Inhibition of cholinesterase elicits muscarinic receptor-mediated synaptic transmission in the rat adrenal medulla

Expression of Mitochondrial Uncoupling Proteins and GABA Signaling Molecules in Unstimulated and Nerve Growth Factor-Stimulated PC12 Cells: Models for Chromaffin Cells and Sympathetic Neurons

PC12 cells are a cell line originating from rat adrenal medullary chromaffin (AMC) cells. They extend a neurite-like structure in response to nerve growth factor (NGF). Thus, unstimulated and NGF-stimulated PC12 cells are used as models for AMC cells and sympathetic ganglion cells, respectively. However, how closely unstimulated and stimulated PC12 cells resemble AMC cells and sympathetic neurons, respectively, has not been elucidated sufficiently. We explored these issues by using biochemical and immunocytochemical methods. AMC cells and PC12 cells selectively expressed uncoupling protein 3 (UCP3) and uncoupling protein 4 (UCP4), respectively, and glucocorticoid activity inhibited UCP4 expression in PC12 cells. PC12 cells expressed extremely low levels of chromaffin granule-associated proteins, whereas the amount of synaptophysin, a synaptic vesicle-associated protein, was much higher than that in the adrenal medulla. Similar to AMC cells, the muscarinic receptor type 1 was located at the cell periphery in unstimulated PC12 cells, and its expression was markedly enhanced by NGF. Furthermore, NGF stimulation abolished the expression of GABA signaling molecules in PC12 cells. The results suggest that the properties of unstimulated PC12 cells are between those of AMC cells and sympathetic ganglion cells and GABA signaling is intrinsic to AMC cells.

Enhancement of muscarinic receptor-mediated excitation in spontaneously hypertensive rat adrenal medullary chromaffin cells

One of the mechanisms for hypertension is an increase in blood catecholamines due to increased secretion from sympathetic nerve terminals and adrenal medullary chromaffin (AMC) cells. Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) are used as an animal model of hypertension. Catecholamine secretion in AMC cells occurs in response to humoral factors and neuronal inputs from the sympathetic nerve fibres. Acetylcholine (ACh) released from the nerve terminals activates nicotinic as well as muscarinic ACh receptors. The present experiment aimed to elucidate whether muscarinic receptor-mediated excitation is altered in SHR AMC cells and, if it is, how. Compared with normotensive rat AMC cells, muscarinic stimulation induced greater catecholamine secretion and larger depolarising inward currents in SHR AMC cells. In contrast to normotensive rat AMC cells, the muscarine-induced current consisted of quinine-sensitive and quinine-insensitive components. The former and the latter are possibly ascribed to nonselective cation channel activation and TWIK-related acid-sensitive K+ (TASK) channel inhibition, as noted in guinea pig AMC cells. In fact, immunoreactive material for TASK1 and several isoforms of transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels was detected in SHR AMC cells. Stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1), which plays an essential role for heteromeric TRPC1-TRPC4 channel formation and is not expressed in normotensive rat AMC cells, was detected in the cytoplasm and co-localised with TRPC1. The expression of muscarinic M1 receptors was enhanced in SHR AMC cells compared with normotensive rats. The results indicate that muscarinic excitation is enhanced in SHR AMC cells, probably through facilitation of TRPC channel signalling.

Muscarinic Receptor Stimulation Does Not Inhibit Voltage-dependent Ca2+ Channels in Rat Adrenal Medullary Chromaffin Cells

Adrenal medullary chromaffin (AMC) and sympathetic ganglion cells are derived from the neural crest and show a similar developmental path. Thus, these two cell types have many common properties in membrane excitability and signaling. However, AMC cells function as endocrine cells while sympathetic ganglion cells are neurons. In rat sympathetic ganglion cells, muscarinic M1 and M4 receptors mediate excitation and inhibition via suppression of M-type K+ channels and suppression of voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels, respectively. On the other hand, M1 receptor stimulation in rat AMC cells also produces excitation by suppressing TWIK-related acid sensitive K+ (TASK) channels. However, whether M4 receptors are coupled with voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel suppression is unclear. We explore this issue electrophysiologically and biochemically. Electrical stimulation of nerve fibers in rat adrenal glands trans-synaptically increased the Ca2+ signal in AMC cells. This electrically evoked increased Ca2+ signal was not altered during muscarine-induced increase in Ca2+ signal, whereas it decreased significantly during a GABA-induced increase, due to a shunt effect of increased Cl- conductance. The whole-cell current recordings revealed that voltage-dependent Ca2+ currents in AMC cells were suppressed by adenosine triphosphate, but not by muscarinic agonists. The fractionation analysis and immunocytochemistry indicated that CaV1.2 Ca2+ channels and M4 receptors are located in the raft and non-raft membrane domains, respectively. We concluded that muscarinic stimulation in rat AMC cells does not produce voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel inhibition. This lack of muscarinic inhibition is at least partly due to physical separation of voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels and M4 receptors in the plasma membrane.

Galantamine attenuates autoinflammation in a mouse model of familial mediterranean fever

BACKGROUND

Autoinflammatory diseases, a diverse group of inherited conditions characterized by excessive innate immune activation, have limited therapeutic options. Neuroimmune circuits of the inflammatory reflex control innate immune overactivation and can be stimulated to treat disease using the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor galantamine.

METHODS

We tested the efficacy of galantamine in a rodent model of the prototypical autoinflammatory disease familial Mediterranean fever (FMF). Multiple chronic disease markers were evaluated in animals that received long-term galantamine treatment compared to vehicle.

RESULTS

Long-term treatment with galantamine attenuated the associated splenomegaly and anemia which are characteristic features of this disease. Further, treatment reduced inflammatory cell infiltration into affected organs and a subcutaneous air pouch.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that galantamine attenuates chronic inflammation in this mouse model of FMF. Further research is warranted to explore the therapeutic potential of galantamine in FMF and other autoinflammatory diseases.

Adulthood dietary exposure to a common pesticide leads to an obese-like phenotype and a diabetic profile in apoE3 mice

Increasing evidence links the widespread exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides to the global epidemics of type 2 diabetes and obesity. Our recent data highlighted gene×environment interactions: mice expressing the human apolipoprotein E3 (apoE3) isoform were more prone to develop obesity than those expressing apoE2 or apoE4 upon dietary challenge with chlorpyrifos (CPF), the most used OP worldwide. Thus, we aimed to further explore the contribution of the APOE3 genotype on the emergence of obesity and related metabolic dysfunctions upon subchronic exposure to CPF. Seven-month-old targeted replacement apoE3 and C57BL/6N male mice were orally exposed to CPF at 0 or 2mg/kg body weight/day for 8 consecutive weeks. We examined body weight status, food and water intake, lipid and glucose homeostasis, metabolic biomarkers concentrations, insulin levels and insulin resistance, and leptin and ghrelin profiles. CPF exposure generally increased food ingestion, glucose and total cholesterol concentrations, and tended to elevate acyl ghrelin levels. Nonetheless, excess weight gain and increased leptin levels were inherent to apoE3 mice. Moreover, the propensity towards a diabetic profile was markedly higher in these animals than in C57BL/6N, as they showed a higher homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance index and higher insulin levels. Although both genotypes were metabolically affected by CPF, the results of the present investigation revealed that apoE3 mice were the most vulnerable to developing obesity and related disturbances following CPF administration through the diet. Since the APOE3 genotype is the most prevalent worldwide, current findings have particular implications for human health.

Distribution of intravenously administered acetylcholinesterase inhibitor and acetylcholinesterase activity in the adrenal gland: 11C-donepezil PET study in the normal rat

Purpose

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors have been used for patients with Alzheimer's disease. However, its pharmacokinetics in non-target organs other than the brain has not been clarified yet. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between the whole-body distribution of intravenously administered ¹¹C-Donepezil (DNP) and the AChE activity in the normal rat, with special focus on the adrenal glands.

Methods

The distribution of ¹¹C-DNP was investigated by PET/CT in 6 normal male Wistar rats (8 weeks old, body weight  = 220±8.9 g). A 30-min dynamic scan was started simultaneously with an intravenous bolus injection of ¹¹C-DNP (45.0±10.7 MBq). The whole-body distribution of the ¹¹C-DNP PET was evaluated based on the Vt (total distribution volume) by Logan-plot analysis. A fluorometric assay was performed to quantify the AChE activity in homogenized tissue solutions of the major organs.

Results

The PET analysis using Vt showed that the adrenal glands had the 2nd highest level of ¹¹C-DNP in the body (following the liver) (13.33±1.08 and 19.43±1.29 ml/cm³, respectively), indicating that the distribution of ¹¹C-DNP was the highest in the adrenal glands, except for that in the excretory organs. The AChE activity was the third highest in the adrenal glands (following the small intestine and the stomach) (24.9±1.6, 83.1±3.0, and 38.5±8.1 mU/mg, respectively), indicating high activity of AChE in the adrenal glands.

Conclusions

We demonstrated the whole-body distribution of ¹¹C-DNP by PET and the AChE activity in the major organs by fluorometric assay in the normal rat. High accumulation of ¹¹C-DNP was observed in the adrenal glands, which suggested the risk of enhanced cholinergic synaptic transmission by the use of AChE inhibitors.

Muscarinic excitation-secretion coupling in chromaffin cells

Excitation-secretion coupling in adrenomedullary chromaffin cells physiologically commences when acetylcholine molecules released from splanchnic nerve terminals bind to cholinergic receptors located at the cell's plasma membrane. While nicotinic acetylcholine receptors ensure a rapid and efficacious transmission of preganglionic impulses, muscarinic acetylcholine receptors are considered to play a subsidiary role mostly by facilitating the nicotinic responses. Nevertheless, the variety of effects brought about by muscarinic stimulation in chromaffin cells (release of intracellular Ca2+, activation of Ca2+ entry through non-selective cation channels and voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels, impairment and/or enhancement of action potential firing, etc.) and the long-lasting nature of many of them suggests that muscarinic receptors might contribute to the fine tuning of the catecholamine secretory response upon graded preganglionic stimulation and prolonged periods of time. Such a variety of effects probably reflects not only the diversity of muscarinic receptors expressed in chromaffin cells but also the existence of differences among the animal species employed in the reported investigations. Accordingly, we first review on an animal species-based approach the most relevant features of the muscarinic response in chromaffin cells from a set of mammals, and finally present a unified picture of the mechanisms of muscarinic excitation-secretion coupling in chromaffin cells.

Simultaneous monitoring of acetylcholine and catecholamine release in the in vivo rat adrenal medulla

To simultaneously monitor acetylcholine release from pre-ganglionic adrenal sympathetic nerve endings and catecholamine release from post-ganglionic adrenal chromaffin cells in the in vivo state, we applied microdialysis technique to anesthetized rats. Dialysis probe was implanted in the left adrenal medulla and perfused with Ringer's solution containing neostigmine (a cholinesterase inhibitor). After transection of splanchnic nerves, we electrically stimulated splanchnic nerves or locally administered acetylcholine through dialysis probes for 2 min and investigated dialysate acetylcholine, choline, norepinephrine and epinephrine responses. Acetylcholine was not detected in dialysate before nerve stimulation, but substantial acetylcholine was detected by nerve stimulation. In contrast, choline was detected in dialysate before stimulation, and dialysate choline concentration did not change with repetitive nerve stimulation. The estimated interstitial acetylcholine levels and dialysate catecholamine responses were almost identical between exogenous acetylcholine (10 microM) and nerve stimulation (2 Hz). Dialysate acetylcholine, norepinephrine and epinephrine responses were correlated with the frequencies of electrical nerve stimulation, and dialysate norepinephrine and epinephrine responses were quantitatively correlated with dialysate acetylcholine responses. Neither hexamethonium (a nicotinic receptor antagonist) nor atropine (a muscarinic receptor antagonist) affected the dialysate acetylcholine response to nerve stimulation. Microdialysis technique made it possible to simultaneously assess activities of pre-ganglionic adrenal sympathetic nerves and post-ganglionic adrenal chromaffin cells in the in vivo state and provided quantitative information about input-output relationship in the adrenal medulla.

Effects of Ca2+ channel antagonists on acetylcholine and catecholamine releases in the in vivo rat adrenal medulla

To elucidate the types of voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channels controlling ACh and catecholamine releases in the in vivo adrenal medulla, we implanted microdialysis probes in the left adrenal medulla of anesthetized rats and investigated the effects of Ca(2+) channel antagonists on ACh, norepinephrine, and epinephrine releases induced by nerve stimulation. The dialysis probes were perfused with Ringer solution containing a cholinesterase inhibitor, neostigmine. The left splanchnic nerves were electrically stimulated at 2 and 4 Hz before and after intravenous administration of Ca(2+) channel antagonists. omega-Conotoxin GVIA (an N-type Ca(2+) channel antagonist, 10 microg/kg) inhibited ACh release at 2 and 4 Hz by approximately 40%, norepinephrine release at 4 Hz by approximately 50%, and epinephrine release at 2 and 4 Hz by approximately 45%. A fivefold higher dose of omega-conotoxin GVIA (50 microg/kg) did not further inhibit these releases. omega-Conotoxin MVIIC (a P/Q-type Ca(2+) channel antagonist, 50 microg/kg) inhibited ACh and epinephrine releases at 4 Hz by approximately 30%. Combined omega-conotoxin GVIA (50 microg/kg) and MVIIC (250 microg/kg) inhibited ACh release at 2 and 4 Hz by approximately 70% and norepinephrine and epinephrine releases at 2 and 4 Hz by approximately 80%. Nifedipine (an L-type Ca(2+) channel antagonist, 300 and 900 microg/kg) did not change ACh release at 2 and 4 Hz; however, nifedipine (300 microg/kg) inhibited epinephrine release at 4 Hz by 20%, and nifedipine (900 microg/kg) inhibited norepinephrine and epinephrine releases at 4 Hz by 30%. In conclusion, both N- and P/Q-type Ca(2+) channels control ACh release on preganglionic splanchnic nerve endings while L-type Ca(2+) channels do not. L-type Ca(2+) channels are involved in norepinephrine and epinephrine releases on chromaffin cells.