Immune checkpoint inhibitors and tuberculosis: an old disease in a new context

Advances in host-directed therapy for tuberculosis and HIV coinfection: enhancing immune responses

Tuberculosis (TB) and HIV coinfection present a significant global health challenge worldwide. While most individuals infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) have clinically asymptomatic latent TB infection (LTBI), those with immunosuppressive conditions, such as HIV, are at higher risk for reactivation and disseminated TB. HIV exacerbates TB progression by impairing immune responses, particularly through the depletion of Mtb-specific CD4+ T cells and chronic immune activation. Despite the success of combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) in managing HIV, it does not eliminate the risk of LTBI reactivation, highlighting the need for additional therapeutic strategies. Host-directed therapy (HDT) has emerged as a promising adjunct to current treatments. HDTs aim to restore immune function and counteract immune dysregulation caused by HIV, including T cell exhaustion and inflammation. This review explores key HDTs, including cytokine therapy, chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR-T cell) therapy and immune checkpoint inhibitors, which target Mtb-infected cells, enhance immune responses, and mitigate inflammation. By complementing cART and anti-TB therapy, HDTs could improve clinical outcomes by enhancing immune function, reducing inflammation, and preventing Mtb reactivation, offering hope for better management of TB/HIV coinfection.

Where lung cancer and tuberculosis intersect: recent advances

Lung cancer (LC) and tuberculosis (TB) represent two major global public health issues. Prior evidence has suggested a link between TB infection and an increased risk of LC. As advancements in LC treatment have led to extended survival rates for LC patients, the co-occurrence of TB and LC has grown more prevalent and poses novel clinical challenges. The intricate molecular mechanisms connecting TB and LC are closely intertwined and many issues remain to be addressed. This review focuses on resemblance between the immunosuppression in tumor and granuloma microenvironments, exploring immunometabolism, cell plasticity, inflammatory signaling pathways, microbiomics, and up-to-date information derived from spatial multi-omics between TB and LC. Furthermore, we outline immunization-related molecular mechanisms underlying these two diseases and propose future research directions. By discussing recent advances and potential targets, this review aims to establish a foundation for developing future therapeutic strategies targeting LC with concurrent TB infection.

Advances in Host-Pathogen Interactions in Tuberculosis: Emerging Strategies for Therapeutic Intervention

Tuberculosis (TB) remains one of the most challenging infectious diseases, with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) employing sophisticated mechanisms to evade host immunity and establish persistent infections. This review explores recent advances in understanding Mtb's immune evasion strategies; granuloma dynamics; and emerging immunotherapeutic approaches. Key findings highlight the manipulation of host autophagy; metabolic reprogramming; and cytokine pathways by Mtb to sustain its survival within host cells. Insights into granuloma formation reveal the critical role of bacterial lipids; immune modulation; and hypoxia-driven dormancy in maintaining chronic infection. Innovative therapeutic strategies, including host-directed therapies; epigenetic interventions; and immunomodulators, hold promise for improving TB management and combating drug-resistant strains. Despite these advancements, significant challenges remain, including the development of effective vaccines; addressing latent TB; and ensuring equitable access to novel treatments. The integration of advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence and multi-omics approaches, alongside global collaboration, is essential to overcome these hurdles. This review underscores the importance of a multidisciplinary approach to tackling TB, with the ultimate goal of eradicating this global health threat.

Population-Based Analysis of the Risk of Mycobacterial Infections Associated With Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors

In this population-based study, we examined the risk of nontuberculous mycobacterial disease associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors among people with cancer. Using a nested case-control design, we identified 184 cases and 714 matched controls; there was no significant association on conditional logistic regression (adjusted odds ratio, 0.51 [95% confidence interval, .17-1.50]; P = .22).

Immune checkpoint inhibitors and the liver: balancing therapeutic benefit and adverse events

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have led to breakthrough improvements in the management of malignancy including hepatocellular (HCC) and biliary tract cancer, improving decades-old standards of care and increasing patient survival. In both liver tumour types, which commonly arise in the context of liver inflammation and underlying functional impairment, the lack of validated predictors of response underscores the need to balance predicted gains in survival with risk of treatment-related hepatoxicity and decompensation of underlying chronic liver disease.In addition, the liver is implicated in the toxicity associated with ICI therapy for non-liver cancers, which exhibits a high degree of variability in presentation and severity. An accurate assessment is mandatory for the diagnosis and management of ICI-induced liver injury.In this Recent Advances article, we provide an overview of the mechanisms of efficacy and toxicity of anticancer immunotherapy in liver tumours and liver toxicity in extrahepatic malignancies.We compare and contrast characteristics, management strategies and outcomes from immune-related liver injury in patients with chronic hepatitis/cirrhosis or with an underlying healthy liver and discuss the latest findings on how toxicity and decompensation may impact the outlook of patients with liver tumours and extrahepatic malignancies offering insights into the future directions of clinical research and practice in the field.

Enhancement of mycobacterial pathogenesis by host interferon-γ

The cytokine IFNγ is a principal effector of macrophage activation and immune resistance to mycobacterial infection; however, pathogenic mycobacteria are capable of surviving in IFNγ-activated macrophages by largely unknown mechanisms. In this study, we find that pathogenic mycobacteria, including M. bovis BCG and M. tuberculosis can sense IFNγ to promote their proliferative activity and virulence phenotype. Moreover, interaction with the host intracellular environment increases the susceptibility of mycobacteria to IFNγ through upregulating expression of mmpL10, a mycobacterial IFNγ receptor, thereby facilitating IFNγ-dependent survival and growth of mycobacteria in macrophages. Transmission electron microscopy analysis reveals that IFNγ triggers the secretion of extracellular vesicles, an essential virulence strategy of intracellular mycobacteria, while proteomics identifies numerous pivotal IFNγ-induced effectors required for mycobacterial infection in macrophages. Our study suggests that sensing host IFNγ is a crucial virulence mechanism used by pathogenic mycobacteria to survive and proliferate inside macrophages.

Applications of Biological Therapy for Latent Infections: Benefits and Risks

Biological therapies have revolutionized medical treatment by targeting the key mediators or receptors involved in inflammatory responses, thereby effectively suppressing inflammation and achieving beneficial outcomes. They are more advanced than conventional therapies using corticosteroids and immunosuppressants, offering effective solutions for autoimmune diseases, cancer, transplant rejection, and various infectious diseases, including coronavirus disease 2019. Although they exert low immunosuppressive effects, biological therapies can reactivate specific biological targets associated with infections. This review summarizes the currently available biological therapies and discusses their immunosuppressive mechanisms and clinical applications, highlighting the variations in the types and frequencies of infection recurrence induced by different biological agents. Additionally, this review describes the risk factors associated with various biological agents, thus aiding clinicians in selecting the most appropriate biological therapy.

LILRB1-HLA-G axis defines a checkpoint driving natural killer cell exhaustion in tuberculosis

Chronic infections, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb)-caused tuberculosis (TB), can induce host immune exhaustion. However, the key checkpoint molecules involved in this process and the underlying regulatory mechanisms remain largely undefined, which impede the application of checkpoint-based immunotherapy in infectious diseases. Here, through adopting time-of-flight mass cytometry and transcriptional profiling to systematically analyze natural killer (NK) cell surface receptors, we identify leukocyte immunoglobulin like receptor B1 (LILRB1) as a critical checkpoint receptor that defines a TB-associated cell subset (LILRB1+ NK cells) and drives NK cell exhaustion in TB. Mechanistically, Mtb-infected macrophages display high expression of human leukocyte antigen-G (HLA-G), which upregulates and activates LILRB1 on NK cells to impair their functions by inhibiting mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling via tyrosine phosphatases SHP1/2. Furthermore, LILRB1 blockade restores NK cell-dependent anti-Mtb immunity in immuno-humanized mice. Thus, LILRB1-HLA-G axis constitutes a NK cell immune checkpoint in TB and serves as a promising immunotherapy target.

Cancer immunotherapy with immune checkpoint inhibitors and infections: A particular focus on mycobacterial infections

Cancer treatment is undergoing a major transformation with the advent of immunotherapy with immune checkpoint inhibitors. These drugs, which have a different mechanism of action from conventional cytotoxic chemotherapy, are transforming treatment paradigms for many patients suffering from advanced cancer. On the other hand, they are often complicated by specific adverse events, known as immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Infections occurring during immunotherapy with immune checkpoint inhibitors have recently received increasing attention and sometimes are seen as part of irAEs. Amongst these, mycobacterial infections have attracted particular attention. Recent reports have shown that infections occurring during immunotherapy can not only be caused by immunosuppression, but in addition new type of infections are observed that are not caused by immunosuppression. Specifically, tuberculosis (TB) has recently been shown to develop as a result of an imbalance in immunoregulation and an excessive immune response. This review highlights reports of infections during immunotherapy with immune checkpoint inhibitors, followed by a focus on the association with TB and nontuberculous mycobacteria. It concludes with a discussion of the possible mechanisms of pathogenesis and the implications for clinical practice.

Myeloid cell expression of CD200R is modulated in active TB disease and regulates Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in a biomimetic model

A robust immune response is required for resistance to pulmonary tuberculosis (TB), the primary disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). However, pharmaceutical inhibition of T cell immune checkpoint molecules can result in the rapid development of active disease in latently infected individuals, indicating the importance of T cell immune regulation. In this study, we investigated the potential role of CD200R during Mtb infection, a key immune checkpoint for myeloid cells. Expression of CD200R was consistently downregulated on CD14+ monocytes in the blood of subjects with active TB compared to healthy controls, suggesting potential modulation of this important anti-inflammatory pathway. In homogenized TB-diseased lung tissue, CD200R expression was highly variable on monocytes and CD11b+HLA-DR+ macrophages but tended to be lowest in the most diseased lung tissue sections. This observation was confirmed by fluorescent microscopy, which showed the expression of CD200R on CD68+ macrophages surrounding TB lung granuloma and found expression levels tended to be lower in macrophages closest to the granuloma core and inversely correlated with lesion size. Antibody blockade of CD200R in a biomimetic 3D granuloma-like tissue culture system led to significantly increased Mtb growth. In addition, Mtb infection in this system reduced gene expression of CD200R. These findings indicate that regulation of myeloid cells via CD200R is likely to play an important part in the immune response to TB and may represent a potential target for novel therapeutic intervention.

Impact of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) therapy on interferon-γ release assay (IGRA) and diagnostic value in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients

BACKGROUND

Tuberculosis (TB), a highly contagious respiratory disease, presents a significant global health threat, with a notable increase in incidence reported by the WHO in 2022. Particularly, the interplay between TB and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) gains attention, especially considering the rising use of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) in cancer treatment. This interplay may influence TB diagnostics and reactivation, warranting a closer examination.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was conducted on clinical data of NSCLC patients with positive T-SPOT results before undergoing anti-tumor treatment at Zhongshan Hospital (Xiamen), Fudan University, from January 1, 2021 to December 31, 2022. We assessed the incidence of tuberculosis reactivation and treatment outcomes among these patients. Moreover, we compared the differences in tuberculosis activity between the ICIs and non-ICIs treatment groups. Additionally, we observed the changes in T-SPOT spot count before and after immunotherapy, analyzing their association with tuberculosis activity and prognosis.

RESULTS

A total of 40 NSCLC patients with positive T-SPOT results before treatment were included in the study, with 26 patients in the ICIs treatment group and 14 patients in the non-ICIs treatment group. The study found no significant differences between the two groups in terms of gender, age, stage, histological type, performance status, driver gene expression, and distant metastasis. With a median follow-up time of 10.0 (6.0-14.5) months, three cases (11.5%) in the ICIs treatment group developed tuberculosis activity, diagnosed at 2, 3, and 12 months after ICIs treatment initiation. Conversely, no tuberculosis activity was observed in the non-ICIs treatment group, and the difference between the two groups was not significant (P = 0.186). Among the 32 patients who received ICIs treatment, spot count dynamics were diverse: four cases (12.5%) showed an increase, 12 cases (37.5%) had no change, and 16 cases (50.0%) had a decrease. During the follow-up, the progression rate (PD) was 50.0%, 75.0%, and 62.5% in the three groups, respectively (P = 0.527). Similarly, the mortality rate was 0%, 25.0%, and 25.0%, respectively (P = 0.106). Interestingly, among the patients with decreased spot counts, three cases (18.75%) were diagnosed with active pulmonary tuberculosis.

CONCLUSIONS

For NSCLC patients with a positive T-SPOT response undergoing ICIs treatment, our study observed indications of active tuberculosis. The varied T-SPOT spot count changes post-ICIs treatment suggest a complex interaction, potentially linking T-SPOT spot count reduction to tuberculosis reactivation risk. These preliminary findings underscore the importance of further research to more accurately assess T-SPOT's diagnostic utility in this context.

Fever of unknown origin associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors

Since the approval for the treatment of melanoma in 2014, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have revolutionized the therapy pattern across various malignancies. Coinciding with their frequent usage, their adverse effects, including fever, cannot be neglected. In the context of cancer diseases and cancer treatments, fever of unknown origin (FUO), which has long posed a challenge for clinicians in terms of diagnosis and management, brings forth new connotation and significance. In this paper review, we present the concept of ICIs-associated FUO, consider activated immune system and elevated cytokines as common mechanisms by which ICIs induce fever and various immune-related adverse events (irAEs), summarize and compare the primary etiologies of ICI-associated FUO, and compare it with conventional types of FUO.

Pulmonary Tuberculosis Following Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Treatment for Recurrent Maxillary Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) like nivolumab and pembrolizumab are effective treatments for recurrent/metastatic squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (R/M SCCHN). However, they can lead to immune-related adverse events (irAEs) and tuberculosis (TB) reactivation. We present a case of a 79-year-old male with recurrent maxillary squamous cell carcinoma treated with pembrolizumab, cisplatin, and 5-fluorouracil. The patient developed a fever, and pulmonary TB development was confirmed. Prolonged TB treatment was required, and ICI treatment was discontinued. The patient ultimately opted for palliative care due to aggressive tumor growth. TB development during ICI treatment is a rare but important concern, especially in TB-endemic areas. Vigilant monitoring and screening might be essential to manage this risk in cancer patients with R/M SCCHN receiving ICIs.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis: immune response, biomarkers, and therapeutic intervention

Although tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease, the progression of the disease following Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) infection is closely associated with the host's immune response. In this review, a comprehensive analysis of TB prevention, diagnosis, and treatment was conducted from an immunological perspective. First, we delved into the host's immune response mechanisms against MTB infection as well as the immune evasion mechanisms of the bacteria. Addressing the challenges currently faced in TB diagnosis and treatment, we also emphasized the importance of protein, genetic, and immunological biomarkers, aiming to provide new insights for early and personalized diagnosis and treatment of TB. Building upon this foundation, we further discussed intervention strategies involving chemical and immunological treatments for the increasingly critical issue of drug-resistant TB and other forms of TB. Finally, we summarized TB prevention, diagnosis, and treatment challenges and put forward future perspectives. Overall, these findings provide valuable insights into the immunological aspects of TB and offer new directions toward achieving the WHO's goal of eradicating TB by 2035.

Immunotherapy and biomarkers in patients with lung cancer with tuberculosis: Recent advances and future Directions

Lung cancer (LC) and tuberculosis (TB) are two major global public health problems, and the incidence of LC-TB is currently on the rise. Therefore effective clinical interventions are crucial for LC-TB. The aim of this review is to provide up-to-date information on the immunological profile and therapeutic biomarkers in patients with LC-TB. We discuss the immune mechanisms involved, including the immune checkpoints that play an important role in the treatment of patients with LC-TB. In addition, we explore the susceptibility of patients with LC to TB and summarise the latest research on LC-TB. Finally, we discuss future prospects in this field, including the identification of potential targets for immune intervention. In conclusion, this review provides important insights into the complex relationship between LC and TB and highlights new advances in the detection and treatment of both diseases.

Recurrent choriocarcinoma complicated with leprosy during chemotherapy: A case report and literature review

RATIONALE

The global prevalence of leprosy has decreased substantially, and cases of leprosy infection are extremely rare in China. In this report, we present a case of recurrent choriocarcinoma complicated by leprosy infection during chemotherapy.

PATIENT CONCERNS

A 24-year-old Chinese woman (gravida 3, para 2) presented to a local hospital with vaginal bleeding. Her medical history included a previous diagnosis of hydatidiform mole.

DIAGNOSES, INTERVENTIONS AND OUTCOMES

The patient was diagnosed with choriocarcinoma and received chemotherapy in 6 cycles. Shortly after the initial treatment was completed, the disease recurred twice with resistance to multiple chemotherapeutic agents. In her second recurrence of choriocarcinoma, she was diagnosed with leprosy with many cutaneous nodules throughout her entire body. The patient was administered chemical treatment for leprosy with the multidrug therapy regimen after being diagnosed. To prevent exacerbating the infection, no immunotherapy was utilized to treat cancer, and the infection was well-controlled at the conclusion of anticancer therapy.

LESSONS

Because of immunological reduction, cancer patients are susceptible to a variety of infections. For patients with cancer, prevention and early detection of rare infectious diseases should receive special attention. Immunotherapy must be used with caution when treating patients with cancer and infections.

Treating Cancer in People With HIV

The Oncology Grand Rounds series is designed to place original reports published in the Journal into clinical context. A case presentation is followed by a description of diagnostic and management challenges, a review of the relevant literature, and a summary of the authors' suggested management approaches. The goal of this series is to help readers better understand how to apply the results of key studies, including those published in Journal of Clinical Oncology, to patients seen in their own clinical practice.People with HIV (PWH) have an increased lifetime risk of developing certain cancers, even when HIV is well-controlled with antiretroviral therapy. Despite the tremendous advancements in HIV and cancer care over the past several decades, PWH have lower cancer-related survival compared with the general population. Treating HIV-associated cancers requires a multidisciplinary team to manage concurrent opportunistic infections, potential drug-drug interactions, and the co-occurrence of more than one cancer in the same patient. Many factors may lead PWH to receive inappropriate dose adjustments, exclusion from emerging therapies and clinical trials, or no cancer therapy at all. In general, PWH should receive the same standard, full-dose cancer therapy used in the general population unless there are data for specific cancer regimens in PWH. Agents targeting PD-1 and PD-L1 have US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved indications in many HIV-associated cancers, including Hodgkin lymphoma, cervical cancer, head and neck cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, and non-small-cell lung cancer; however, PWH were excluded from all clinical trials that led to FDA approval of these agents. Several prospective studies and an international retrospective study of PWH with advanced cancer have shown anti-PD-(L)-1 agents to be safe and effective across expected cancer types and CD4+ T-cell counts, supporting their use in PWH for FDA-approved indications. Learning from the experience in anti-PD-(L)-1 agents, future cancer clinical trials should include and seek to actively enroll PWH, so that they have equal and timely access to emerging cancer therapies.

The immune response in tubercular uveitis and its implications for treatment: From anti-tubercular treatment to host-directed therapies

Tubercular uveitis (TB-uveitis) remains a conundrum in the uveitis field, which is mainly related to the diverse clinical phenotypes of TB-uveitis. Moreover, it remains difficult to differentiate whether Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is present in the ocular tissues, elicits a heightened immune response without Mtb invasion in ocular tissues, or even induces an anti-retinal autoimmune response. Gaps in the immuno-pathological knowledge of TB-uveitis likely delay timely diagnosis and appropriate management. In the last decade, the immunopathophysiology of TB-uveitis and its clinical management, including experts' consensus to treat or not to treat certain conditions with anti-tubercular treatment (ATT), have been extensively investigated. In the meantime, research on TB treatment, in general, is shifting more toward host-directed therapies (HDT). Given the complexities of the host-Mtb interaction, enhancement of the host immune response is expected to boost the effectiveness of ATT and help overcome the rising burden of drug-resistant Mtb strains in the population. This review will summarize the current knowledge on the immunopathophysiology of TB-uveitis and recent advances in treatment modalities and outcomes of TB-uveitis, capturing results gathered from high- and low-burden TB countries with ATT as the mainstay of treatment. Moreover, we outline the recent progress of HDT development in the pulmonary TB field and discuss the possibility of its applicability to TB-uveitis. The concept of HDT might help direct future development of efficacious therapy for TB-uveitis, although more in-depth research on the immunoregulation of this disease is still necessary.

Significant elevated CXCL14 and decreased IL-39 levels in patients with tuberculosis

To explore the serum levels of IL-39, CXCL14, and IL-19 in patients with tuberculosis (TB) along with their clinical significances and their concentration changes in macrophages after Bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccine (BCG) or Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb) H37Rv stimulation in vitro. The serum levels of IL-39, CXCL14, and IL-19 of 38 TB patients, and 20 healthy staff members were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Moreover, the levels of IL-19, CXCL14, and IL-39 in cultured THP-1 macrophages were detected at 12, 24, and 48 h after stimulation with BCG or M. tb H37Rv strains. It was found the serum level of IL-39 was significantly reduced and CXCL14 was remarkably elevated in TB patients. In vitro, at 48 h after stimulation, IL-39 level of cultured THP-1 macrophages in the H37Rv group was significantly lower than that in the BCG and control groups, and the CXCL14 level of cultured THP-1 macrophages in the H37Rv stimulation group was remarkably higher than that in the control group. Therefore, IL-39 and CXCL14 may be involved the pathogenesis of TB, and serum IL-39 and CXCL14 could potentially serve as a new biomarker of TB.

Immunotherapies against human bacterial and fungal infectious diseases: A review

Nations' ongoing struggles with a number of novel and reemerging infectious diseases, including the ongoing global health issue, the SARS-Co-V2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2) outbreak, serve as proof that infectious diseases constitute a serious threat to the global public health. Moreover, the fatality rate in humans is rising as a result of the development of severe infectious diseases brought about by multiple drug-tolerant pathogenic microorganisms. The widespread use of traditional antimicrobial drugs, immunosuppressive medications, and other related factors led to the establishment of such drug resistant pathogenic microbial species. To overcome the difficulties commonly encountered by current infectious disease management and control processes, like inadequate effectiveness, toxicities, and the evolution of drug tolerance, new treatment solutions are required. Fortunately, immunotherapies already hold great potential for reducing these restrictions while simultaneously expanding the boundaries of healthcare and medicine, as shown by the latest discoveries and the success of drugs including monoclonal antibodies (MAbs), vaccinations, etc. Immunotherapies comprise methods for treating diseases that specifically target or affect the body's immune system and such immunological procedures/therapies strengthen the host's defenses to fight those infections. The immunotherapy-based treatments control the host's innate and adaptive immune responses, which are effective in treating different pathogenic microbial infections. As a result, diverse immunotherapeutic strategies are being researched more and more as alternative treatments for infectious diseases, leading to substantial improvements in our comprehension of the associations between pathogens and host immune system. In this review we will explore different immunotherapies and their usage for the assistance of a broad spectrum of infectious ailments caused by various human bacterial and fungal pathogenic microbes. We will discuss about the recent developments in the therapeutics against the growing human pathogenic microbial diseases and focus on the present and future of using immunotherapies to overcome these diseases. Graphical AbstractThe graphical abstract shows the therapeutic potential of different types of immunotherapies like vaccines, monoclonal antibodies-based therapies, etc., against different kinds of human Bacterial and Fungal microbial infections.

Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors and Tuberculosis Infection in Lung Cancer: A Case Series and Systematic Review With Pooled Analysis

The association between immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and tuberculosis (TB) infection in patients with lung cancer remains largely elusive. We performed a systematic review and conducted a retrospective analysis of TB infection in patients with lung cancer and ICI exposure to assess the clinical characteristics and outcomes using PubMed, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library. The time interval from ICI administration to diagnosis of TB between patients with and without a history of TB was compared using Kaplan-Meier analysis. A multivariate Cox regression model was used to identify potential risk factors associated with the time interval of TB development. Twenty-four studies including 53 patients with lung cancer were included. The median age of the patients was 64 years. Eight patients had a history of TB. The median time interval from ICI administration to TB diagnosis was 3 months. In retrospective analysis, 5 (1.16%, 95%CI 0.38% to 2.68%) patients with lung cancer developed TB during ICI treatment. The median time interval was 10.4 months. In a pooled analysis, the median time interval in the without-TB and with-TB groups was 7.00 and 2.35 months, respectively (P = .034). Multivariate Cox regression analyses revealed a history of TB to be an independent factor affecting the time interval of TB activation in patients with lung cancer and ICI exposure (HR 3.59; 95%CI 1.17 to 11.02; P = .026). Therefore, TB infection should be considered in patients with lung cancer during or after ICI treatment. Moreover, we found TB history to be a positive risk factor for a shorter median time interval from ICI to TB diagnosis in patients with lung cancer receiving ICI.

Maintenance and recall of memory T cell populations against tuberculosis: Implications for vaccine design

Despite the widespread use of standardised drug regimens, advanced diagnostics, and Mycobacterium bovis Bacille-Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccines, the global tuberculosis (TB) epidemic remains uncontrollable. To address this challenge, improved vaccines are urgently required that can elicit persistent immunologic memory, the hallmark of successful vaccines. Nonetheless, the processes underlying the induction and maintenance of immunologic memory are not entirely understood. Clarifying how memory T cells (Tm cells) are created and survive long term may be a crucial step towards the development of effective T cell–targeted vaccines. Here, we review research findings on the memory T cell response, which involves mobilization of several distinct Tm cell subsets that are required for efficient host suppression of M. tuberculosis (Mtb) activity. We also summaries current knowledge related to the T cell response-based host barrier against Mtb infection and discuss advantages and disadvantages of novel TB vaccine candidates.

Infections in lung cancer patients undergoing immunotherapy and targeted therapy: An overview on the current scenario

Patients with a diagnosis of lung cancer are often vulnerable to infection, and the risk is increased by tumor-associated immunosuppression and the effects of the treatments. Historically, links between the risk of infection and cytotoxic chemotherapy due to neutropenia and respiratory syndromes are well established. The advent of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) and immune-checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) targeting the programmed cell death-1 (PD-1)/programmed cell death- ligand 1 (PD-L1) axis and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) have changed the treatment paradigm for lung cancer patients. Our understanding of the risk of infections while administrating these drugs is evolving, as are the biological mechanisms that are responsible. In this overview, we focus on the risk of infection with the use of targeted therapies and ICIs, summarizing current evidence from preclinical and clinical studies and discussing their clinical implications.

Tuberculosis and risk of cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Cancer is a major cause of death among people who experience tuberculosis (TB), but little is known about its timing and incidence following TB treatment. Our primary objectives were to estimate the pooled risk of all and site-specific malignancies in people with TB compared to the general population or suitable controls. Our secondary objective was to describe the pooled risk of cancer at different time points following TB diagnosis.

METHODS

This study was prospectively registered (PROSPERO: CRD42021277819). We systematically searched MEDLINE, Embase, and the Cochrane Database for studies published between 1980 and 2021. We included original observational research articles that estimated cancer risk among people with TB compared to controls. Studies were excluded if they had a study population of fewer than 50 individuals; used cross-sectional, case series, or case report designs; and had a follow-up period of less than 12 months. Random-effects meta-analysis was used to obtain the pooled risk of cancer in the TB population.

RESULTS

Of the 5,160 unique studies identified, data from 17 studies were included. When compared to controls, the pooled standardized incidence ratios (SIR) of all cancer (SIR 1.62, 95% CI 1.35-1.93, I2 = 97%) and lung cancer (SIR 3.20, 95% CI 2.21-4.63, I2 = 90%) was increased in the TB population. The pooled risk of all cancers and lung cancer was highest within the first year following TB diagnosis (SIR 4.70, 95% CI 1.80-12.27, I2 = 99%) but remained over five years of follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

People with TB have an increased risk of both pulmonary and non-pulmonary cancers. Further research on cancer following TB diagnosis is needed to develop effective screening and early detection strategies. Clinicians should have a high index of suspicion for cancer in people with TB, particularly in the first year following TB diagnosis.

Reinventing the human tuberculosis (TB) granuloma: Learning from the cancer field

Tuberculosis (TB) remains one of the deadliest infectious diseases in the world and every 20 seconds a person dies from TB. An important attribute of human TB is induction of a granulomatous inflammation that creates a dynamic range of local microenvironments in infected organs, where the immune responses may be considerably different compared to the systemic circulation. New and improved technologies for in situ quantification and multimodal imaging of mRNA transcripts and protein expression at the single-cell level have enabled significantly improved insights into the local TB granuloma microenvironment. Here, we review the most recent data on regulation of immunity in the TB granuloma with an enhanced focus on selected in situ studies that enable spatial mapping of immune cell phenotypes and functions. We take advantage of the conceptual framework of the cancer-immunity cycle to speculate how local T cell responses may be enhanced in the granuloma microenvironment at the site of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. This includes an exploratory definition of "hot", immune-inflamed, and "cold", immune-excluded TB granulomas that does not refer to the level of bacterial replication or metabolic activity, but to the relative infiltration of T cells into the infected lesions. Finally, we reflect on the current knowledge and controversy related to reactivation of active TB in cancer patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors such as PD-1/PD-L1 and CTLA-4. An understanding of the underlying mechanisms involved in the induction and maintenance or disruption of immunoregulation in the TB granuloma microenvironment may provide new avenues for host-directed therapies that can support standard antibiotic treatment of persistent TB disease.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis senses host Interferon-γ via the membrane protein MmpL10

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is one of the most successful human pathogens. Several cytokines are known to increase virulence of bacterial pathogens, leading us to investigate whether Interferon-γ (IFN-γ), a central regulator of the immune defense against Mtb, has a direct effect on the bacteria. We found that recombinant and T-cell derived IFN-γ rapidly induced a dose-dependent increase in the oxygen consumption rate (OCR) of Mtb, consistent with increased bacterial respiration. This was not observed in attenuated Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), and did not occur for other cytokines tested, including TNF-α. IFN-γ binds to the cell surface of intact Mtb, but not BCG. Mass spectrometry identified mycobacterial membrane protein large 10 (MmpL10) as the transmembrane binding partner of IFN-γ, supported by molecular modelling studies. IFN-γ binding and the OCR response was absent in Mtb Δmmpl10 strain and restored by complementation with wildtype mmpl10. RNA-sequencing and RT-PCR of Mtb exposed to IFN-γ revealed a distinct transcriptional profile, including genes involved in virulence. In a 3D granuloma model, IFN-γ promoted Mtb growth, which was lost in the Mtb Δmmpl10 strain and restored by complementation, supporting the involvement of MmpL10 in the response to IFN-γ. Finally, IFN-γ addition resulted in sterilization of Mtb cultures treated with isoniazid, indicating clearance of phenotypically resistant bacteria that persist in the presence of drug alone. Together our data are the first description of a mechanism allowing Mtb to respond to host immune activation that may be important in the immunopathogenesis of TB and have use in novel eradication strategies.

Serial interferon-gamma release assay in lung cancer patients receiving immune checkpoint inhibitors: a prospective cohort study

Recent advancements in cancer immunotherapy using immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have received considerable attention. Although advantageous, ICI therapies cause unique immune-related adverse events (irAEs) in some patients. Moreover, infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis, have been recognized as emerging concerns during immunotherapy. We aimed to evaluate the interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA) conversion rate and active tuberculosis incidence during immunotherapy to elucidate the incidence of tuberculosis reactivation after ICI therapy induction.We prospectively assessed IGRA results in lung cancer patients who received ICI monotherapy before ICI treatment and at 6 and 12 months after ICI treatment. We also assessed computed tomography findings to determine the presence of active tuberculosis when positive IGRA results were obtained. The ICIs used were nivolumab, pembrolizumab, atezolizumab, and durvalumab.In all, 178 patients were prospectively recruited between March 2017 and March 2020. Of these, 123 completed serial IGRAs, of whom 18, 101, and 4, respectively, had positive, negative, and indeterminate IGRAs at baseline. Three and four patients, respectively, showed IGRA reversion and conversion during immunotherapy. One patient with a sustained, stable positive IGRA and one with IGRA conversion developed active pulmonary tuberculosis during immunotherapy.We found that 3.3% and 1.6% of the patients developed IGRA conversion and active tuberculosis, respectively. Of the four patients who developed IGRA conversion, one developed active pulmonary tuberculosis during immunotherapy. Another patient with sustained, stable positive IGRA developed active tuberculosis. Physicians should be alert to tuberculosis development during ICI therapy, and IGRA testing is a useful tool to assess the risk of developing active tuberculosis.

Screening and testing for latent tuberculosis infection among patients who are immunocompromised

ABSTRACT

It is critical to detect latent tuberculosis infection through screening and testing individuals at high risk of progression to active tuberculosis, including patients who are immunocompromised. NPs should be familiar with available testing for accurate diagnosis in order to expedite treatment.

Multidisciplinary approach to treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors in patients with HIV, tuberculosis, or underlying autoimmune diseases

We reviewed the available information on the use of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) in populations with special conditions, namely, patients with HIV, tuberculosis, or underlying autoimmune disease. Available data show that treatment with ICIs is safe in patients with HIV; it is advisable, however, that these patients receive adequate antiretroviral therapy and have an undetectable viral load before ICIs are initiated. Tuberculosis reactivation has been reported with the use of ICIs, possibly due to immune dysregulation. Tuberculosis has also been associated with the use of immunosuppressors to treat immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Active tuberculosis must be ruled out in patients with symptoms or signs, and selected patients may benefit from screening for latent tuberculosis infection, although more data are required. Limited data exist regarding the safety of ICIs in patients with cancer and autoimmune disease. Data from observational studies suggest that up to 29% of patients with a preexisting autoimmune disease treated with an ICI present with an autoimmune disease flare, and 30% present with a de novo irAE of any type. The frequency of flares appears to differ according to the type of ICI received, with higher rates associated with PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors. The most common autoimmune diseases for which patients reported flares with ICI therapy are rheumatoid arthritis, other inflammatory arthritis, and psoriasis. Most studies have reported flares or de novo irAEs associated with ICIs that were mild to moderate, with low rates of discontinuation and no deaths due to flares. Therefore, the use of ICIs in these patients is possible, but careful monitoring is required.

Complete remission after immunotherapy-induced abdominal tuberculosis in a patient with advanced non-small cell lung cancer treated with pembrolizumab: a case report

The use of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) has drastically transformed the therapeutic landscape in lung cancer. Special focus has been put on immune-related toxicity; however, infections can also seem during ICI treatment. Although rare, tuberculosis (TB) has been increasingly identified after ICIs, and it seems that the programmed cell death protein 1 and programmed death-ligand 1 pathway is directly involved in its pathophysiology. Here, we describe the case of a patient with advanced NSCLC who developed abdominal TB after 32 months of pembrolizumab and who remains in tumor remission 10 months after discontinuation of this drug. Routine screening for latent TB before ICI treatment is advised, with closer collaboration between infectious disease specialists and oncologists.

Safe Concurrent Use of Anti-tuberculosis Drugs and Pembrolizumab in a Patient with Non-small-cell Lung Cancer Who Was Infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis

A 68-year-old Japanese man was diagnosed with lung adenocarcinoma stage IVB. We introduced a first-line chemotherapy of four cycles of carboplatin and pemetrexed and pembrolizumab, followed by pemetrexed and pembrolizumab maintenance therapy. Approximately four months after anticancer therapy, a small nodule appeared in the right peripheral S3 lesion. After five months, the nodule was confirmed as a Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) nodule. We initiated anti-TB therapy without stopping pembrolizumab, and the right S3 nodule shrank immediately. This report supports the concurrent use of anti-TB treatment with an immune checkpoint inhibitor when the TB infection area is limited.

Assessment of anti-PD-(L)1 for patients with coexisting malignant tumor and tuberculosis classified by active, latent, and obsolete stage

BACKGROUND

It is not a rare clinical scenario to have patients presenting with coexisting malignant tumor and tuberculosis. Whether it is feasible to conduct programmed death-(ligand) 1 [PD-(L)1] inhibitors to these patients, especially those with active tuberculosis treated with concurrent anti-tuberculosis, is still unknown.

METHODS

This study enrolled patients with coexisting malignancy and tuberculosis and treated with anti-PD-(L)1 from Jan 2018 to July 2021 in 2 institutions. The progression-free survival (PFS), objective response rate (ORR), and safety of anti-PD-(L)1 therapy, as well as response to anti-tuberculosis treatment, were evaluated.

RESULTS

A total of 98 patients were screened from this cohort study, with 45 (45.9%), 21 (21.4%), and 32 (32.7%) patients diagnosed with active, latent, and obsolete tuberculosis, respectively. The overall ORR was 36.0% for anti-PD-(L)1 therapy, with 34.2%, 35.5%, and 41.2% for each subgroup. Median PFS was 8.0 vs 6.0 vs 6.0 months (P=0.685) for each subgroup at the time of this analysis. For patients with active tuberculosis treated with concurrent anti-tuberculosis, median duration of anti-tuberculosis therapy was 10.0 (95% CI, 8.01-11.99) months. There were 83.3% (20/24) and 93.3% (42/45) patients showing sputum conversion and radiographic response, respectively, after anti-tuberculosis therapy, and two patients experienced tuberculosis relapse. Notably, none of the patients in latent and only one patient in obsolete subgroups showed tuberculosis induction or relapse after anti-PD-(L)1 therapy. Treatment-related adverse events (TRAEs) occurred in 33 patients (73.3%) when treated with concurrent anti-PD-(L)1 and anti-tuberculosis. Grade 3 or higher TRAEs were hematotoxicity (n = 5, 11.1%), and one patient suffered grade 3 pneumonitis leading to the discontinuation of immunotherapy.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that patients with coexisting malignant tumor and tuberculosis benefited equally from anti-PD-(L)1 therapy, and anti-tuberculosis response was unimpaired for those with active tuberculosis. Notably, the combination of anti-PD-(L)1 and anti-tuberculosis therapy was well-tolerated without significant unexpected toxic effects.

Metformin Downregulates PD-L1 Expression in Esophageal Squamous Cell Catrcinoma by Inhibiting IL-6 Signaling Pathway

Purpose

To characterize the mechanism by which metformin inhibits PD-L1 expression in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) and to evaluate the effect of metformin on the antitumor immune response.

Methods

The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database was used to analyze the correlations between IL-6 and prognosis and between IL-6 and PD-L1 gene expression in esophageal cancer. Reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Western blotting and immunofluorescence were used to study the mechanism by which metformin affects PD-L1 expression. Additionally, T cell function was assessed in a coculture system containing ESCC cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) treated with metformin or IL-6. In an in vivo assay, we used a model established with NPIdKO™ mice, which have a reconstituted immune system generated by transplanting PBMCs through intravenous injection, to evaluate the effect of metformin on tumors.

Results

The TCGA esophageal cancer data showed that IL-6 expression was positively correlated with PD-L1 expression and that patients with high IL-6 expression had a significantly lower overall survival rate than patients with low IL-6 expression. PD-L1 expression in ESCC cell lines was significantly inhibited by metformin via the IL-6/JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway but was not correlated with the canonical AMPK pathway. In the coculture system, the metformin pretreatment group showed higher T cell activation and better T cell killing function than the control group. Animal experiments confirmed that metformin downregulated PD-L1 expression and that combination treatment with metformin and PD-1 inhibitors synergistically enhanced the antitumor response.

Conclusions

Metformin downregulated PD-L1 expression by blocking the IL-6/JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway in ESCC, which enhanced the antitumor immune response.

The safety and efficacy of immunotherapy with anti-programmed cell death 1 monoclonal antibody for lung cancer complicated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection

Background

Anti-programmed cell death 1 (PD-1)/programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) immunotherapy has boosted the prognosis in advanced lung cancer. Meanwhile, accumulating cases showed the correlation between tuberculosis (TB) reactivation and anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy. However, the safety and efficacy of anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy for lung cancer complicated with TB infection could only be learned from real-world data.

Methods

We retrospectively analyzed 562 patients with advanced lung cancer who received anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy at Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital from 2015 to 2019, including 13 patients with TB infection. Besides, relevant literature reviews were performed online to analyze the safety and efficacy of immunotherapy and to explore the appropriate treatment strategies in this specific population.

Results

In our cohort, the initiation of anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy was from June 2015 to December 2019. Among them, 13 patients had TB infection prior to immunotherapy including 11 latent TB and 2 active TB, and all of them were treated with anti-PD-1 immunotherapy. Patients with active TB infection were treated with concurrent anti-TB and anti-PD-1 treatments, and the remaining received either mono-immunotherapy or combined immunotherapy. Neither reactivation of latent TB nor progression of active TB was monitored in our cohort during immunotherapy. Severe immune-related adverse events (irAEs) were diagnosed in two patients. Treatment strategies such as discontinuation of immunotherapy and administration of corticosteroids were provided timely, and one with latent TB infection got gradually improved, but the other one with active TB died quickly. The median progression-free survival (PFS) was 5.5 months for tumor immunotherapy in our cohort. However, the PFS of immunotherapy was merely 2.1 and 2.2 months in lung cancer patients with active TB infection.

Conclusions

Immunotherapy is relatively safe for lung cancer patients complicated with previously treated latent TB, and the efficacy of immunotherapy in this specified population is not inferior to that in lung cancer patients without TB infection. TB screening before anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy is strongly recommended, and irAEs should be monitored more cautiously in lung cancer patients with active TB infection.

Varying clinical presentations of nontuberculous mycobacterial disease : Similar to but different from tuberculosis

The incidence rate of pulmonary nontuberculous mycobacterial disease (PNTMD) in Japan is the highest among major industrialized nations. Although the typical clinical course and radiological manifestations of PNTMD are different from those of pulmonary tuberculosis (TB), confusion about these mycobacterial diseases leads to a diagnostic pitfall. Diagnostic challenges include the coexistence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) and nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), false positives for NTM in MTB nucleic acid amplification tests, microbial substitution, and abnormal radiological manifestations caused by NTM. Features of extrapulmonary NTM diseases, such as pleurisy, vertebral osteomyelitis, and disseminated disease, are different from the corresponding tuberculous diseases. Moreover, the immunological background of the patient (status of human immunodeficiency virus infection with or without antiviral therapy, continuation or discontinuation of immunosuppressive therapy, use of immune checkpoint inhibitor, pregnancy and delivery, etc.) influences the pathophysiology of mycobacterial diseases. This review describes the varying clinical presentations of NTM disease with emphasis on the differences from TB. J. Med. Invest. 68 : 220-227, August, 2021.

Tuberculosis reactivation at ileum following immune checkpoint inhibition with pembrolizumab for metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma: a case report

Background

Tuberculosis (TB) reactivation has been increasingly identified following immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy for cancer patients. However there has been no report on TB reactivation in the gastrointestinal tract. In the report, we describe a patient who developed TB ileitis after pembrolizumab for her metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). Rechallenge with pembrolizumab after its temporary interruption together with anti-TB therapy produced continuous tumor response but without further TB reactivation.

Case presentation

A 29-year-old lady with metastatic NPC involving the cervical nodes, lungs and bones started pembrolizumab after failure to multiple lines of chemotherapy. She complained of sudden onset of abdominal pain, vomiting and bloody diarrhea with mucus 21 months after pembrolizumab. Colonoscopy revealed terminal ileitis with multiple caseating granulomas with Langerhan cells. Serum interferon gamma release assay was strongly positive. She was treated with anti-TB medication and was later rechallenged with pembrolizumab for her progressive lung metastases without further TB relapse while her lung metastases were brought under control again.

Conclusion

To date, this is the first gastrointestinal TB reactivation after ICI therapy for cancer. Guidelines to screen for TB before initiation of ICIs in endemic areas should be established.

Active and latent tuberculosis infections in patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors in a non-endemic tuberculosis area

BACKGROUND

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) blocking inhibitory immune pathways (e.g., programmed cell death protein-1/-ligand1 [PD-1/PD-L1]) have revolutionized cancer therapy for numerous malignancies. There have been an increasing number of cases of active tuberculosis (TB) reported in association with ICI use, and recent data suggest alterations in immune responses in TB by ICI. The aim of this study was to characterize the frequency of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) and active TB in a large cohort of ICI-treated patients in a low TB incidence area.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective review of all ICI-treated patients tested for TB between January, 1997 and August, 2018. Data extracted included patient demographics, TB risk factors, latent/active TB diagnosis and treatment, tumor type, ICI used, immunosuppressive medications, and mortality related to TB.

RESULTS

We identified 1844 ICI-treated patients, including 30 abnormal TB test results. Two patients were diagnosed with active TB, both prior to starting ICI therapy. One patient was treated for TB prior to starting ICI and the other patient was successfully treated concurrently. Seven patients were diagnosed with LTBI and none developed active TB. Twenty patients had indeterminate interferon gamma release assays (IGRA).

CONCLUSION

Despite recent reports of TB in patients taking ICI, we found no patients developing TB during ICI therapy in our large retrospective cohort of ICI-treated cancer patients in a non-endemic TB area. The high rate of indeterminate IGRA results suggests the need for prospective research with better diagnostics to quantify the actual risk of TB in this patient population.

The Dynamic Change of Immune Checkpoints and CD14+ Monocytes in Latent Tuberculosis Infection

Controlling latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) is important for preventing tuberculosis (TB). However, the immune regulation of LTBI remains uncertain. Immune checkpoints and CD14+ monocytes are pivotal for immune defense but have been scarcely studied in LTBI. We prospectively enrolled participants with LTBI and controls from January 2017 to December 2019. We measured their CD14+ monocytes and the expression of immune checkpoints, including programmed death-1 (PD-1), cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4), and T cell immunoglobulin mucin domain-containing-3 (TIM3) on T lymphocytes in peripheral blood mononuclear cells before and after LTBI treatment. A total of 87 subjects were enrolled, including 29 IGRA-negative healthy controls (HC), 58 in the LTBI group (19 without chronic kidney disease (non-CKD), and 39 with end-stage renal disease (ESRD)). All PD-1, CTLA-4, and TIM3 on lymphocytes and monocytes were higher in the LTBI group than that in the HC group. Total CD14+ monocytes were higher and PD-L2+CD14+ over monocytes were lower in patients with LTBI-non-CKD than that in the HC group. After LTBI treatment, CD14+ monocytes, TIM3+ on CD4+ and monocytes, and CTLA-4 on lymphocytes decreased significantly. Multivariable logistic regression indicated that CD14+ monocytes was an independent factor for LTBI-non-CKD from the HC group, whereas PD-L2+CD14+ monocytes and TIM3+ monocytes were significant for LTBI-ESRD from the HC group. In conclusion, LTBI status was associated with increasing CD14+ monocytes plus low PD-L2 expression. By contrast, increased expression of immune checkpoints over all immune cells might be due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis related immune exhaustion, which decreased after treatment.

Infections due to dysregulated immunity: an emerging complication of cancer immunotherapy

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have revolutionised cancer treatment. However, immune-related adverse events (irAEs) are a common side effect which can mimic infection. Additionally, treatment of irAEs with corticosteroids and other immunosuppressant agents can lead to opportunistic infection, which we have classed as immunotherapy infections due to immunosuppression. However, emerging reports demonstrate that some infections can be precipitated by ICIs in the absence of immunosuppressive treatment, in contrast to the majority of reported cases. These infections are characterised by a dysregulated inflammatory immune response, and so we propose they are described as immunotherapy infections due to dysregulated immunity. This review summarises the rapidly emerging evidence of these phenomena and proposes a new framework for considering infection in the context of cancer immunotherapy.

Links between Infections, Lung Cancer, and the Immune System

Lung cancer is the leading disease of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Since the beginning of the 20th century, various infectious agents associated with lung cancer have been identified. The mechanisms that include systemic inflammatory pathways as effect of microbial persistence in the lung can secondarily promote the development of lung carcinogenesis. Chronic inflammation associated with lung-cancer infections is known to precede tumor development, and it has a strong effect on the response(s) to therapy. In fact, both viral and bacterial infections can activate inflammatory cells and inflammatory signaling pathways. In this review, an overview of critical findings of recent studies investigating associations between each of viral and bacterial pathogens and lung carcinoma is provided, with particular emphasis on how infectious organisms can interfere with oncogenic processes and all the way through immunity. Moreover, a discussion of the direct crosstalk between lung tumor development and inflammatory processes is also presented.

Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in People Living with HIV/AIDS: Facts and Controversies

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are reshaping the landscape of cancer treatment, redefining the prognosis of several tumors. They act by restoring the cytotoxic activity of tumor-specific T lymphocytes that are in a condition of immune exhaustion. The same condition has been widely described in chronic HIV infection. In this review, we dissect the role of ICIs in people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHIV). First, we provide an overview of the immunologic scenario. Second, we discuss the possible use of ICIs as adjuvant treatment of HIV to achieve elimination of the viral reservoir. Third, we examine the influence of HIV infection on ICI safety and effectiveness. Finally, we describe how the administration of ICIs impacts opportunistic infections.

Antimicrobial immunotherapeutics: past, present and future

In this age of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) there is an urgent need for novel antimicrobials. One area of recent interest is in developing antimicrobial effector molecules, and even cell-based therapies, based on those of the immune system. In this review, some of the more interesting approaches will be discussed, including immune checkpoint inhibitors, Interferons (IFNs), Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF), Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) T cells, Antibodies, Vaccines and the potential role of trained immunity in protection from and/or treatment of infection.

The Clinicopathological Features of Mediastinal Tuberculous Lymphadenitis in Cancer Patients and the Diagnostic Role of Endobronchial Ultrasound

Introduction

Mediastinal lymphadenopathy in cancer patients can be of both malignant and non-malignant (including infectious) etiology. Tuberculosis (TB) is an important differential in this regard, particularly in regions with high TB endemicity.

Objectives

To determine the incidence and clinical characteristics of mediastinal tuberculous lymphadenitis (MTBLA) in cancer patients of a TB-endemic region, and the diagnostic role of endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS) guided transbronchial needle aspiration (TBNA) in such patients, utilizing both cytopathological and microbiological parameters for diagnosing TB.

Materials and methods

We retrospectively analyzed the relevant clinical data of all cancer patients diagnosed with MTBLA after undergoing EBUS-TBNA at our center, between July 2013 till July 2018 (total five years). The diagnostic yield, sensitivity and specificity of cytopathological and microbiological investigations (including TB culture and Mycobacterium tuberculosis Gene Xpert assay) for diagnosis of MTBLA were determined.

Results

Of the total 493 cancer patients, MTBLA was diagnosed in 54 (11%), with mean age of 48 ± 12 years, and predominantly male gender (59.3%). Thirty-three (61.1%) patients were clinically asymptomatic at the time of presentation, while cough was reported by 13 (24.7%) patients and weight loss, shortness of breath and fever by only six (11.1%), six (11.1%) and five (9.2%) patients, respectively. Total 53% had an underlying gastrointestinal malignancy. Chest imaging revealed bilateral versus unilateral hilar lymph node enlargement in 32 (59.3%) against 22 (40.7%) patients, respectively, while only 14 (25.9%) had accompanying lung parenchymal findings. Granulomatous TBNA cytology was detected in 41 (77.3%) patients, giving a diagnostic yield of 70.3% for MTBLA, with an estimated sensitivity and specificity of 79.2% and 99%, respectively. TB culture and Gene Xpert had a respective sensitivity of 48% and 53%, with the combined diagnostic yield of 64.8%. Treatment response was achieved in 51 (94%) patients, based on which EBUS was estimated to have sensitivity and specificity of 89% and 99% respectively, with no reported complications.

Conclusion

Mediastinal TB can have diverse manifestations among cancer patients and can often be clinically occult, with overlapping radiological impressions. EBUS-TBNA can serve as a safe and reliable diagnostic tool in this regard.

Incidence of Infections and Predictors of Mortality During Checkpoint Inhibitor Immunotherapy in Patients With Advanced Lung Cancer: A Retrospective Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have revolutionized nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treatment and significantly increased overall survival of patients. However, the incidence of concurrent infections and their management is still debated.

METHODS

From August 2015 to October 2019, all consecutive patients with NSCLC who received nivolumab or pembrolizumab as first- or second-line therapy were retrospectively evaluated. At the time of analysis all patients had died. Clinical characteristics of patients, type of infections, and predictors of mortality were analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 118 patients were identified: 74 in the nivolumab group and 44 in the pembrolizumab group. At least 1 infection was recorded in 22% of the nivolumab-group versus 27% of the pembrolizumab-group (P = .178). In both groups, the main infection was pneumonia, followed by skin and soft tissue infections, urinary tract infections, and gastroenteritis. Crude mortality for first infection was 10.7%, followed by 25% and 40% for the second and third recurrence, respectively (p for trend = .146). No opportunistic infections were recorded. It is notable that, by Cox-regression model, the independent predictor of mortality was a higher Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status at baseline (P < .001), whereas the multidisciplinary diagnosis and treatment of concurrent infections was associated with a reduced probability of mortality (adjusted hazard ratio = 0.50; 95% confidence interval = 0.30-0.83; P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with NSCLC treated with ICIs, multidisciplinary management of concurrent infections may reduce the risk of mortality. Further studies to investigate risk factors for infections, as well as appropriate management strategies and preventive measures in this setting, are warranted.

Incidence of tuberculosis in advanced lung cancer patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors - A nationwide population-based cohort study

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to investigate the risk of TB in advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients treated with Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) after a platinum-based chemotherapy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A nationwide population-based retrospective cohort study using National health insurance dataset was designed. Patients who were diagnosed as lung cancer between September 1st, 2017 and August 31st, 2018 in South Korea were selected. Among them, those with NSCLC who initiated a platinum-based chemotherapy within 3 months were finally included and followed up until December 31st, 2018. Patients who received nivolumab, pembrolizumab, and atezolizumab within study period were classified as the ICI group. Cox proportional hazard model with time-varying covariates was used to determine effects of the duration of conventional chemotherapy, ICI, and consecutive use of systemic steroid on TB.

RESULTS

A total of 6335 patients were enrolled with 3568.7 years of total follow-up period. Among them, 899 patients underwent ICI treatment. Within the follow-up period, 15 TB cases were identified in the ICI group (incidence: 2582.5 per 100,000 person-years) and 63 TB cases were found in the conventional chemotherapy group (incidence: 2108.5 per 100,000 person-years). In a multivariable Cox proportional hazard model, treatment with ICI was not a significant risk factor for TB development (hazard ratio (HR): 1.21, 95 % confidence interval (CI): 0.45-3.26,p =  0.700). Instead, prolonged use of steroid was associated with an increased TB risk (HR: 1.91, 95 %CI: 0.89-4.08, p =  0.095), although its statistical significance was dependent on the operational definition of the effect duration. Previous TB history and older age were independent risk factors for TB disease.

CONCLUSION

In this real-world study, additional treatment with ICI did not increase the risk of TB in advanced NSCLC patients who underwent a cytotoxic chemotherapy. However, TB incidence in these patients was high regardless of ICI treatment.

CLASSIFICATIONS

Systemic Treatments.

Cancer immunotherapy in special challenging populations: recommendations of the Advisory Committee of Spanish Melanoma Group (GEM)

Cancer immunotherapy based on the use of antibodies targeting the so-called checkpoint inhibitors, such as programmed cell death-1 receptor, its ligand, or CTLA-4, has shown durable clinical benefit and survival improvement in melanoma and other tumors. However, there are some special situations that could be a challenge for clinical management. Persons with chronic infections, such as HIV-1 or viral hepatitis, latent tuberculosis, or a history of solid organ transplantation, could be candidates for cancer immunotherapy, but their management requires a multidisciplinary approach. The Spanish Melanoma Group (GEM) panel in collaboration with experts in virology and immunology from different centers in Spain reviewed the literature and developed evidence-based guidelines for cancer immunotherapy management in patients with chronic infections and immunosuppression. These are the first clinical guidelines for cancer immunotherapy treatment in special challenging populations. Cancer immunotherapy in chronically infected or immunosuppressed patients is feasible but needs a multidisciplinary approach in order to decrease the risk of complications related to the coexistent comorbidities.