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Chang YF, Huang YP, Chou CH, Ho MW, Lin HJ, Chen CY, Wu HY, Lai YR, Lee YH, Chiu CH, Lai CH. RAGE participates in the intracellular transport of Campylobacter jejuni cytolethal distending toxin. JOURNAL OF MICROBIOLOGY, IMMUNOLOGY, AND INFECTION = WEI MIAN YU GAN RAN ZA ZHI 2024; 57:709-719. [PMID: 39160115 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmii.2024.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2024] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 08/21/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cytolethal distending toxin (CDT) belongs to the genotoxin family and is closely related to Campylobacter jejuni-associated gastroenteritis. We recently reported that CDT triggers the danger-associated molecular pattern (DAMP) signaling to exert deleterious effects on host cells. However, how CDT traffics in cells and the mechanism of CDT intoxication remain to be elucidated. METHODS Recombinant CDT subunits (CdtA, CdtB, and CdtC) were purified, and their activity was characterized in gastrointestinal cells. Molecular approaches and image tracking were employed to analyze the delivery of CDT in host cells. RESULTS In this study, we found that CDT interacts with the receptor of advanced glycation end products (RAGE) and high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) to enter the cells. Our results further showed that CdtB transport in cells through the dynamin-dependent endocytic pathway and lysosome is involved in this process. Conversely, blockage of RAGE signaling resulted in a reduction in CDT-arrested cell cycles, indicating that RAGE is involved in CDT intracellular transport and its subsequent pathogenesis. CONCLUSION Our results demonstrate that RAGE is important for CDT trafficking in the cells. These findings expand our understanding of important issues related to host cell intoxication by C. jejuni CDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Fang Chang
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ping Huang
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Huei Chou
- Departments of Infectious Disease, School of Medicine, China Medical University and Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Mao-Wang Ho
- Departments of Infectious Disease, School of Medicine, China Medical University and Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Hwai-Jeng Lin
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Shuang-Ho Hospital, New Taipei, Taiwan; Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Ya Chen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Taichung Veterans General Hospital Chiayi Branch, Chiayi, Taiwan
| | - Hui-Yu Wu
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ru Lai
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Yuan-Haw Lee
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Hsun Chiu
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan; Molecular Infectious Disease Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Ho Lai
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan; Molecular Infectious Disease Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Nursing, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan; Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.
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Lequesne L, Dano J, Rouaix A, Kropp C, Plaisance M, Gelhaye S, Lequesne ML, Piquet P, Avril A, Becher F, Orsini Delgado ML, Simon S. A Monoclonal Antibody with a High Affinity for Ricin Isoforms D and E Provides Strong Protection against Ricin Poisoning. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:412. [PMID: 39453188 PMCID: PMC11510859 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16100412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2024] [Revised: 09/17/2024] [Accepted: 09/18/2024] [Indexed: 10/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Ricin is a highly potent toxin that has been used in various attempts at bioterrorism worldwide. Although a vaccine for preventing ricin poisoning (RiVax™) is in clinical development, there are currently no commercially available prophylaxis or treatments for ricin intoxication. Numerous studies have highlighted the potential of passive immunotherapy using anti-ricin monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and have shown promising results in preclinical models. In this article, we describe the neutralizing and protective efficacy of a new generation of high-affinity anti-ricin mAbs, which bind and neutralize very efficiently both ricin isoforms D and E in vitro through cytotoxicity cell assays. In vivo, protection assay revealed that one of these mAbs (RicE5) conferred over 90% survival in a murine model challenged intranasally with a 5 LD50 of ricin and treated by intravenous administration of the mAbs 6 h post-intoxication. Notably, a 35% survival rate was observed even when treatment was administered 24 h post-exposure. Moreover, all surviving mice exhibited long-term immunity to high ricin doses. These findings offer promising results for the clinical development of a therapeutic candidate against ricin intoxication and may also pave the way for novel vaccination strategies against ricin or other toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loïs Lequesne
- Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (L.L.); (M.L.O.D.)
| | - Julie Dano
- Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (L.L.); (M.L.O.D.)
| | - Audrey Rouaix
- Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (L.L.); (M.L.O.D.)
| | - Camille Kropp
- Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (L.L.); (M.L.O.D.)
| | - Marc Plaisance
- Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (L.L.); (M.L.O.D.)
| | - Stéphanie Gelhaye
- Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (L.L.); (M.L.O.D.)
| | - Marie-Lou Lequesne
- Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (L.L.); (M.L.O.D.)
| | - Paloma Piquet
- Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (L.L.); (M.L.O.D.)
| | - Arnaud Avril
- Microbiology and Infectious Diseases Department, French Armed Forces Biomedical Research Institute, 91220 Brétigny-sur-Orge, France
| | - François Becher
- Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (L.L.); (M.L.O.D.)
| | - Maria Lucia Orsini Delgado
- Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (L.L.); (M.L.O.D.)
| | - Stéphanie Simon
- Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (L.L.); (M.L.O.D.)
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Sharma A, Gupta S, Sharma NR, Paul K. Expanding role of ribosome-inactivating proteins: From toxins to therapeutics. IUBMB Life 2023; 75:82-96. [PMID: 36121739 DOI: 10.1002/iub.2675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) are toxic proteins with N-glycosidase activity. RIPs exert their action by removing a specific purine from 28S rRNA, thereby, irreversibly inhibiting the process of protein synthesis. RIPs can target both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. In bacteria, the production of RIPs aid in the process of pathogenesis whereas, in plants, the production of these toxins has been attributed to bolster defense against insects, viral, bacterial and fungal pathogens. In recent years, RIPs have been engineered to target a particular cell type, this has fueled various experiments testing the potential role of RIPs in many biomedical applications like anti-viral and anti-tumor therapies in animals as well as anti-pest agents in engineered plants. In this review, we present a comprehensive study of various RIPs, their mode of action, their significance in various fields involving plants and animals. Their potential as treatment options for plant infections and animal diseases is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anuj Sharma
- Department of Biochemistry, DAV University, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
| | - Shelly Gupta
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
| | - Neeta Raj Sharma
- School of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India
| | - Karan Paul
- Department of Biochemistry, DAV University, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
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Su X, You X, Luo H, Liang K, Chen L, Tian W, Ye Z, He J. Community-Acquired Respiratory Distress Syndrome Toxin: Unique Exotoxin for M. pneumoniae. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:766591. [PMID: 34867898 PMCID: PMC8640204 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.766591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection often causes respiratory diseases in humans, particularly in children and adults with atypical pneumonia and community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), and is often exacerbated by co-infection with other lung diseases, such as asthma, bronchitis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder. Community-acquired respiratory distress syndrome toxin (CARDS TX) is the only exotoxin produced by M. pneumoniae and has been extensively studied for its ADP-ribosyltransferase (ADPRT) activity and cellular vacuolization properties. Additionally, CARDS TX induces inflammatory responses, resulting in cell swelling, nuclear lysis, mucus proliferation, and cell vacuolization. CARDS TX enters host cells by binding to the host receptor and is then reverse transported to the endoplasmic reticulum to exert its pathogenic effects. In this review, we focus on the structural characteristics, functional activity, distribution and receptors, mechanism of cell entry, and inflammatory response of CARDS TX was examined. Overall, the findings of this review provide a theoretical basis for further investigation of the mechanism of M. pneumoniae infection and the development of clinical diagnosis and vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoling Su
- The Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Xiaoxing You
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Hengyang Medical School, Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control, Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Haodang Luo
- The Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Keying Liang
- The Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Li Chen
- The Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Wei Tian
- The Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Zufeng Ye
- The Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, China
| | - Jun He
- The Affiliated Nanhua Hospital, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, China
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Intracellular Transport and Cytotoxicity of the Protein Toxin Ricin. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11060350. [PMID: 31216687 PMCID: PMC6628406 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11060350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Ricin can be isolated from the seeds of the castor bean plant (Ricinus communis). It belongs to the ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP) family of toxins classified as a bio-threat agent due to its high toxicity, stability and availability. Ricin is a typical A-B toxin consisting of a single enzymatic A subunit (RTA) and a binding B subunit (RTB) joined by a single disulfide bond. RTA possesses an RNA N-glycosidase activity; it cleaves ribosomal RNA leading to the inhibition of protein synthesis. However, the mechanism of ricin-mediated cell death is quite complex, as a growing number of studies demonstrate that the inhibition of protein synthesis is not always correlated with long term ricin toxicity. To exert its cytotoxic effect, ricin A-chain has to be transported to the cytosol of the host cell. This translocation is preceded by endocytic uptake of the toxin and retrograde traffic through the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In this article, we describe intracellular trafficking of ricin with particular emphasis on host cell factors that facilitate this transport and contribute to ricin cytotoxicity in mammalian and yeast cells. The current understanding of the mechanisms of ricin-mediated cell death is discussed as well. We also comment on recent reports presenting medical applications for ricin and progress associated with the development of vaccines against this toxin.
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Pan-In P, Wanichwecharungruang S, Hanes J, Kim AJ. Cellular trafficking and anticancer activity of Garcinia mangostana extract-encapsulated polymeric nanoparticles. Int J Nanomedicine 2014; 9:3677-86. [PMID: 25125977 PMCID: PMC4130711 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s66511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Garcinia mangostana Linn extract (GME) is a natural product that has received considerable attention in cancer therapy, and has the potential to reduce side effects of chemotherapeutics and improve efficacy. We formulated GME-encapsulated ethyl cellulose (GME-EC) and a polymer blend of ethyl cellulose and methyl cellulose (GME-EC/MC) nanoparticles. We achieved high drug-loading and encapsulation efficiency using a solvent-displacement method with particle sizes around 250 nm. Cellular uptake and accumulation of GME was higher for GME-encapsulated nanoparticles compared to free GME. In vitro cytotoxicity analysis showed effective anticancer activity of GME-EC and GME-EC/MC nanoparticles in HeLa cells in a dose-dependent manner. GME-EC/MC nanoparticles showed approximately twofold-higher anticancer activity compared to GME-EC nanoparticles, likely due to their enhanced bioavailability. GME-encapsulated nanoparticles primarily entered HeLa cells by clathrin-mediated endocytosis and trafficked through the endolysosomal pathway. As far as we know, this is the first report on the cellular uptake and intracellular trafficking mechanism of drug-loaded cellulose-based nanoparticles. In summary, encapsulation of GME using cellulose-derivative nanoparticles – GME-EC and GME-EC/MC nanoparticles – successfully improved the bioavailability of GME in aqueous solution, enhanced cellular uptake, and displayed effective anticancer activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Porntip Pan-In
- Program in Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand ; Center for Nanomedicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Supason Wanichwecharungruang
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand ; Nanotec-CU Center of Excellence on Food and Agriculture, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Justin Hanes
- Center for Nanomedicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA ; Department of Ophthalmology, Biomedical Engineering, Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Neurosurgery, and Oncology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Anthony J Kim
- Center for Nanomedicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA ; Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA ; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Alexander A, Ajazuddin, Khan J, Saraf S, Saraf S. Poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) based thermosensitive injectable hydrogels for biomedical applications. J Control Release 2013; 172:715-29. [PMID: 24144918 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2013.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2013] [Revised: 10/02/2013] [Accepted: 10/04/2013] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Stimuli triggered polymers provide a variety of applications related with the biomedical fields. Among various stimuli triggered mechanisms, thermoresponsive mechanisms have been extensively investigated, as they are relatively more convenient and effective stimuli for biomedical applications. In a contemporary approach for achieving the sustained action of proteins, peptides and bioactives, injectable depots and implants have always remained the thrust areas of research. In the same series, Poloxamer based thermogelling copolymers have their own limitations regarding biodegradability. Thus, there is a need to have an alternative biomaterial for the formulation of injectable hydrogel, which must remain biocompatible along with safety and efficacy. In the same context, poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) based copolymers play a crucial role as a biomedical material for biomedical applications, because of their biocompatibility, biodegradability, thermosensitivity and easy controlled characters. This review stresses on the physicochemical property, stability and composition prospects of smart PEG/poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) based thermoresponsive injectable hydrogels, recently utilized for biomedical applications. The manuscript also highlights the synthesis scheme and stability characteristics of these copolymers, which will surely help the researchers working in the same area. We have also emphasized the applied use of these smart copolymers along with their formulation problems, which could help in understanding the possible modifications related with these, to overcome their inherent associated limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Alexander
- University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, C.G. 492010, India.
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Abstract
Ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) were first isolated over a century ago and have been shown to be catalytic toxins that irreversibly inactivate protein synthesis. Elucidation of atomic structures and molecular mechanism has revealed these proteins to be a diverse group subdivided into two classes. RIPs have been shown to exhibit RNA N-glycosidase activity and depurinate the 28S rRNA of the eukaryotic 60S ribosomal subunit. In this review, we compare archetypal RIP family members with other potent toxins that abolish protein synthesis: the fungal ribotoxins which directly cleave the 28S rRNA and the newly discovered Burkholderia lethal factor 1 (BLF1). BLF1 presents additional challenges to the current classification system since, like the ribotoxins, it does not possess RNA N-glycosidase activity but does irreversibly inactivate ribosomes. We further discuss whether the RIP classification should be broadened to include toxins achieving irreversible ribosome inactivation with similar turnovers to RIPs, but through different enzymatic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Walsh
- RNA Biology Laboratory; Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience (SITraN); Department of Neuroscience; University of Sheffield; Sheffield, UK
| | - Jennifer E Dodd
- RNA Biology Laboratory; Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience (SITraN); Department of Neuroscience; University of Sheffield; Sheffield, UK
| | - Guillaume M Hautbergue
- RNA Biology Laboratory; Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience (SITraN); Department of Neuroscience; University of Sheffield; Sheffield, UK
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Antignani A, FitzGerald D. Immunotoxins: the role of the toxin. Toxins (Basel) 2013; 5:1486-502. [PMID: 23965432 PMCID: PMC3760048 DOI: 10.3390/toxins5081486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2013] [Revised: 07/30/2013] [Accepted: 08/06/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunotoxins are antibody-toxin bifunctional molecules that rely on intracellular toxin action to kill target cells. Target specificity is determined via the binding attributes of the chosen antibody. Mostly, but not exclusively, immunotoxins are purpose-built to kill cancer cells as part of novel treatment approaches. Other applications for immunotoxins include immune regulation and the treatment of viral or parasitic diseases. Here we discuss the utility of protein toxins, of both bacterial and plant origin, joined to antibodies for targeting cancer cells. Finally, while clinical goals are focused on the development of novel cancer treatments, much has been learned about toxin action and intracellular pathways. Thus toxins are considered both medicines for treating human disease and probes of cellular function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Antignani
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: (A.A.); (D.F.); Tel.: +1-301-496-9457 (D.F.); Fax: +1-301-402-1344 (D.F.)
| | - David FitzGerald
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: (A.A.); (D.F.); Tel.: +1-301-496-9457 (D.F.); Fax: +1-301-402-1344 (D.F.)
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Kvalvaag AS, Pust S, Sundet KI, Engedal N, Simm R, Sandvig K. The ERM proteins ezrin and moesin regulate retrograde Shiga toxin transport. Traffic 2013; 14:839-52. [PMID: 23593995 DOI: 10.1111/tra.12077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2012] [Revised: 04/12/2013] [Accepted: 04/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The ERM proteins (ezrin, radixin and moesin) are known for connecting the actin cytoskeleton to the plasma membrane. They have been found to associate with lipid rafts as well as to be important for endosomal sorting and receptor signaling. However, little is known about the role of ERM proteins in retrograde transport and lipid homeostasis. In this study, we show that ezrin and moesin are important for efficient cell surface association of Shiga toxin (Stx) as well as for its retrograde transport. Furthermore, we show that depletion of these proteins influences endosomal dynamics and seems to enhance Stx transport toward lysosomes. We also show that knockdown of Vps11, a subunit of the HOPS complex, leads to increased retrograde Stx transport and reverses the inhibiting effect of ezrin and moesin knockdown. Importantly, retrograde transport of the plant toxin ricin, which binds to both glycolipids and glycoproteins with a terminal galactose, seems to be unaffected by ezrin and moesin depletion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audun Sverre Kvalvaag
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, N-0379, Oslo, Norway
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Chen ZK, Lin LW, Cai J, Yang FD, Cai HJ, Xue ES, Huang J, Wei HF, Zhang XJ. Effect of interstitial chemotherapy with ricin temperature-responsive gel for anti-breast cancer and immune regulation in rats. Chin J Integr Med 2011; 19:48-53. [PMID: 21717157 DOI: 10.1007/s11655-011-0757-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To explore the effect of ricin temperature response gel on breast cancer and its regulatory effect on immune function in rats. METHODS Ricin was purified by chromatography and identified by immunoblotting. The rat subcutaneously transplanted breast cancer model was established. Forty model rats with a tumor diameter of about 3.0 cm were subjected to the study. They were randomized into four groups equally: the model group and three treated groups (blank gel, ricin, ricin-gel) were administered with blank gel, ricin, and ricin temperature response gel via percutaneous intratumor injection, respectively. The tumor was isolated 10 days later for the estimation of tumor inhibition rate (TIR) by weighing, pathologic examination, and detection of tumor apoptosis-associated genes bcl-2 and bax with semiquantitative RT-PCR. Also, peripheral blood was obtained to test T-lymphocyte subsets, the killing function of lymphocytes, and the contents of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-2 (IL-2). The outcomes were compared between groups. RESULTS The TIR in the ricin-gel group was 61.8%, with the pathologic examination showing extensive tumor tissue necrosis. Compared with the model group, after ricin temperature response gel treatment, bcl-2 expression was down-regulated, bax expression was up-regulated, CD4+ lymphocytes and CD4+/CD8+ ratio in peripheral blood were increased, the killing function of lymphocytes was enhanced, and the contents of TNF-α and IL-2 were elevated (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01). CONCLUSION Intratumor injection of ricin temperature-responsive gel showed significant antitumor effect on breast cancer and could enhance the immune function in the tumor-bearing rat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Kui Chen
- Ultrasonic Department, Affiliated Union Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, 350001, China
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Odumosu O, Nicholas D, Yano H, Langridge W. AB toxins: a paradigm switch from deadly to desirable. Toxins (Basel) 2010; 2:1612-45. [PMID: 22069653 PMCID: PMC3153263 DOI: 10.3390/toxins2071612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2010] [Revised: 06/08/2010] [Accepted: 06/23/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
To ensure their survival, a number of bacterial and plant species have evolved a common strategy to capture energy from other biological systems. Being imperfect pathogens, organisms synthesizing multi-subunit AB toxins are responsible for the mortality of millions of people and animals annually. Vaccination against these organisms and their toxins has proved rather ineffective in providing long-term protection from disease. In response to the debilitating effects of AB toxins on epithelial cells of the digestive mucosa, mechanisms underlying toxin immunomodulation of immune responses have become the focus of increasing experimentation. The results of these studies reveal that AB toxins may have a beneficial application as adjuvants for the enhancement of immune protection against infection and autoimmunity. Here, we examine similarities and differences in the structure and function of bacterial and plant AB toxins that underlie their toxicity and their exceptional properties as immunomodulators for stimulating immune responses against infectious disease and for immune suppression of organ-specific autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oludare Odumosu
- Center for Health Disparities and Molecular Medicine, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA; (O.O.)
- Department of Biochemistry, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA; (D.N.)
| | - Dequina Nicholas
- Center for Health Disparities and Molecular Medicine, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA; (O.O.)
- Department of Biochemistry, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA; (D.N.)
| | - Hiroshi Yano
- Department of Biology, University of Redlands, 1200 East Colton Ave, P.O. Box 3080, Redlands, CA 92373, USA; (H.Y.)
| | - William Langridge
- Center for Health Disparities and Molecular Medicine, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA; (O.O.)
- Department of Biochemistry, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA; (D.N.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; ; Tel.: +1-909-558-1000 (81362); Fax: +1-909-558-0177
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Chen ZK, Lin LW, Yang Y, Zhang ZQ, Cai H, Cai MX. Interstitial chemotherapy using thermosensitive gel-coated ricin in nude mice bearing a human hepatoma. Hepatol Res 2010; 40:188-95. [PMID: 19788688 DOI: 10.1111/j.1872-034x.2009.00576.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
AIM To investigate the anti-tumor effects and mechanisms of interstitial chemotherapy using intra-tumor injection of thermosensitive gel-coated ricin in nude mice bearing a human hepatoma. METHODS In a subcutaneous mouse model of hepatoma, saline, blank gel, ricin, or thermosensitive gel-coated ricin (TGR) was injected directly into tumors. Fourteen days later, eight mice in each group were sacrificed. The tumors were removed and weighed for calculating tumor growth inhibition rate. Serum alpha-fetoprotein levels, as well as hepatic and renal functions, were measured. Tumor tissue was analyzed under an optical microscope. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase mediated dUTP nick end labeling was used to detect the apoptotic index. Moreover, caspase-3 activity and protein expression in tumor tissue were examined. The survival time of the tumor bearing mice was determined. RESULTS Following interstitial chemotherapy by intra-tumor injection of TGR in nude mice, serum alpha-fetoprotein levels were significantly reduced with no significant impact on hepatic or renal functions. The rate of tumor growth inhibition was 58.5% following a single, local injection. Histological analysis revealed abundant necrosis. The apoptotic index was 45.96 +/- 7.41%. Caspase-3 activity was increased, and caspase-3 protein was significantly activated in tumor cells. Compared to the saline group, the survival time of mice in the TGR group was significantly extended. At the observation terminal time, day 120, two mice were still alive and fully recovered. CONCLUSION Interstitial chemotherapy by intra-tumor injection of TGR was highly efficient and safe for the treatment of nude mice bearing a human hepatoma. Interstitial chemotherapy exhibits inhibitory effects by inducing apoptosis and directly killing tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Kui Chen
- Department of Ultrasonography, Affiliated Union Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian
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14
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Fetal death of dogs after the ingestion of a soil conditioner. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 63:113-7. [PMID: 19932603 DOI: 10.1016/j.etp.2009.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2009] [Revised: 09/01/2009] [Accepted: 10/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Castor beans (Ricinus communis) contain ricin, which is one of the most toxic substances of plant origin. Ricin toxicosis has been reported in different countries with usually ingestion of castor beans or plants in both animals and humans. However, ricin toxicosis by ingestion of some products containing castor oil cake has rarely been reported. This paper describes outbreaks of dog death by ricin toxicosis after accidental ingestion of the same soil conditioner. Fifteen dogs showed toxic symptoms such as severe vomiting, abdominal pain and hemorrhagic diarrhea, and then thirteen dogs died in a few days. The soil conditioner dogs ingested consisted of 10% castor oil cake containing ricin. On the basis of clinical signs, laboratory and pathologic findings, a diagnosis of ricin toxicosis was established in the present case. In comparison with previous cases by ingestion of castor beans, the dogs' morbidity was very high in the present case. The ingestion of castor oil cake may be more dangerous to life than the castor beans. It is because mortality by ingestion of castor beans depends on the degree of mastication of the beans, whereas ricin in oil cake is easily absorbed from the stomach and the intestines. As ricin is a heat-labile toxin, products containing ricin or oil cake should be properly treated with heat and have written caution sentences about toxicosis, and be kept out of reach of domestic animals and children.
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15
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DiMezzo TL, Ruthel G, Brueggemann EE, Hines HB, Ribot WJ, Chapman CE, Powell BS, Welkos SL. In vitro intracellular trafficking of virulence antigen during infection by Yersinia pestis. PLoS One 2009; 4:e6281. [PMID: 19609450 PMCID: PMC2707630 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0006281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2009] [Accepted: 06/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague, encodes several essential virulence factors on a 70 kb plasmid, including the Yersinia outer proteins (Yops) and a multifunctional virulence antigen (V). V is uniquely able to inhibit the host immune response; aid in the expression, secretion, and injection of the cytotoxic Yops via a type III secretion system (T3SS)-dependent mechanism; be secreted extracellularly; and enter the host cell by a T3SS-independent mechanism, where its activity is unknown. To elucidate the intracellular trafficking and target(s) of V, time-course experiments were performed with macrophages (MΦs) infected with Y. pestis or Y. pseudotuberculosis at intervals from 5 min to 6 h. The trafficking pattern was discerned from results of parallel microscopy, immunoblotting, and flow cytometry experiments. The MΦs were incubated with fluorescent or gold conjugated primary or secondary anti-V (antibodies [Abs]) in conjunction with organelle-associated Abs or dyes. The samples were observed for co-localization by immuno-fluorescence and electron microscopy. For fractionation studies, uninfected and infected MΦs were lysed and subjected to density gradient centrifugation coupled with immunoblotting with Abs to V or to organelles. Samples were also analyzed by flow cytometry after lysis and dual-staining with anti-V and anti-organelle Abs. Our findings indicate a co-localization of V with (1) endosomal proteins between 10–45 min of infection, (2) lysosomal protein(s) between 1–2 h of infection, (3) mitochondrial proteins between 2.5–3 h infection, and (4) Golgi protein(s) between 4–6 h of infection. Further studies are being performed to determine the specific intracellular interactions and role in pathogenesis of intracellularly localized V.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tracy L. DiMezzo
- Bacteriology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Gordon Ruthel
- Bacteriology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Ernst E. Brueggemann
- Integrated Toxicology, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Harry B. Hines
- Integrated Toxicology, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Wilson J. Ribot
- Bacteriology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Carol E. Chapman
- Bacteriology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Bradford S. Powell
- Bacteriology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Susan L. Welkos
- Bacteriology Division, United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID), Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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17
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Saenz JB, Doggett TA, Haslam DB. Identification and characterization of small molecules that inhibit intracellular toxin transport. Infect Immun 2007; 75:4552-61. [PMID: 17576758 PMCID: PMC1951202 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00442-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Shiga toxin (Stx), cholera toxin (Ctx), and the plant toxin ricin are among several toxins that reach their intracellular destinations via a complex route. Following endocytosis, these toxins travel in a retrograde direction through the endosomal system to the trans-Golgi network, Golgi apparatus, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER). There the toxins are transported across the ER membrane to the cytosol, where they carry out their toxic effects. Transport via the ER from the cell surface to the cytosol is apparently unique to pathogenic toxins, raising the possibility that various stages in the transport pathway can be therapeutically targeted. We have applied a luciferase-based high-throughput screen to a chemical library of small-molecule compounds in order to identify inhibitors of Stx. We report two novel compounds that protect against Stx and ricin inhibition of protein synthesis, and we demonstrate that these compounds reversibly inhibit bacterial transport at various stages in the endocytic pathway. One compound (compound 75) inhibited transport at an early stage of Stx and Ctx transport and also provided protection against diphtheria toxin, which enters the cytosol from early endosomes. In contrast, compound 134 inhibited transport from recycling endosomes through the Golgi apparatus and protected only against toxins that access the ER. Small-molecule compounds such as these will provide insight into the mechanism of toxin transport and lead to the identification of compounds with therapeutic potential against toxins routed through the ER.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose B Saenz
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
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18
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Marsden CJ, Smith DC, Roberts LM, Lord JM. Ricin: current understanding and prospects for an antiricin vaccine. Expert Rev Vaccines 2006; 4:229-37. [PMID: 15889996 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.4.2.229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Ricin is a potent cytotoxin that can be rapidly internalized into mammalian cells leading to cell death. The ease in obtaining the toxin and its deadly nature combine to implicate ricin as a convenient agent for bioterrorism. Research into the mechanism of toxicity, as well as strategies for treatment and protection from the toxin has been widely undertaken for a number of years. This article reviews the current understanding of the mechanism of action of the toxin, the clinical effects of ricin intoxication and how these relate to current and continuing prospects for vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine J Marsden
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.
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19
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Nesic D, Stebbins CE. Mechanisms of assembly and cellular interactions for the bacterial genotoxin CDT. PLoS Pathog 2005; 1:e28. [PMID: 16304609 PMCID: PMC1287909 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.0010028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2005] [Accepted: 10/12/2005] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Many bacterial pathogens that cause different illnesses employ the cytolethal distending toxin (CDT) to induce host cell DNA damage, leading to cell cycle arrest or apoptosis. CDT is a tripartite holotoxin that consists of a DNase I family nuclease (CdtB) bound to two ricin-like lectin domains (CdtA and CdtC). Through the use of structure-based mutagenesis, biochemical and cellular toxicity assays, we have examined several key structural elements of the CdtA and CdtC subunits for their importance to toxin assembly, cell surface binding, and activity. CdtA and CdtC possess N- and C-terminal nonglobular polypeptides that extensively interact with each other and CdtB, and we have determined the contribution of each to toxin stability and activity. We have also functionally characterized two key binding elements of the holotoxin revealed from its crystal structure. One is an aromatic cluster in CdtA, and the other is a long and deep groove that is formed at the interface of CdtA and CdtC. We demonstrate that mutations of the aromatic patch or groove residues impair toxin binding to HeLa cells and that cell surface binding is tightly correlated with intoxication of cultured cells. These results establish several structure-based hypotheses for the assembly and function of this toxin family. The cytolethal distending toxin is used by many bacteria to damage the DNA of infected organisms. This DNA damage prevents cells from dividing and eventually leads to cell death, which raises the possibility that this genomic damage may be a contributing factor to carcinogenesis. The cytolethal distending toxin is composed of three proteins that form a tightly associated complex. After secretion by the bacterium, two proteins in this complex adhere to the cell surface and achieve the delivery of the third protein into the cell, where it causes DNA lesions. This report examines how this toxin is assembled and how it adheres to host cell surfaces. A set of molecular features on the toxin is shown to be critical for this cell adherence and for the ability of the cytolethal distending toxin to inhibit cell division. These results tie together for the first time aspects of the molecular structure of the cytolethal distending toxin and its ability to adhere to host cell surfaces, contributing to mechanistic understanding of the activity of this genotoxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dragana Nesic
- Laboratory of Structural Microbiology, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - C. Erec Stebbins
- Laboratory of Structural Microbiology, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York, United States of America
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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Balzac F, Avolio M, Degani S, Kaverina I, Torti M, Silengo L, Small JV, Retta SF. E-cadherin endocytosis regulates the activity of Rap1: a traffic light GTPase at the crossroads between cadherin and integrin function. J Cell Sci 2005; 118:4765-83. [PMID: 16219685 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.02584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The coordinate modulation of cadherin and integrin functions plays an essential role in fundamental physiological and pathological processes, including morphogenesis and cancer. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the functional crosstalk between cadherins and integrins are still elusive.Here, we demonstrate that the small GTPase Rap1, a crucial regulator of the inside-out activation of integrins, is a target for E-cadherin-mediated outside-in signaling. In particular, we show that a strong activation of Rap1 occurs upon adherens junction disassembly that is triggered by E-cadherin internalization and trafficking along the endocytic pathway. By contrast, Rap1 activity is not influenced by integrin outside-in signaling. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the E-cadherin endocytosis-dependent activation of Rap1 is associated with and controlled by an increased Src kinase activity, and is paralleled by the colocalization of Rap1 and E-cadherin at the perinuclear Rab11-positive recycling endosome compartment, and the association of Rap1 with a subset of E-cadherin-catenin complexes that does not contain p120ctn. Conversely, Rap1 activity is suppressed by the formation of E-cadherin-dependent cell-cell junctions as well as by agents that inhibit either Src activity or E-cadherin internalization and intracellular trafficking. Finally, we demonstrate that the E-cadherin endocytosis-dependent activation of Rap1 is associated with and is required for the formation of integrin-based focal adhesions.Our findings provide the first evidence of an E-cadherin-modulated endosomal signaling pathway involving Rap1, and suggest that cadherins may have a novel modulatory role in integrin adhesive functions by fine-tuning Rap1 activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiorella Balzac
- Department of Genetics, Biology and Biochemistry, University of Torino, Via Santena 5/bis, Torino, 10126, Italy
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Zhang C, Medina-Bolivar F, Buswell S, Cramer CL. Purification and stabilization of ricin B from tobacco hairy root culture medium by aqueous two-phase extraction. J Biotechnol 2005; 117:39-48. [PMID: 15831246 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2004.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2004] [Accepted: 12/14/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Ricin B (RTB), the non-toxic lectin subunit of ricin, is a promising mucosal adjuvant and carrier for use in humans. RTB fusion proteins have been expressed in tobacco hairy root cultures, but the secreted RTB component of these proteins was vulnerable to protease degradation in the medium. Moreover, castor bean purified RTB spiked into tobacco hairy root culture media showed significant degradation after 24 h and complete loss of product after 72 h. Aqueous two-phase extraction (ATPE) was tested for fast recovery of RTB not only to partially purify the protein but also to improve its stability. Two different polyethylene glycol (PEG)/salt/water systems including PEG/potassium phosphate and PEG/sodium sulfate, were studied. RTB was shown to be favorably recovered in PEG/sodium sulfate systems. Statistical analysis indicated that the ionic strength of the system and the sodium sulfate concentration were important in optimizing the partition coefficient of RTB. A selectivity of almost three could be achieved for RTB in optimized systems, and RTB partitioned in the PEG-rich phase exhibited extended stability. Therefore, ATPE was shown to be effective in initial recovery/purification and stabilization of RTB and may hold promise for other unstable secreted proteins from hairy root culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenming Zhang
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 210 Seitz Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
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22
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Medina-Bolivar F, Wright R, Funk V, Sentz D, Barroso L, Wilkins TD, Petri W, Cramer CL. A non-toxic lectin for antigen delivery of plant-based mucosal vaccines. Vaccine 2003; 21:997-1005. [PMID: 12547614 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(02)00551-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
RicinB, the non-toxic galactose/N-acetylgalactosamine-binding subunit of ricin, was fused to a model antigen, green fluorescent protein (GFP), and expressed in tobacco plants and hairy root cultures to test for utility in mucosal vaccine delivery/adjuvancy. The fusion protein retained both GFP fluorescence and galactose/galactosamine-binding activity. Intranasal immunization of mice with galactosamine-affinity purified ricinB:GFP recovered from tobacco root cultures triggered significant increases in GFP-specific serum IgGs. This strong humoral response was comparable to that observed following GFP immunization with cholera toxin adjuvant. GFP at the same concentrations but without an adjuvant was non-immunogenic. Induction of higher levels of IgG(1) than IgG(2a) following ricinB:GFP immunization suggested the presence of a Th2 response. Serum and fecal anti-GFP IgA were also induced by immunization with ricinB:GFP. Our data suggest that ricinB can be used as an adjuvant and antigen carrier to the mucosa and is efficient in eliciting systemic and mucosal immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabricio Medina-Bolivar
- Fralin Biotechnology Center, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, VA 24061-0346, USA
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Moisenovic M, Tonevitsky A, Agapov I, Niwa H, Schewe H, Bereiter-Hahn J. Differences in endocytosis and intracellular sorting of ricin and viscumin in 3T3 cells. Eur J Cell Biol 2002; 81:529-38. [PMID: 12437187 DOI: 10.1078/0171-9335-00263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Ricin and viscumin are heterodimeric protein toxins. Their A-chain is enzymatically active and removes an adenine residue from the 28S rRNA, the B-chain has lectin activity and binds to terminal galactose residues of cell surface receptors. The toxins reveal a high degree of identity in their amino acid sequences. Nevertheless, uptake into 3T3 cells occurs via different receptors and endocytotic pathways. This has been revealed by enzyme linked based analysis of ricin competition with viscumin, and by fluorochrome-labeled toxins (viscumin-FITC, ricin-Alexa 568), which were added simultaneously or separately to living cells. Then the uptake was followed by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Ricin immediately is delivered to the tubular and vesicular structures of endosomes in the perinuclear area while viscumin becomes endocytosed into small vesicles preferentially in the cell periphery. After about 60 min both these toxins may be found in tubo-vesicular structures of endosomes where the sorting process can directly be observed. The fact that this sorting takes place is a strong argument for the assumption that the toxins are bound to membrane proteins, either to their original receptors or to other proteins inside the endosomal compartment exhibiting terminal galactose residues. The toxins are biologically fully active as has been proven by binding and by toxicity experiments, thus the differences in targeting do not arise from labeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mihail Moisenovic
- Department of Cell Physiology and Immunology, Biological Faculty, MV Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia
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