&D cooperation play a significant positive role in closing the technology gap. This finding is consistent with the catch-up theory.

Towards mission-driven investment in new antimicrobials? What role for Chinese strategic industrial financing vehicles in responding to the challenge of antimicrobial resistance?

BACKGROUND

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) causes high levels of global mortality. There is a global need to develop new antimicrobials to replace those whose efficacy is being eroded, but limited incentive for companies to engage in R&D, and a limited pipeline of new drugs. There is a recognised need for policies in the form of 'push' and 'pull' incentives to support this R&D. This article discusses China, a country with a rapidly emerging pharmaceuticals and biotech (P&B) sector, and a history of using coordinated innovation and industrial policy for strategic and developmental ends. We investigate the extent to which 'government guidance funds' (GGFs), strategic industrial financing vehicles (a 'push' mechanism), support the development of antimicrobials as part of China's 'mission-driven' approach to innovation and industrial policy. GGFs are potentially globally significant, having raised approximately US$ 872 billion to 2020.

RESULTS

GGFs have a substantial role in P&B, but almost no role in developing new antimicrobials, despite this being a priority in the country's AMR National Action Plan. There are multiple constraints on GGFs' ability to function as part of a mission-driven approach to innovation at present, linked to their business model and the absence of standard markets for antimicrobials (or other effective 'pull' mechanisms), their unclear 'social' mandate, and limited technical capacity. However, GGFs are highly responsive to changing policy demands and can be used strategically by government in response to changing needs.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the very limited role of GGFs in developing new antimicrobials, their responsiveness to policy means they are likely to play a larger role as P&B becomes an increasingly important component of China's innovation and industrial strategy. However, for GGFs to effectively play that role, there is a need for reforms to their governance model, an increase in technical and managerial capacity, and supporting ('pull') incentives, particularly for pharmaceuticals such as antimicrobials for which there is strong social need, but a limited market. Given GGFs' scale and strategic importance, they deserve further research as China's P&B sector becomes increasingly globally important, and as the Chinese government commits to a larger role in global health.

Regulating ethical experimentation: Impacts of the breakthrough therapy designation on drug R&D

This article investigates patterns of pharmaceutical development activity around the 2012 creation of the FDA's Breakthrough Therapy Designation (BTD). The BTD introduced regulatory flexibility and support to avoid ethical challenges created by experimental therapies of exceptional performance in early stage clinical trials. We argue that the program's design indirectly created substantial incentives for the industry to pursue the designation. Consistent with this hypothesis, our evidence links the creation of the program with a substantial increase in the number of new drug indications entering the clinical trial process. This surge in introductions has resulted in a discernible increase in approvals, which has manifested with a lag and may strengthen in the future. Countering theoretical predictions, BTD incentives have not led to increased risk taking in project selection.

Does gene therapies clinical research in rare diseases reflects the competitivity of the country: Example of France

Rare diseases are chronic, serious and generally genetic conditions affecting a small number of people, and their therapeutic management is a real challenge. They represent a considerable burden for patients, caregivers and society alike. Compared with existing symptomatic treatments, gene therapies represent a promising new approach aimed at treating these diseases by replacing a defective gene, or by abolishing or reviving a gene-derived function. France is considered one of the leading countries in the research and development of drugs for rare diseases, yet the position of French public and private stakeholders in the research and development of gene therapies for rare diseases at global and European level remains unclear. To answer this question, we used the GENOTRIAL FR database developed by OrphanDev to clarify France's involvement and competitiveness in this field. The results show that France is actively involved in gene therapy clinical trials, with a dense international collaboration network and solid expertise. However, the French medical infrastructure is mainly involved in clinical research on gene therapy candidates sponsored by several foreign countries. To a lesser extent, French public and private entities are also developing their own gene therapy candidates for various rare diseases, some of which have already reached advanced clinical phases. In conclusion, a number of technical and financial challenges need to be overcome if France is to maintain its position as a European and world leader and increase its contribution to reducing the economic and social burden of rare diseases by developing revolutionary and effective new therapies.

Bridging the new drug access gap between China and the United States and its related policies

Introduction: The access gap for novel pharmaceuticals between China and the developed countries is a major public health issue in China. It is crucial to understand the determinants of this gap to ensure timely access to new drugs and enhance patient health. Methods: We included all new drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) between 2012 and 2019, and collected their approval timings in China. Major factors of interest comprised orphan designation and expedited review pathways granted by the FDA, along with the proportion of Asian subjects in the pivotal trial supporting the FDA approval and whether the trial included study sites in China. The elapsed time from the FDA approval to the market authorization in China constituted the time-to-event outcome, and Cox proportional-hazards regression was used for multivariate analysis. Results: A total of 327 new drugs were approved by the FDA between 2012 and 2019, among which 41.3% were found to be authorized in China as of 1 November 2023. The median lag time for the mutually approved drugs was 3.5 years. The Cox model found that orphan drugs had lower likelihood of being approved in China (HR = 0.59, 95% CI 0.39-0.89; p = 0.011), while the FDA's Breakthrough-Therapy drugs (HR = 2.33, 95% CI 1.39-3.89; p = 0.001) and Fast-Track drugs (HR = 1.58, 95% CI 1.05-2.38; p = 0.028) had shorter lag times. In the pivotal trials that supported the FDA approvals, a higher proportion of Asian subjects was associated with faster drug entry into the Chinese market (HR = 1.02, 95% CI 1.01-1.03; p < 0.001), and the inclusion of study sites in China mainland was likewise conducive to reducing the drug lag (HR = 5.30, 95% CI 3.20-8.77; p < 0.001). After the trials with China-based sites supported the FDA approvals, 77.8% of the trials also supported the subsequent approvals in China. Discussion: China's involvement in global drug co-development can streamline clinical development, by reducing repeated trials solely in the Chinese population. This is primarily due to the openness of the Chinese drug agency towards overseas clinical data and is a positive sign that encourages global drug developers to include Chinese patients in their development plans as early as possible.

Pharmaceutical Innovation in Latin America and the Caribbean

This study assesses Latin America and Caribbean countries' capacity to innovate new pharmaceuticals, defined as developing new drugs and vaccines, repurposing existing drugs, and inventing around patents to produce new drug variations. Vaccine innovation includes reengineering existing vaccines, developing new manufacturing methods, and the clinical development of unapproved vaccine candidates initiated elsewhere.

INTRODUCTION: Rethinking Pharmaceutical Policies in Latin America and the Caribbean: An Overview

The demographic and epidemiological transitions are driving pharmaceutical expenditures up in Latin American and the Caribbean, with much of the cost falling on households. The domestic development and manufacturing of bio-similars could make medicines more affordable.

Research and development for a carbon-neutral future and the status of EKC in G7 economies: evidence from CSARDL approach

Climate change issues present substantial obstacles to the global community's stability and humanity's overall welfare. Reducing carbon emissions is crucial in attaining environmental sustainability and addressing the consequences of SDG 13 (climate actions). The G7 nations, representing some of the largest economies globally and significantly contributing to global carbon emissions, have achieved certain advancements in mitigating their carbon footprint. Nevertheless, the attainment of carbon neutrality continues to pose a substantial obstacle. This study examines the mechanisms leading to environmental sustainability in G7 economies, explicitly emphasizing the contribution of research and development (R&D) toward attaining carbon neutrality. The present study utilizes G7 data from 1990 to 2020 to conduct an empirical analysis employing a cross-sectional autoregressive distributed lag (CSARDL) panel model. The primary objective of this investigation is to examine the influence of R&D expenditure (R&DE) on carbon emissions metric ton (CO2Mt). Furthermore, this study investigates the current state of the EKC in the economies of the G7 nations, as well as the influence of renewable energy (RE) and non-renewable energy (NRE) on CO2Mt. The results suggest that R&DE is critical in mitigating CO2Mt and attaining carbon neutrality. The study also validates the EKC implies a negative and non-linear relationship between growth and CO2Mt. Moreover, renewable and non-renewable energy validate their respective negative and positive effects on CO2Mt. The findings of our study offer valuable insights for policymakers in the G7 nations, aiding them in developing effective regulatory measures for achieving carbon neutrality goals.

Revisiting R&D intensity and CO2 emissions link in the USA using time varying granger causality test: 1870∼2020

R&D intensity, per capita GDP, and per capita CO2 emissions links in the USA over the period of 1870-2020 reflects the evolution of the economic development and technology for the environment benefit. Using Time varying Granger causality, the empirical results indicate both causal links between R&D intensity and per capita CO2 emissions and between per capita GDP and per capita CO2 emissions are time varying. In addition, R&D intensity significantly affects per capita CO2 emissions since 1975, and the per capita GDP significantly influences per capita CO2 emissions since 1978. That is, these findings not only in supportive of the EKC theory, but further disentangle the subtly linkages for the R&D intensity and CO2 emissions and the per capita GDP and CO2 emissions. Finally, the policy implication is that launch the new technical innovation and increase in R&D investment to maintain its sustainable economic growth are the best government strategy to reduce CO2 emissions in the USA.

Analysis of pharma R&D productivity - a new perspective needed

R&D productivity continues to be the industry's grand challenge. We analyzed the R&D input, output, and outcome of 16 leading research-based pharmaceutical companies over 20 years (2001-2020). Our analysis shows that pharma companies increased their R&D spending at a compound annual growth rate of 6% (2001-2020) to an average R&D expenditure per company of $6.7 billion (2020). The companies in our investigation launched 251 new drugs representing 46% of all CDER-related FDA approvals in the past 20 years. The average R&D efficiency of big pharma was $6.16 billion total R&D expenditures per new drug. Almost half of the leading companies needed to compensate for their negative R&D productivity through mergers and acquisitions.

Analyzing the validity of load capability curve: how economic complexity, renewable energy, R&D, and communication technologies take their part in G-20 countries

Intense anthropogenic contamination of the air, water, and soil inspires scholars to examine the causes of pollution and provide remedies to assure environmental sustainability. Therefore, researchers in this study are driven to investigate the causes of the severe air, water, and soil contamination that has resulted from human activity and to offer recommendations for achieving environmental sustainability. This research contributes to the ecological works by suggesting the load capability curve (LCH) hypothesis and using the load capacity factor (LC) to investigate components influencing climatic quality. The LC enables thorough climatic value examination when comparing ecological footprint and biocapacity. Information and communication technologies (INF), development and research (R&D), renewable energy (RE) usage, and disposable income are all examined, considering their effects on the load capacity factor. This analysis utilizes the cross-sectionally augmented autoregressive distributed lag estimator and the Westerlund cointegration on data for the G-20 countries from 1995 to 2018. Empirical evidence suggests that renewables, R&D spending, economic complexity, and INF all benefit environmental quality. This study cannot support the LCH hypothesis, which states that increasing income worsens ecological conditions up to a certain point but then aids in improving environmental quality afterward. Based on the findings, G-20 governments should prioritize environmental policies that boost economic growth, spread renewable energy, prioritize research and development spending, and assist the implementation of green INF infrastructure.

Gender diversity in European firms and the R&D-innovation-productivity nexus

In this paper, we empirically explore whether gender diversity in European firms, measured at different organisational levels, contributes to enhancing their performance in terms of innovation and productivity. Particularly we propose a structural econometric framework that allows us to simultaneously account for gender diversity at the workforce and ownership level throughout different phases of the innovation process, from the decision to engage in R&D to productivity. Our results reveal that gender diversity is strongly related to firms' performance, besides the traditional factors envisaged by the literature. However, some differences emerge according to the firms' organisational levels. Indeed, workforce gender diversity seems to be relevant to all phases of the innovation process. By contrast, the positive influence of ownership gender diversity seems more narrowed as limited to the innovation development/implementation phase; moreover, increasing women's participation beyond a certain threshold is negatively associated with firms' productivity.

How the EU Cohesion Policy targeted at R&D and innovation impacts the productivity, employment and exports of SMEs in Estonia

The aim of this empirical investigation is to assess how the support targeted at R&D and innovation in the European Union Cohesion Policy Programme 2014-2020 affects the labour productivity, employment and exports of small and medium-sized companies. We estimate the treatment effects of two R&D financial support activities using a semiparametric efficient estimator with over-identified moment conditions and inverse probability weighting. The impact assessment uses population data on small and medium-sized enterprises in Estonia, the European Union member state that benefits most per capita from Cohesion Fund allocations. We found that support for R&D and innovation from the Cohesion Policy had a positive short-term effect on labour productivity and employment over the estimation period 2014-2018, and that the size and robustness of the effect were strongest for labour productivity. The short-term effect on exporting was ambiguous.

Many are called, few are chosen: the role of science in drug development decisions

Pharmaceutical firms are extremely selective in deciding which patented drug candidates are taken up into clinical development, given the high costs and risks involved. We argue that the scientific base of drug candidates, and who was responsible for that scientific research, are key antecedents of take-up into clinical trials and whether the patent owner ('internal take-up') or another firm ('external take-up') leads the clinical development effort. We hypothesize that patented drug candidates that refer to scientific research are more likely to be taken up in development, and that in-house conducted scientific research is predominantly associated with internal take-up due to the ease of knowledge transfer within the firm. Examining 18,360 drug candidates patented by 136 pharmaceutical firms we find support for these hypotheses. In addition, drug candidates referring to in-house scientific research exhibit a higher probability of eventual drug development success. Our findings underline the importance of a 'rational drug design' approach that explicitly builds on scientific research. The benefits of internal scientific research in clinical development highlight the potential downside of pervasive organizational specialization in the life sciences in either scientific research or clinical development.

Capital stock, energy, and innovation-related aspects as drivers of environmental quality in high-tech investing economies

By looking at the technological advancement and climate change mitigation plan of the advanced economies, the current study examines the role of sustainable development aspects such as innovations, high technology export, labor productivity, capital stock, research and development (R&D), information and communication technology (ICT), capital stock, and energy use in mitigating environmental degradation for the selected panel of countries with the most investment in technology (China, Denmark, Finland, France, Israel, Korea, Hong Kong, Germany, Japan, Netherlands, Singapore, Sweden, United Kingdom, and United States) over the period 2000-2018. Foremost, the pooled ordinary least square (POLS) and random-effects (RE) generalized least squares (GLS) approaches provided additional interesting inferences. As such, the POLS result revealed that only capital stock in the panel countries shows a desirable environmental effect. At the same time, labor productivity, innovation, R&D, ICT, and energy further hamper ecological quality in the examined panel countries. Similarly, the GLS result largely affirms the POLS results, with only the capital stock among the explanatory variables showing evidence of emission mitigation effect in the panel. Additionally, the panel Granger causality result illustrates evidence of unidirectional causality only innovation, ICT, and capital stock to environmental degradation.

The role of renewable energy consumption on environmental degradation in EU countries: do institutional quality, technological innovation, and GDP matter?

In the face of climate change and environmental degradation, reducing emission of greenhouse gases has become a key factor for environmental sustainability. Therefore, the present research is intended to explore the roles of renewable energy consumption, institutional quality, technological innovation, and GDP on carbon dioxide emissions in the 14 EU countries. In doing so, this study employed novel method of moments quantile regression (MMQR) using annual data from 2000 to 2019. Also, a number of other estimators were applied for robustness check including the fully modified ordinary least square (FMOLS), the dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS), and the fixed effect ordinary least square (FE-OLS). The empirical findings indicate that renewable energy consumption significantly reduces CO₂ emissions across all quantiles (0.1-0.9). Furthermore, institutional quality and technological innovation improve environmental quality in 0.1-0.7 quantiles, although GDP enhances carbon emissions significantly in all quantiles. In addition, the FMOLS, DOLS, and FE-OLS results confirmed the MMQR results. The outcomes of this study suggest insights for the policymakers to mitigate carbon emissions through promoting innovative technologies for environmental protection and investing more in the development of renewable energy.

Emergent challenges and opportunities in drug discovery and commercialization

We review medical economics literature presented at the 2023 annual AEA-ASSA convention, the largest gathering of economists worldwide. Pharmacoeconomic papers addressed a wide range of issues, including gender and racial gaps in clinical trials, hospital credit financing, drug rebates, covid-19 vaccine equality, and the opioid epidemic. Yet, they had some common identifiable themes. We examine them in the context of the "twin towers" of biopharmaceutical innovation: discovery and commercialization. Implementation outcomes and relative success of innovative solutions - whether in terms of products and services, structural design and arrangements, or policies - depend on how adequately they respond to questions and challenges that arise in drug discovery and commercialization, and who gains from them. That innovation's beneficiaries might not equally gain from its intended advantages is another unifying theme in the reviewed literature. Against this backdrop, biopharmaceutical innovation can breed new challenges and opportunities. And health policy can perform a critical, leveling function that reduces cost, increases access, and ensures quality of biopharmaceutical solutions.

Experimental Pharmacology for COVID-19 Treatment: A Geoanalytical Bibliometric Analysis

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study is to produce a geo-referenced map of the status of R&D in COVID-related studies in the world.

METHODS

Spatial mapping of bibliometric data of Cortellis Drug Discovery Intelligence through a spatial bibliometric model with the aid of a GIS (Geographic Information System) called ArcGIS and the software.

RESULTS

We show the countries that have the most studies related to COV ID-19 and their degree of collaboration. No drug discovery-related activity was found in South America and Africa. A geo-referenced map of the most active countries in COVID research was constructed as well as conceptual maps of the 11 most representative drugs employed for COVID treatment.

CONCLUSION

The georeferenced conceptual maps produced in the present report allow not only to better understand the leading institutions in R&D in COVID-19 related drugs but also to visualize their interactions and research relationships. This could offer, in addition to a coherent, organized multinational effort, the possibility of searching for other drugs that have been employed for other diseases and that, in terms of their conceptual relations, could represent some possibilities for treating the coronavirus SARS-2.

A statistical look at the COVID-19 vaccine development and vaccine policies

The global outbreak of COVID-19 caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus elicited immense global interest in the development and distribution of safe COVID-19 vaccines by various governments and researchers, capable of stopping the spread of COVID-19 disease. After COVID-19 was declared a global pandemic, several vaccines have been developed for emergency use authorization. The accelerated development of the vaccines was attributed to many factors but mainly by capitalizing on years of research and technology development. Although several countries tried to develop COVID-19 vaccines only a few countries succeeded. Therefore, we applied statistical methods to find factors that have contributed to the fast development of COVID-19 vaccines. All 11 countries that developed vaccines were considered and chose other 24 countries for comparison purposes according to different criteria of their R&D. Fourteen R&D indicator variables that are a measure of the R&D for all countries [World Development Indicators (WDI)] were obtained from the World Bank DataBank and data on the COVID-19 vaccine R&D were obtained from The Knowledge Portal of the Graduate Institute Geneva and Global Health Center. The World Bank records WDI yearly, and 2019 was chosen because of a few missing values. Also, different vaccine policies were adopted by different countries during the COVID-19 vaccination period, producing different impacts of vaccinations on the population. So, we applied the generalized estimating equations (GEE) approach to find policies that contributed greatly to decreasing the spread of COVID-19 using data from the Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker (OxCGRT) and age-specific vaccination data from the European Center for Disease and Prevention and Control. Logistic regression, two-sample t-test, and Wilcoxon rank-sum test found scientific and technical journals, liability, and COVID-19 Vaccine R&D Funding (investment in pharmaceutical industry US$) are significantly associated with fast COVID-19 vaccine development. Vaccine prioritization and government vaccine financial support were significantly associated with COVID-19 daily cases. The impact of vaccination on lowering the rate of new cases is greatly observed among the mid-aged populations (25-64 years) and lower or non-significant among the younger (<25 years) and (>65 years) older populations. Therefore, these age-groups especially > 79 can be prioritized during vaccine roll-out.

Inspecting the influence of renewable energy and R&D in defending environmental quality: evidence for California

The United Nations's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is international cooperation that aims to climate change mitigation, and encourage the use of clean energy. Investing in green technology to reduce carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions is among the most important objective of the SDGs. As the USA is part of this collaboration, the present study tries to examine the progress of one State to meet the Global Goals. This paper uses the autoregressive distributed lags (ARDLs) approach and Granger causality test to evaluate the dynamic relationships uniting gross domestic product (GDP), CO₂ emissions, renewable energy consumption (REC), and research and development (R&D) for the California State over the period 1987-2017. The outcome of the econometric analysis proved that REC affects CO₂ emissions in the short run, and vice versa. In addition, a bidirectional relationship is detected between GDP and R&D and CO₂ emissions and REC Granger causes GDP. In the long run, REC, R&D, and GDP Granger cause CO₂ emissions, while REC, R&D, and CO₂ emissions Granger cause GDP. We also found a bidirectional causality linking CO₂ emissions and GDP. The long-run elasticities show that R&D and GDP impact positively CO₂ emissions whereas REC affects it. Thus, R&D increases pollution but REC reduces it. Environmental degradation is perhaps related to the excessive consumption of fossil energy in most activities. California is advised to enhance the effort to meet the SDGs. Encouraging R&D of low carbon technologies and applying several taxations for non-renewable fuel adoption may also constitute a useful strategy to protect the environment.

The contribution of collaboration to the development of sustainable innovation in high-tech companies

This study proposes a method for examining the sustainability of collaborations using multivariate regression models. It demonstrates the use of the method by examining the effect of the collaboration strategies of high-technology companies on their product-development and financial performance. Data collected from 195 high-tech companies on internal R&D investments, investment in collaborations with external companies and organizations, and revenues generated from the resulting product development, were analyzed using multivariate regression models. The findings revealed that companies engaging in external collaborations increase their revenue by 3.95 times compared with firms that do not.

Science Policy in Canada

The formation and current state of science policy in Canada are analyzed. Attention to this topic is explained by the fact that the country is a member of the G7 of the leading industrialized countries, although its population is only 0.5% and its GDP is about 2% of the global numbers. By international standards, Canada is not a leader in scientific and technological advance, its specificity being that, with relatively low R&D spending, it occupies leading positions in terms of indicators such as the number of scientific publications in international databases and the number of Nobel laureates (in the last 13 years alone, seven Canadian scientists have become Nobel prizewinners). Canadian affiliation makes up 3.6% of articles published in peer-reviewed journals worldwide. The evolution of the mechanisms of government support for science in Canada is traced, and current practices are summarized. The strengths and weaknesses of the Canadian model of organization of science are identified. This experience may be of interest to Russia.

Is the R&D Expenditure of Listed Companies Green? Evidence from China's A-Share Market

Whether the company's R&D expenditure has the green attribute is the focus of current environmental economics research. This paper empirically tests the relationship between R&D expenditure and CO₂ emission intensity by taking Chinese A-share listed companies, from 2016 to 2020, as samples. The research found that the R&D expenditure of the company has a significant green effect of reducing its carbon dioxide emission intensity. Further research shows that the institutional investors play a mediating role in the relationship between R&D expenditure and CO₂ emission intensity. And the "governance effect" of institutional investors is affected by "short-termism", which leads to the "myopic" of enterprises' management and urges them to invest in the short term, thus being detrimental to the company's environmental performance. In addition, the green attribute of R&D expenditure only exists in the company which has a high concentration of institutional investors, indicating that the institutional investors possess the ability to identify the green value of R&D investment. Extended discussion shows that the investment of R&D personnel plays a moderating role in the first half path of the above mediating mechanism, which weakens the negative relationship between institutional investors and R&D investment. This paper provides empirical evidence for the government to improve environmental performance at the enterprise level. The results of this study show that, in order to reduce the CO₂ emission intensity of enterprises, the government should improve incentives for enterprise R&D, make rational use of the information identification ability of institutional investors, advocate long-term investment philosophy, and strengthen the training of R&D team leaders and technicians.

How green finance and financial development promote green economic growth: deployment of clean energy sources in South Asia

A major issue for governments in the past few decades has been environmental deterioration caused by economic activity. Researchers are increasingly interested in the factors that contribute to environmental deterioration. This research fills the empirical gaps by looking at the influence of carbon footprints of growth and R&D investment on green finance development of renewable energy. Ordinary least square (OLS) is used in this work to assess the long-term connection between chosen variables in South Asia from 1995 to 2018. The importance of green finance, clean energy, and green financial instability have been identified as major variables. According to the study's overall findings, clean energy, green finance, and sustainable economic growth are all important and positive indicators of a composite assessment of sustainable practices. Green bonds, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and green economic development all play an important part in green finance development and renewable energy production. The research also found that R&D expenditures had a positive and substantial influence on green finance development in South Asia, with a 1% increase in R&D expenditures lowering the sustainability of the environment by 0.070% and 0.080%. Other practical consequences for South Asia include a more suitable path toward a greener economy, as suggested by the projected findings.

A lasting crisis affects R&D decisions of smaller firms: the Greek experience

We use the prolonged Greek crisis as a case study to understand how a lasting economic shock affects the innovation strategies of firms in economies with moderate innovation activities. Adopting the 3-stage CDM model, we explore the link between R&D, innovation, and productivity for different size groups of Greek manufacturing firms during the prolonged crisis. At the first stage, we find that the continuation of the crisis is harmful for the R&D engagement of smaller firms while it increased the willingness for R&D activities among the larger ones. At the second stage, among smaller firms the knowledge production remains unaffected by R&D investments, while among larger firms the R&D decision is positively correlated with the probability of producing innovation, albeit the relationship is weakened as the crisis continues. At the third stage, innovation output benefits only larger firms in terms of labor productivity, while the innovation-productivity nexus is insignificant for smaller firms during the lasting crisis.

Transfer of parasitology research to patents worldwide

Mankind has known about different parasitic diseases since ancient times. There is no doubt that parasites are the infectious agents that have caused the most deaths throughout history. But even today, parasitic diseases affect more than one billion people worldwide. In this paper, the relationship between articles published in the area of parasitology and international patents in this field from 1996 to 2019 was analyzed. For this purpose, Scopus has been used. This is a database developed by Elsevier, which, in addition to having numerous indexed journals and books, has developed SciVal, an analysis tool with which the publications that have been cited in the patents of the 5 largest patent offices in the world have been analyzed. The analysis has allowed us to study 2814 publications, to know their time trend, their Authors, Affiliations, and Countries, as well as the journals in which they have been published. Also, the topics and topic clusters related to parasitology that appear in publications cited in international patents have been known. Thus, the existence of six Topic Clusters that group 94% of all publications has been discovered. Of all of them, the Topic Cluster referring to malaria stands out above all others, with 968 articles (34% of the total), probably due to the fact that malaria continues to be, to this day, one of the great challenges for both industry and basic research throughout the world.

Revisiting the nexus between fiscal decentralization and environment: evidence from fiscally decentralized economies

Fiscal decentralization is a topic of great importance, especially in the context of environmental sustainability. Numerous research studies have been conducted on fiscal decentralization providing conflicting results, and therefore, the current study fills the gap by examining the effect of fiscal decentralization on environmental quality in the presence of environment-related technological innovation, renewable energy consumption, international trade, and economic growth taking seven fiscally decentralized advanced OECD countries as a case study. Using data from 1990 to 2018, we employed the Spatial Durbin Model (SDM) to test the spatial spillover effect of fiscal decentralization on the environment in seven fiscally decentralized countries. The primary findings show that carbon emissions are affected by the associated regions, which significantly correlates with the spatial distribution, and in the short run, fiscal decentralization increases carbon emissions. However, in the long run, fiscal decentralization decreases carbon emissions and is essential for achieving the goals of net-zero carbon emission. The results also show that the indirect effect is significantly positive in the economic-geographical weight matrix, and the spatial spillover effect of fiscal decentralization is not conducive to the environment of countries with economic exchanges. Furthermore, fiscal decentralization has a threshold effect, and the results show that when the fiscal decentralization degree is higher, it significantly reduces CO₂ emissions. Any policy in these countries that target renewable energy, fiscal decentralization, and eco-innovation will significantly reduce carbon emissions.

The repeated setbacks of HIV vaccine development laid the groundwork for SARS-CoV-2 vaccines

The decades-long effort to produce a workable HIV vaccine has hardly been a waste of public and private resources. To the contrary, the scientific know-how acquired along the way has served as the critical foundation for the development of vaccines against the novel, pandemic SARS-CoV-2 virus. We retell the real-world story of HIV vaccine research – with all its false leads and missteps – in a way that sheds light on the current state of the art of antiviral vaccines. We find that HIV-related R&D had more than a general spillover effect. In fact, the repeated failures of phase 2 and 3 clinical trials of HIV vaccine candidates have served as a critical stimulus to the development of successful vaccine technologies today. We rebut the counterargument that HIV vaccine development has been no more than a blind alley, and that recently developed vaccines against COVID-19 are really descendants of successful vaccines against Ebola, MERS, and SARS. These successful vaccines likewise owe much to the vicissitudes of HIV vaccine development. We then discuss how the failures of HIV vaccine development have taught us how adapt SARS-CoV-2 vaccines to immune escape from emerging variants. Finally, we inquire whether recent advances in the development of vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 might in turn further the development of an HIV vaccine - what we describe as a reverse spillover effect.

Achieving end-to-end success in the clinic: Pfizer's learnings on R&D productivity

Over the past decade, Pfizer has focused efforts to improve its research and development (R&D) productivity. By the end of 2020, Pfizer had achieved an industry-leading clinical success rate of 21%, a tenfold increase from 2% in 2010 and well above the industry benchmark of ∼11%. The company had also maintained the quality of innovation, because 75% of its approvals between 2016 and 2020 had at least one expedited regulatory designation (e.g., Breakthrough Therapy). Pfizer’s Signs of Clinical Activity (SOCA) paradigm enabled better decision-making and, along with other drivers (biology and modality), contributed to this productivity improvement. These laid a strong foundation for the rapid and effective development of the Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine with BioNTech, as well as the antiviral candidate Paxlovid™, under the company’s ‘lightspeed’ paradigm.

Can R&D investment reduce the impact of COVID-19 on firm performance?-Evidence from India

This study examines whether investing in R&D reduces the impact of exogenous shocks like the COVID-19 on stock market performance and accounting performance of manufacturing firms in India. For the sample of listed manufacturing firms, the paper finds that the firms engaged in R&D activities had lower negative cumulative abnormal return than those firms that did not invest in R&D in the pre-pandemic period using multiple event windows. The result suggests that R&D investments can lower value erosion for the shareholders during a severe crisis period. Further, using a difference-in-difference fixed effects model, the study finds that manufacturing firms engaged in R&D activities in the pre-pandemic period exhibited higher return on sales and growth of total income during the pandemic quarter vis-à-vis the non-R&D firms. The favorable accounting performance indicates the possibility of firm-level R&D being associated with the firm's ability to adjust its functioning during a crisis, thereby reducing the effect of the crisis. Finally, the study documents that government intervention to reduce the spread of the virus had a differential impact on firms based on their industry of operation. The findings have implications for investors, corporate managers, and policymakers in India.

The Health Impact Fund: making the case for engagement with pharmaceutical laboratories in Brazil, Russia, India, and China

Despite progress in global health, the general disease burden still disproportionately falls on low- and middle-income countries. The health needs of these countries' populations are unmet because there is a shortage in drug research and development, as well as a lack of access to essential drugs. This health disparity is especially problematic for diseases associated with poverty, namely neglected tropical diseases and microbial infections. Currently, the pharmaceutical landscape focuses on innovations determined by profit margins and intellectual property protection. To expand drug accessibility and catalyze research and development for neglected diseases, a team of researchers proposed the Health Impact Fund as a potential solution. However, the fund is predominantly considering partnerships with pharmaceutical giants in high-income countries. This commentary explores the limitations and benefits in partnering with pharmaceutical companies based in Brazil, Russia, India, and China (BRIC), with the goal of expanding the Health Impact Fund's vision to incorporate long-term, local partnerships. Identified limitations to a BRIC country partnership include lower levels of drug development expertise compared to their high-income pharmaceutical counterparts, and whether the Health Impact Fund and the participating stakeholders have the financial capability to assist in bringing a new drug to market. However, potential benefits include the creation of new incentives to fuel competitive local innovation, more equitable routes to drug discovery and development, and a product pipeline that could involve stakeholders in lower- and middle-income countries. Our commentary explores how partnership with pharmaceutical firms in BRIC countries might be advantageous for all: The Health Impact Fund, pharmaceutical companies in BRIC economies, and stakeholders in low- and middle- income countries.

The Dilemma of Intellectual Property Agreements and R&D in Developing Economies: A Game Theory Approach

This paper models and predicts how the strengthening of intellectual property (IP) protection will impact R&D in developing economies. International agreements such as TRIPs and free trade agreements are enhancing the level of international control on IP. This is changing deeply the R&D environment in developing economies by restraining illegal channels of knowledge accumulation such as imitation, reverse engineering and piracy. An asymmetric and non-cooperative two-stage (R&D-Production) game is proposed to model a developing market where two local firms compete with a more innovative foreign firm. Equilibrium R&D expenditures and profits of the competing firms are compared for different levels of: market technology, technological gaps and IP protection. The proposed model shows clearly that a stringent enforcement of IP agreements will dramatically decrease the innovative abilities of developing economies especially in high technological sectors. The maintain and increase of their R&D skills will not be possible without a reduction of their technological gap and strong incentives to initiate regulatory (or permit tacit) R&D cooperation between local firms.

Behavior Towards R&D Investment of Family Firms CEOs: The Role of Psychological Attribute

Introduction

This study aims to explore the effects of the behavior of chief executive officers (CEOs) within family firms on investment in research and development (R&D). We also investigate the effect of CEOs' psychological attributes of overconfidence on R&D investment and the moderating effect between the types of CEOs and R&D investment.

Methods

We obtained data on Chinese A-share firms from China Stock Exchange and Accounting Research from 2010 to 2018 for analysis. Then, we used the ordinary least squares model for regression results; moreover, the Tobit regression, GMM and firm fixed effect model are applied to check the robustness of the results.

Results

Family CEOs with actual control rights are more open to R&D investment, whereas those without actual control rights exhibit negative behavior. The study found that non-family CEOs exhibit insignificant results and negative predicted signs toward R&D investment. Moreover, the results show that overconfident CEOs are more inclined to amplify innovation. Furthermore, results on the moderating effects of CEO psychological attribute of overconfidence indicate that the CEO overconfidence mitigates the negative relationship between family CEOs with actual control rights and R&D investment. However, no moderating effect is found between family CEOs without actual control and R&D investment. The CEO psychological attribute behavior is positive between non-family CEOs and R&D investment.

Discussion

This novel study explores the behavioral effect of different types of family firm CEOs on R&D investment. This study will assist corporate board members to make more informed decisions about retaining (or bringing back) family CEOs (with or without actual control rights) or hiring non-family CEOs.

The inward FDI - Energy intensity nexus in OECD countries: A sectoral R&D threshold analysis

Over recent years, concerns about the need to reduce energy intensity have intensified due to the increasing volume of greenhouse gas emissions that has amplified problems related to global climate change and environmental pollution. At the same time, foreign direct investment (FDI) has been found to have a prominent effect on energy intensity. This study empirically examines the relationship between sectoral FDI inflows and energy intensity by investigating the possibility of a threshold effect of research and development (R&D) technological absorptive capacity. Our sample covers 34 OECD countries over 1987-2013, with FDI and R&D data disaggregated at three sectoral levels (primary, secondary and tertiary sectors), an analysis that is absent in existing literature. We uncover a significant R&D input threshold in the relationship between FDI inflows to non-primary sectors and energy intensity. FDI inflows to non-primary sectors increase the level of energy intensity when the level of sectoral R&D is below the threshold, but such effect decreases when the sectoral R&D level is above the threshold point. Important implications flow from our findings with respect to the type of FDI and the level of indigenous R&D to be encouraged (or discouraged) by policymakers to effectively reduce energy intensity.

Innovation in breakthrough drugs and vaccines: Development risk, patient impact, and value

Innovation has a crucial role in developing breakthrough drugs and vaccines that can change patients' lives. To better understand this role, we evaluated recent outcomes for assets developed using different types of innovation. Although all approaches have delivered breakthroughs, assets that modulate established biological targets with innovative scientific or technological designs provide a unique combination of reduced development risk, high patient impact, and high commercial value. This type of asset currently represents a relatively small proportion of approved drugs and vaccines, but we anticipate that an increasing body of scientific knowledge and ongoing technological advancements could offer opportunities to grow this category in the future.

The promise of crowdfunding to finance R&D of novel diagnostics and therapeutics for incurable diseases

The level of funding available for research and development (R&D) of diagnostics (D) and therapeutics (T) for incurable diseases varies and is not associated with the extent of their disease burden. Crowdfunding is a promising way to increase funding for R&D of D&T for underfunded incurable diseases, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, which has not been exploited to its full capacity. Investing into efforts to educate patients and researchers about its prospective is a worthwhile endeavor, which could lead to the generation of substantial new capital to finance the development of novel therapeutics for these diseases.

[Communication in process of R&D and registration of new drugs of traditional Chinese medicine]

In recent years, the National Medical Products Administration has established a communication system for the process of drug R&amp;D and registration. In this paper, the reform policies on establishing the communication system for drug evaluation in recent years were summarized, and the channels, processes, methods and types of communication were also collected. In addition, the communication status of new drugs of traditional Chinese medicine(TCM) was summarized according to the whole process of R&amp;D, including summary of clinical practice, Investigational New Drug Applications, period of clinical trials, New Drug Applications, and post-marketing researches. Meanwhile, the current problems such as ineffective, inefficient, repeated or even no communication were analyzed, and relevant suggestions were proposed accordingly in order to provide reference for better communication on R&amp;D and registration of new drugs of TCM.

Innovation drivers of external competitiveness in the great recession

This paper explores the main drivers of firms' external competitiveness in times of crisis. We focus on the aftermath of the Great Recession (2008-2015) and present evidence based on a comprehensive survey of Italian companies (the MET dataset). Overall, our results highlight not only the strict correlation between internationalization and innovative activities but also a positive change of attitude of Italian firms towards these strategies. We show that, while structural factors play a key role for external competitiveness, other critical aspects trigger superior performances, especially strategic profiles, technological capabilities, and proactive behaviors such as innovativeness and R&D investment. Importantly, we document disproportionate effects of innovation for smaller and less productive companies. This points at dynamic strategies as a potential tool to fill the gap between larger/more productive companies and the set of less structured firms, a segment representing an ideal target for policy measures.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11187-021-00453-0.

The impact of air pollution on R&D input and output in China

This study examines the impact of air pollution on research and development (R&D) in China on the basis of province-level data for the period 2007-2016. The study discovers a significant adverse impact of air pollution on both R&D input and output in China. The estimation results in this study are robust to the different indicators used to measure R&D input and output and control for possible endogeneity problems via the instrumental variable approach. According to our estimates, if the concentration of particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 μm or less (PM_2.5) increases by 1%, then the scales of annual R&D personnel, expenditures, and new patents will decline by 0.359%, 0.169%, and 0.293%, respectively. The findings indicate that air pollution is a considerable threat to innovation and technological progress in China.

Determinants of biopharmaceutical R&D expenditures in China: the impact of spatiotemporal context

The spatiotemporal context affects corporate behavior because any corporate activity is carried out in a specific time and space. Based on an examination on the research and development (R&D) expenditures of 284 listed biopharmaceutical companies in China, this study finds that the innovation space of the biopharmaceutical industry presents a spatial "North-South" pattern. The spatial gravity center of the biopharmaceutical industry's R&D investment has been shifting to the eastern coastal region. This spatiotemporal context will impact the R&D investment of biopharmaceutical companies. Research shows that the distance between biopharmaceutical companies and the gravity center has a direct impact on the R&D expenditures of biopharmaceutical companies. This study supports the context-sensitive thesis and shows how the spatiotemporal context affects the R&D investment of biopharmaceutical companies while controlling firm-level factors.

Dynamic relationship between environmental regulation and energy consumption structure in China under spatiotemporal heterogeneity

The optimization of energy consumption structure (ECS) is indispensable in developing green economy and mitigating environmental pollution, but the regional heterogeneity of environmental regulation (ER) and socio-economic drivers leads to more complicated formulation of energy and environment policy. In this paper, the dynamic relationship between ER and ECS and the driving mechanism of ECS in the context of spatiotemporal heterogeneity are analyzed using China's province-level data over 1998-2017. Firstly, the spatial autocorrelation of ECS is tested to observe the spatiotemporal characteristics. Secondly, the dynamic relationship between formal environmental regulation (FER) and ECS is analyzed by system generalized moment method at national and regional level. Finally, the nonlinear relationship between FER and ECS is estimated by applying panel threshold model, and the effects of FER on ECS in different intervals are studied. The results illustrate that the autocorrelation of ECS is gradually weakened, and ECS has obvious regional features. What's more, the lagged ECS hinders the optimization of ECS, that is, ECS has a strong path dependence. The lagged FER promotes ECS. Furthermore, two thresholds exist in the sample period to divide FER into three mechanisms. Weak and medium FER promotes ECS optimization, while strong FER inhibits the optimization. According to empirical results, energy policies are put forward.

How can we evaluate the potential of innovative vaccine products and technologies in resource constrained settings? A total systems effectiveness (TSE) approach to decision-making

Innovations in vaccine product attributes could play an important role in addressing coverage and equity (C&E) gaps, but there is currently a poor understanding of the full system impact and trade-offs associated with investing in such technologies, both from the perspective of national immunisation programmes (NIPs) and vaccine developers. Total Systems Effectiveness (TSE) was developed as an approach to evaluate vaccines with different product attributes from a systems perspective, in order to analyse and compare the value of innovative vaccine products in different settings.

The TSE approach has been advanced over the years by various stakeholders including the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF), Gavi, PATH, UNICEF and WHO. WHO further developed the TSE approach to incorporate the country perspective into immunisation decision-making, in order for countries to evaluate innovative products for introduction and product switch decisions, and for vaccine development stakeholders to conduct their assessments of product value in line with country preferences. This paper describes the original TSE approach, development of the tool and processes for NIPs to apply the WHO TSE approach, and results from piloting in 12 countries across Africa, Asia and the Americas. The WHO TSE framework emerged from this piloting effort.

The WHO TSE approach has been welcomed by NIP and vaccine development stakeholders as a useful tool to evaluate trade-offs between different products. It was emphasised that the concept of “total systems effectiveness” is likely to be context-specific and that TSE is valuable in facilitating a deliberative process to articulate NIP priorities, for decisions around product choice, and for prioritising the development of future vaccine innovations.

Agrochemical industry development, trends in R&D and the impact of regulation

Over the last 20 years the share of the crop protection market attributable to the leading markets (North America, EU-15 and Japan) that are the major focus of new active ingredient research and development (R&D) has declined. Greater growth has been recorded in developing markets, questioning the focus of current R&D strategy. R&D budgets within the major companies have seen a shift toward genetically modified (GM) trait development away from agrochemicals, such that the rate of new active ingredients entering development and subsequently being introduced has declined. As a result, the industry has become more reliant on older, off-patent chemistry, although the availability of older products has been affected by re-registration requirements, particularly in the EU. Current criteria often preclude the registration of broad-spectrum agrochemicals, resulting in many new active ingredients being single site active, which is perceived to increase the potential for resistance development, particularly for herbicides, although this is not always the case. © 2019 The Author. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Knowledge transfer and innovation performance of small and medium enterprises (SMEs): An informal economy analysis

SME operators in the informal sector of developing economies have a significant influence on their nation's economies through their involvement in international business relationships. However, the existing deficiency in the literature to show empirical relationships between knowledge transfer, from these SMEs and their international business partners, and innovation performance is a significant gap in the strategic management and international business literature. Therefore, this paper explores the link between knowledge transfer and innovation performance of informal economy SMEs that are involved in international business relationships. The study included a survey of 370 owners-managers and managers of small and medium enterprises in Nigeria's informal electronic market. Using Structural Equation Model (AMOS 22) this study shows that knowledge transfer dimensions, such as R&D and social networking, have varying levels of impact on innovation performance of informal sector SMEs. Knowledge transfer from training showed an inverse and insignificant relationship with innovation performance. The study established implications and recommendations that will be useful for theory and practice.

Municipal waste generation, R&D intensity, and economic growth nexus - A case of EU regions

The relationship between economic growth and waste generation is a major global concern. Previous studies provided no conclusive evidence as to the causality between these two concepts, which can be attributed to at least two problems. First, R&D intensity is increasingly recognized as being an important determinant of environmental quality. Second, the regional level is considered to be important for the implementation of waste management policies, as regions and municipalities, among others, are responsible for separate collection systems and for establishing and managing treatment facilities. Previous studies failed to reflect the heterogeneity of the regions, which may lead to biased results. To address these problems, the panel vector error correction model was employed to examine the Granger causality in EU regions. The results provide empirical support for the existence of short- and long-run bidirectional causality between waste generation and economic growth in EU regions. A bidirectional link among waste generation, heating energy, and R&D intensity was also observed. The policy implication is that traditional economic development policies are not enough to reduce waste generation in EU regions. Economic tools, such as charges and incentives, and eco-innovation policies should be introduced to promote the region's shift towards a circular economy model.

Antibiotic resistance and R&D failure: The need for near real-time disaster research

Increasing antibiotic resistance across the world seems to reflect a failure of research and development (R&D) to keep pace with societally important disaster risks. This article uses the example of steadily increasing antibiotic resistance to question whether current R&D systems are able to timeously deal with certain societally important research problems. A review and discussion of new theoretical developments is offered, to suggest how novel technologies might be applied to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of health-related disaster risk research. This article seeks to make a conceptual contribution through a critical review and synthesis of novel theory. Theoretical propositions are derived from conceptual analysis. Four key challenges are related to the derived propositions, to derive guidelines for how the disaster risk management process can be supplemented to improve its near real-time research capability. The theoretical propositions derived here relate to certain overarching challenges facing disaster risk research. The theoretical arguments made in this article seek to offer a heuristic perspective that may be useful to those seeking to apply novel technologies in disaster risk research to address societally important research problems such as antibiotic resistance. This research identifies evidence of the failure of the contemporary research system to solve problems like antibiotic resistance. On the basis of a synthesis of novel literature and theory, conclusions suggest certain useful avenues for the improvement of the research process. Urgency is recommended because of mounting societal costs of slow research responses to societal problems.

Research landscape of a global environmental challenge: Microplastics

Microplastics can be found all over the world, in the remotest regions and even in the Arctic snow. Primary microplastic is either produced as microparticles or enters the natural environment already as microparticles. Whereas secondary microplastic is generated by fragmentation or abrasion of other products in the natural environment. Both pollute the global ecospheres and even enter the human food chain. This study aims at the evaluation of the global publication output on both types of microplastic referring to absolute and contextual numbers. Only since 2006, the focus on the environmental burden led to an enormous increase of publications on MP. While China, USA and Germany are leading players regarding the absolute numbers, Portugal, Chile and Ireland are among the top countries when including socio-economic features and research expenditures. The responsibility for the big plastic waste producers can be shown by significantly correlating numbers of articles and the plastic waste generation, albeit here China and USA fall behind. However, the biggest producers are not the most affected countries. Despite the strong international interest, our study shows that many countries play no role at all in the publication landscape of MP. For future planning, it is necessary to extend the international collaborations to reach sustainable solutions for the whole planet earth.

Unlocking Access To Novel Medicines In China-A Review From A Health System Perspective

China's healthcare reform aims to provide affordable and equitable basic healthcare for all by 2020. Access to medicines is an essential part of the healthcare. The efforts of promoting access to medicines have been moving from meeting the needs of the basic healthcare, towards increasingly dedicated resources to offer breakthrough therapies. Looking at access to novel medicines from a health system perspective, and placing the changes China has made into that system context, this paper makes a comprehensive review of the progress of access to novel medicines in China. The review drew on two sources of information, which included desk review of published and grey literature, and key informant interview. Five hurdles were identified which create barriers of access to novel medicines, ranging from regulation and financing of medicines, intellectually property rights protection, and development of innovation capacity, to other health system components. Multiple policies have been implementing in China to remove the multiple access barriers gradually. Universal access to medicines has been moving from towards the basic common conditions to the world breakthrough technologies. We see cause for optimism, but recognize that there is a long way to go. Achieving broader and better access to modern medicines for Chinese patients will require multiple and coordinated government efforts, which would need to target the whole lifecycle regulation of novel medicines with a health system perspective, from balancing IP protection, strengthening R&D and public health, to appropriate regulatory approach and financing mechanism, and to supply chain management, as well as smart use.