Efficacy of halofuginone products to prevent or treat cryptosporidiosis in bovine calves: a systematic review and meta-analyses

Antimicrobial drugs used in the prevention and control of protozoal and bacterial calf diarrhea: A scoping review

This scoping review examined the scientific literature on antimicrobial use (AMU) for preventing and controlling calf diarrhea. Secondary aims included describing health assessment methods and exploring the feasibility of meta-analyses to assess antimicrobial drug (AMs) efficacy. Following a registered protocol, four electronic databases were searched (initial search 2019; last update 2023). Eligibility criteria required controlled trials evaluating AMU for diarrhea prevention and control in calves ≤ 6 months, with efficacy assessed through health outcomes and/or fecal pathogen shedding. The search yielded 4486 references. After deduplication, two reviewers screened titles (n = 3259), abstracts (n = 341), and full texts (n = 106), resulting in the inclusion of 43 articles encompassing 62 trials. Pathogens associated with diarrhea included Eimeria spp. (41.9 %), Cryptosporidium spp. (40.3 %), Salmonella spp. (8.1 %), and Escherichia coli (3.2 %). High variability and frequent incomplete reporting of trial methodologies were observed. The most frequently assessed AMs were diclazuril, toltrazuril, and lasalocid for Eimeria, and halofuginone, chlortetracycline, and oxytetracycline for Cryptosporidium, Salmonella, and E. coli, respectively. Fecal consistency (93.5 %) and stool blood (48.4 %) were the most commonly evaluated fecal traits, while microscopy-based quantitative (50 %) and semi-quantitative (48.4 %) tests were frequently used for fecal pathogen shedding. Results suggest that meta-analyses could be performed to evaluate AM efficacy for diarrhea associated with Cryptosporidium and Eimeria. Future research should assess the efficacy of AMs approved by regulatory agencies, refine diagnostic methods for evaluating diarrhea etiology, validate health assessment techniques, and compare the efficacy of management practices in preventing and controlling calf diarrhea.

Anticryptosporidial action mechanisms of Launaea spinosa extracts in Cryptosporidium parvum experimentally infected mice in relation to its UHPLC-MS metabolite profile and biochemometric tools

BACKGROUND

Cryptosporidium parvum, a leading cause of diarrhea, is responsible for millions of food and waterborne illnesses in humans and animals worldwide. Launaea spinosa (Asteraceae family) is a common herb found in the desert of the Mediterranean region, encompassing the peninsula of Sinai. Traditionally, it has been utilized for managing gastrointestinal issues and inflammation.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

The present study aimed to assess Launaea spinosa (LS) extracts viz. ethyl acetate (LS-EtOAc), ethanol (LS-EtOH), and n-butanol (LS-BuOH), of different polarities against C. parvum in experimentally infected mice based on immunological, biochemical, histo- and immunohistochemical assays. Extracts were characterized via UHPLC-ESI-LIT-Orbitrap-MS and metabolite profiles were subjected to correlation modeling with bioactivities via supervised Partial Least Square (PLS) to identify active agents. Most L. spinosa extracts reduced fecal C. parvum oocyst count and mucosal burden (P < 0.05) than untreated infected mice, with LS-BuOH (200 mg/kg) exerting the highest reduction percentage (97%). These extracts increased immunoglobulin G (IgG) levels in infected and treated mice at all examined days post treatment. Also, the highest Interferon-Gamma (IFN-γ) and Interleukin-15 (IL-15) levels were obtained after 10 days of post inoculation (dPI), which were restored to a healthy state after 21 days, concurrent with a decrease in Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha (TNF-α) (P < 0.001). The increased liver enzyme (alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase) levels with infection were likewise reduced with extract administration. The LS extracts caused a significant increase in antioxidant glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and catalase (P < 0.001). Examination of colon tissue revealed that infected-treated mice with LS extracts exhibited a reduction in the expression of cleaved caspase-3, damage score, and degenerative changes. Metabolite profiling of different L. spinosa extracts led to the identification of 86 components, primarily phenolic acids, flavonoids, triterpenoid saponins, and fatty acids, with the first report of sulfated triterpenoid saponins in Launaea genus. PLS regression analysis revealed that bioeffects were significantly positioned close to LS-BuOH extract (R2: 0.9) mostly attributed to triterpenoid saponins and flavonoid glycosides.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated potential anti-cryptosporidial effects of LS extracts, especially LS-BuOH, suggesting its potential for inclusion in future nutraceuticals aimed at C. parvum treatment.

Gut Barrier Dysfunction and Microbiota Variations in Cryptosporidiosis: A Comprehensive Review

Cryptosporidiosis is a zoonotic protozoan parasite-born disease, equally significant in both animals and humans, especially affecting immunocompromised individuals (e.g., AIDS patients) and neonates. The prime concerns of this review article are to demonstrate the disruption of the intestinal barrier and variations in the gut microbiome during cryptosporidiosis, and to explore host gut-parasite interactions that can lead to the development of novel therapeutics. The review concluded that the enteric barrier is particularly maintained by tight junction proteins (e.g., occludin, claudin, and ZO-1, etc.) and mucosal immunity, both of which are severely compromised during Cryptosporidium spp. infections, resulting in increased intestinal barrier permeability, inflammatory responses, diarrhea, and ultimately death in severe cases. Cryptosporidium-induced dysbiosis is characterized by reduced microbial diversity and richness, a shift from commensal to pathogenic bacteria, as evidenced by increased pro-inflammatory taxa like Proteobacteria, and reduced proportions of beneficial SCFAs producing bacteria, e.g., Firmicutes. Recent investigations have highlighted the interrelations between gut microbiota and epithelial barrier integrity, especially during cryptosporidiosis, demonstrating the modulations regarding tight junctions (TJs), immune reactions, and SCFA production, all of which are main players in alleviating this protozoal parasitic infection. This review comprehensively describes the fine details underlying these impairments, including autophagy-mediated TJs' degradation, inflammasome activation, and gut microbiome-driven alterations in metabolic pathways, providing the latest relevant, and well-organized piece of knowledge regarding intestinal barrier alterations and microbial shifts during cryptosporidiosis. This work emphasizes the future need for longitudinal studies and advanced sequencing techniques to understand host gut microbiota-parasite interactions, aiming to formulate innovative strategies to mitigate cryptosporidiosis.

The Evaluation of the Efficacy of a Novel Subunit Vaccine in the Prevention of Cryptosporidium parvum-Caused Diarrhoea in Neonatal Calves

Cryptosporidium parvum (C. parvum)-caused calf diarrhoea (scours) is widespread and leads to calf mortality in cattle industries worldwide. A recent discovery of a glycopeptide epitope on the Cryptosporidium parasite recognized by a monoclonal antibody has led to the development of a new vaccine. It was designed for cows to pass on passive immunity to their neonatal calves. This vaccine has been demonstrated to be safe and efficacious in pre-clinical studies. In the process of marketing registration, two clinical studies were conducted with this vaccine on 16 commercial dairy and beef farms collecting data, assessed by the European Medicine Agency. In these studies, its effectiveness in the field was evaluated. The natural challenge and clinical disease caused by Cryptosporidium parvum in the calves in these studies was, however, not high enough to show a significant reduction of most of the clinical signs, although all trends were in favour of the vaccination groups. Nonetheless, the duration of the diarrhoea episodes of the dairy calves was significantly shorter in the vaccination group. Additionally, the levels of Gp40 antibodies in the blood of the calves was notably higher in the vaccination groups, demonstrating the principle of passive immunization. Overall, this vaccine, which can be used concurrently, non-mixed with Bovilis® Rotavec® Corona, introduces an additional approach to mitigate the impact of C. parvum infections in neonatal calves.

Understanding the Cryptosporidium species and their challenges to animal health and livestock species for informed development of new, specific treatment strategies

Cryptosporidium species are parasitic organisms of vertebrates with a worldwide distribution. They have an important impact globally upon human and animal health, and livestock productivity. The life cycle of these species is complex and difficult to disrupt to improve human health, animal health, food security and economic growth. This may contribute to the fact that no new treatment strategy has been widely accepted or applied in livestock for years. Here we consider the natural history of these parasites, their biochemistry and economic impact. Using recent developments in understanding these parasites we then consider viable and affordable approaches to enhancing control of their effects on livestock. These are based on advances in drug discovery, omics research and artificial intelligence applications to human and veterinary medicine that indicate putative new therapeutic approaches.

A fractional perspective on the transmission dynamics of a parasitic infection, considering the impact of both strong and weak immunity

Infectious disease cryptosporidiosis is caused by the cryptosporidium parasite, a type of parasitic organism. It is spread through the ingestion of contaminated water, food, or fecal matter from infected animals or humans. The control becomes difficult because the parasite may remain in the environment for a long period. In this work, we constructed an epidemic model for the infection of cryptosporidiosis in a fractional framework with strong and weak immunity concepts. In our analysis, we utilize the well-known next-generation matrix technique to evaluate the reproduction number of the recommended model, indicated by [Formula: see text]. As [Formula: see text], our results show that the disease-free steady-state is locally asymptotically stable; in other cases, it becomes unstable. Our emphasis is on the dynamical behavior and the qualitative analysis of cryptosporidiosis. Moreover, the fixed point theorem of Schaefer and Banach has been utilized to investigate the existence and uniqueness of the solution. We identify suitable conditions for the Ulam-Hyers stability of the proposed model of the parasitic infection. The impact of the determinants on the sickness caused by cryptosporidiosis is highlighted by the examination of the solution pathways using a novel numerical technique. Numerical investigation is conducted on the solution pathways of the system while varying various input factors. Policymakers and health officials are informed of the crucial factors pertaining to the infection system to aid in its control.

Downregulation of nutrition sensor GCN2 in macrophages contributes to poor wound healing in diabetes

Poor skin wound healing, which is common in patients with diabetes, is related to imbalanced macrophage polarization. Here, we find that nutrition sensor GCN2 (general control nonderepressible 2) and its downstream are significantly upregulated in human skin wound tissue and mouse skin wound macrophages, but skin wound-related GCN2 expression and activity are significantly downregulated by diabetes and hyperglycemia. Using wound healing models of GCN2-deleted mice, bone marrow chimeric mice, and monocyte-transferred mice, we show that GCN2 deletion in macrophages significantly delays skin wound healing compared with wild-type mice by altering M1 and M2a/M2c polarization. Mechanistically, GCN2 inhibits M1 macrophages via OXPHOS-ROS-NF-κB pathway and promotes tissue-repairing M2a/M2c macrophages through eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 (eIF2α)-hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF1α)-glycolysis pathway. Importantly, local supplementation of GCN2 activator halofuginone efficiently restores wound healing in diabetic mice with re-balancing M1 and M2a/2c polarization. Thus, the decreased macrophage GCN2 expression and activity contribute to poor wound healing in diabetes and targeting GCN2 improves wound healing in diabetes.

Abomasitis associated with halofuginone intoxication in pre-weaned calves

BACKGROUND

In this case series abomasitis as a consequence of halofuginone intoxication is suspected.

CASE PRESENTATION

Seven Belgian-Blue calves with complaints of anorexia and weight loss were presented to an university clinic. Ultrasonography showed thickening and edema of the abomasal wall in all cases, suggesting abomasitis. Abomasitis was confirmed on necropsy in three cases. Retrospective analysis clarified the uptake of an overdose of halofuginone lactate (348-421 µg/kg/day). Four animals fully recovered after removal of halofuginone lactate administration, therapy for comorbidities (pneumonia, diarrhoea) and supportive therapy.

CONCLUSION

To the authors' knowledge, this case series is the first report associating halofuginone lactate use with abomasitis. This was suspected after clinical improvement of four of the presented animals after terminating the administration of a high dose of halofuginone lactate, and exclusion of other possible causes. Underlying mechanisms are still unclear.

Medical prospects of cryptosporidiosis in vivo control using biofabricated nanoparticles loaded with Cinnamomum camphora extracts by Ulva fasciata

Background and Aim

Global efforts are continuing to develop preparations against cryptosporidiosis. This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of biosynthesized Ulva fasciata loading Cinnamomum camphora oil extract on new zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONPs shorten to ZnNPs) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) as alternative treatments for Cryptosporidium parvum experimental infection in rats.

Materials and Methods

Oil extract was characterized by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, loaded by U. fasciata on ionic-based ZnO and NPs, and then characterized by transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction. Biosafety and toxicity were investigated by skin tests. A total of 105 C. parvum oocysts/rat were used (n = 81, 2-3 W, 80-120 g, 9 male rats/group). Oocysts shedding was counted for 21 d. Doses of each preparation in addition to reference drug were administered daily for 7 d, starting on post-infection (PI) day (3). Nitazoxanide (100 mg) was used as the reference drug. After 3 weeks, the rats were sacrificed for postmortem examination and histopathological examination. Two blood samples/rat/group were collected on the 21st day. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid blood samples were also used for analysis of biochemistry, hematology, immunology, micronucleus prevalence, and chromosomal abnormalities.

Results

C. camphora leaves yielded 28.5 ± 0.3 g/kg oil and 20 phycocompounds were identified. Spherical and rod-shaped particles were detected at 10.47-30.98 nm and 18.83-38.39 nm, respectively. ZnNPs showed the earliest anti-cryptosporidiosis effect during 7-17 d PI. Other hematological, biochemical, immunological, histological, and genotoxicity parameters were significantly fruitful; hence, normalized pathological changes induced by infestation were observed in the NPs treatments groups against the infestation-free and Nitazoxanide treated group.

Conclusion

C. camphora, U. fasciata, ZnNPs, and AgNPs have refluxed the pathological effects of infection as well as positively improved host physiological condition by its anticryptosporidial immunostimulant regenerative effects with sufficient ecofriendly properties to be proposed as an alternative to traditional drugs, especially in individuals with medical reactions against chemical commercial drugs.

Specific pathway abundances in the neonatal calf faecal microbiome are associated with susceptibility to Cryptosporidium parvum infection: a metagenomic analysis

BACKGROUND

Cryptosporidium parvum is the main cause of calf scour worldwide. With limited therapeutic options and research compared to other Apicomplexa, it is important to understand the parasites' biology and interactions with the host and microbiome in order to develop novel strategies against this infection. The age-dependent nature of symptomatic cryptosporidiosis suggests a link to the undeveloped immune response, the immature intestinal epithelium, and its associated microbiota. This led us to hypothesise that specific features of the early life microbiome could predict calf susceptibility to C. parvum infection.

RESULTS

In this study, a single faecal swab sample was collected from each calf within the first week of life in a cohort of 346 animals. All 346 calves were subsequently monitored for clinical signs of cryptosporidiosis, and calves that developed diarrhoea were tested for Rotavirus, Coronavirus, E. coli F5 (K99) and C. parvum by lateral flow test (LFT). A retrospective case-control approach was taken whereby a subset of healthy calves (Control group; n = 33) and calves that went on to develop clinical signs of infectious diarrhoea and test positive for C. parvum infection via LFT (Cryptosporidium-positive group; n = 32) were selected from this cohort, five of which were excluded due to low DNA quality. A metagenomic analysis was conducted on the faecal microbiomes of the control group (n = 30) and the Cryptosporidium-positive group (n = 30) prior to infection, to determine features predictive of cryptosporidiosis. Taxonomic analysis showed no significant differences in alpha diversity, beta diversity, and taxa relative abundance between controls and Cryptosporidium-positive groups. Analysis of functional potential showed pathways related to isoprenoid precursor, haem and purine biosynthesis were significantly higher in abundance in calves that later tested positive for C. parvum (q ≤ 0.25). These pathways are either absent or streamlined in the C. parvum parasites. Though the de novo production of isoprenoid precursors, haem and purines are absent, C. parvum has been shown to encode enzymes that catalyse the downstream reactions of these pathway metabolites, indicating that C. parvum may scavenge those products from an external source.

CONCLUSIONS

The host has previously been put forward as the source of essential metabolites, but our study suggests that C. parvum may also be able to harness specific metabolic pathways of the microbiota in order to survive and replicate. This finding is important as components of these microbial pathways could be exploited as potential therapeutic targets for the prevention or mitigation of cryptosporidiosis in bovine neonates.

Host innate immune responses and microbiome profile of neonatal calves challenged with Cryptosporidium parvum and the effect of bovine colostrum supplementation

Introduction

Calves are highly susceptible to gastrointestinal infection with Cryptosporidium parvum (C. parvum), which can result in watery diarrhea and eventually death or impaired development. With little to no effective therapeutics, understanding the host's microbiota and pathogen interaction at the mucosal immune system has been critical to identify and test novel control strategies.

Methods

Herein, we used an experimental model of C. parvum challenge in neonatal calves to describe the clinical signs and histological and proteomic profiling of the mucosal innate immunity and microbiota shifts by metagenomics in the ileum and colon during cryptosporidiosis. Also, we investigated the impact of supplemental colostrum feeding on C. parvum infection.

Results

We showed that C. parvum challenged calves experienced clinical signs including pyrexia and diarrhea 5 days post challenge. These calves showed ulcerative neutrophil ileitis with a proteomic signature driven by inflammatory effectors, including reactive oxygen species and myeloperoxidases. Colitis was also noticed with an aggravated mucin barrier depletion and incompletely filled goblet cells. The C. parvum challenged calves also displayed a pronounced dysbiosis with a high prevalence of Clostridium species (spp.) and number of exotoxins, adherence factors, and secretion systems related to Clostridium spp. and other enteropathogens, including Campylobacter spp., Escherichia sp., Shigella spp., and Listeria spp. Daily supplementation with a high-quality bovine colostrum product mitigated some of the clinical signs and modulated the gut immune response and concomitant microbiota to a pattern more similar to that of healthy unchallenged calves.

Discussion

C. parvum infection in neonatal calves provoked severe diarrheic neutrophilic enterocolitis, perhaps augmented due to the lack of fully developed innate gut defenses. Colostrum supplementation showed limited effect mitigating diarrhea but demonstrated some clinical alleviation and specific modulatory influence on host gut immune responses and concomitant microbiota.

Past, current, and potential treatments for cryptosporidiosis in humans and farm animals: A comprehensive review

The intracellular protozoan parasite of the genus Cryptosporidium is among the leading causes of waterborne diarrheal disease outbreaks throughout the world. The parasite is transmitted by ingestion of infective oocysts that are highly stable in the environment and resistant to almost all conventional disinfection methods and water treatments. Control of the parasite infection is exceedingly difficult due to the excretion of large numbers of oocysts in the feces of infected individuals that contaminate the environment and serve as a source of infection for susceptible hosts including humans and animals. Drug development against the parasite is challenging owing to its limited genetic tractability, absence of conventional drug targets, unique intracellular location within the host, and the paucity of robust cell culture platforms for continuous parasite propagation. Despite the high prevalence of the parasite, the only US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved treatment of Cryptosporidium infections is nitazoxanide, which has shown moderate efficacy in immunocompetent patients. More importantly, no effective therapeutic drugs are available for treating severe, potentially life-threatening cryptosporidiosis in immunodeficient patients, young children, and neonatal livestock. Thus, safe, inexpensive, and efficacious drugs are urgently required to reduce the ever-increasing global cryptosporidiosis burden especially in low-resource countries. Several compounds have been tested for both in vitro and in vivo efficacy against the disease. However, to date, only a few experimental compounds have been subjected to clinical trials in natural hosts, and among those none have proven efficacious. This review provides an overview of the past and present anti-Cryptosporidium pharmacotherapy in humans and agricultural animals. Herein, we also highlight the progress made in the field over the last few years and discuss the different strategies employed for discovery and development of effective prospective treatments for cryptosporidiosis.

Cryptosporidiosis: From Prevention to Treatment, a Narrative Review

Cryptosporidiosis is a water- and food-borne zoonotic disease caused by the protozoon parasite of the genus Cryptosporidium. C. hominis and C. parvum are the main two species causing infections in humans and animals. The disease can be transmitted by the fecal-oral route as well as the respiratory route. The infective stage (sporulated oocysts) is resistant to different disinfectants including chlorine. Currently, no effective therapeutic drugs or vaccines are available to treat and control Cryptosporidium infection. To prevent cryptosporidiosis in humans and animals, we need to understand better how the disease is spread and transmitted, and how to interrupt its transmission cycle. This review focuses on understanding cryptosporidiosis, including its infective stage, pathogenesis, life cycle, genomics, epidemiology, previous outbreaks, source of the infection, transmission dynamics, host spectrum, risk factors and high-risk groups, the disease in animals and humans, diagnosis, treatment and control, and the prospect of an effective anti-Cryptosporidium vaccine. It also focuses on the role of the One Health approach in managing cryptosporidiosis at the animal-human-environmental interface. The summarized data in this review will help to tackle future Cryptosporidium infections in humans and animals and reduce the disease occurrence.

Diagnosis and control of cryptosporidiosis in farm animals

Cryptosporidium is a pathogenic protozoan parasite infecting the gastrointestinal epithelium of human and animal hosts. In farm animals, cryptosporidiosis causes significant economic losses including deaths in newborn animals, retarded growth, increased labor involved and high cost of drugs. The detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in fecal samples is traditionally dependent on examination of stained slides by light microscope or by advanced microscopical tools such as: electron microscopy and phase contrast microscopy. Immunological diagnosis using either antibody or antigen detection could offer high sensitivity and specificity. Examples for these tests are Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), Immunochromatographic tests, Immunochromatographic lateral flow (ICLF), Immunofluorescence assays (IFA) and Flow cytometry coupled with cell sorting. Molecular methods could differentiate species and genotypes of Cryptosporidium and help in studying the epidemiological features of this parasite with rapid, simple and sensitive procedures. Nanotechnology-based platforms could improve the sensitivity and specificity of other detection methods like: ELISA, ICLF, IFA and polymerase chain reaction. As the available prophylactic and therapeutic drugs or natural products treatments are insufficient and no approved vaccines are available, the best approach to control this parasite is by following firm hygienic measures. Many vaccine attempts were performed using hyperimmune colostrum, live or attenuated vaccines, recombinant and Deoxyribonucleic acid vaccines. Also, Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats/Cas9 technology could help in Cryptosporidium genome editing to improve drug and vaccine discovery. Another approach that could be useful for assigning drug targets is metabolomics. Probiotics were also used successfully in the treatment of acute diarrhea and they proved a limiting effect on cryptosporidiosis in animal models. In addition, nanotherapy-based approaches could provide a good strategy for improving the potency of any type of drugs against Cryptosporidium and give good anti-cryptosporidial effects. In conclusion, accurate diagnosis using advanced techniques is the key to the control and prevention of cryptosporidiosis.

Huang Bai Jian Pi decoction alleviates diarrhea and represses inflammatory injury via PI3K/Akt/NF-κB pathway: In vivo and in vitro studies

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Huang Bai Jian Pi (HBJP) decoction, a Chinese herbal formula based on the Pulsatilla decoction (PD) and Si Junzi decoction, is efficacy to treat clinical diarrhea in calves.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The mechanism of HBJP decoction to treat calf diarrhea remains unclear. This study was to investigate the therapeutic effect and anti-inflammatory mechanism of HBJP decoction on diarrhea in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty-six Sprague Dawley rats were randomly divided into control group, model group, PD group and three treated groups with HBJP decoction. The diarrheal model in rats was established by multiple factors including high-sugar and fat diet, high temperature and dampness environment, biological pathogenic factors. The diarrheal animals were treated with HBJP decoction or PD for 5 days. The inflammatory model of the intestinal epithelioid cell line 6 (IEC-6) was induced by TNF-α. The clinical symptoms, blood routine and biochemistry parameters, histopathology of main organs were detected. The proteins associated with PI3K/Akt/NF-κB pathway and the expression levels of cytokines associated with inflammation were detected in vivo and in vitro by Western blot and ELISA.

RESULTS

The model rats showed obvious diarrheal symptoms, and the obvious systemic inflammatory response accompanied with abnormal change in blood routine, biochemistry parameters and histopathology. HBJP decoction alleviated obviously the clinical symptoms, and pathological changes of the liver, colon and lung, and abnormal blood routine and biochemistry indexes in rats. The expression of P-PI3K, P-Akt, P-NF-κB, IL-1β, IL-6 was significantly increased, and the expression of IL-10 was markedly decreased in diarrheal rats and IEC-6 with inflammation. HBJP decoction significantly inhibited the PI3K/AKT/NF-κB signal pathway and adjusted the expression of these inflammatory cytokines.

CONCLUSIONS

The finding suggested that HBJP decoction alleviate the inflammation in diarrhea through inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signal pathway, which provides scientific evidences for the clinical application of HBJP decoction in diarrhea.

Cryptosporidiosis

Cryptosporidiosis is a common cause of diarrhea among preweaned dairy calves. In the United States, the most common species of Cryptosporidium found in dairy calves is Cryptosporidium parvum, an important zoonotic species. Cryptosporidiosis is spread by fecal-oral transmission. Calves begin shedding the oocysts as early as 2 days of age, with peak shedding occurring at 14 days of age. Diarrhea generally starts 3 to 4 days after ingestion of the oocysts. Risk factors for the disease include large dairy farms, summer months, feeding of milk replacer, and early feeding of starter grain. Concrete flooring and appropriate cleaning of feeding utensils decreases the risk of disease.

Advances in therapeutic and vaccine targets for Cryptosporidium: Challenges and possible mitigation strategies

Cryptosporidium is known to be the second most common diarrheal pathogen in children, causing potentially fatal diarrhea and associated with long-term growth stunting and cognitive deficits. The only Food and Drug Administration-approved treatment for cryptosporidiosis is nitazoxanide, but this drug has not shown potentially effective results in susceptible hosts. Therefore, a safe and effective drug for cryptosporidiosis is urgently needed. Cryptosporidium genome sequencing analysis may help develop an effective drug, but both in vitro and in vivo approaches to drug evaluation are not fully standardized. On the other hand, the development of partial immunity after exposure suggests the possibility of a successful and effective vaccine, but protective surrogates are not precise. In this review, we present our current perspectives on novel cryptosporidiosis therapies, vaccine targets and efficacies, as well as potential mitigation plans, recommendations and perceived challenges.

Cross-Border Investigations on the Prevalence and Transmission Dynamics of Cryptosporidium Species in Dairy Cattle Farms in Western Mainland Europe

Cryptosporidium is an apicomplexan parasitic protist, which infects a wide range of hosts, causing cryptosporidiosis disease. In farms, the incidence of this disease is high in animals such as cows, leading to extensive economic loss in the livestock industry. Infected cows may also act as a major reservoir of Cryptosporidium spp., in particular C. parvum, the most common cause of cryptosporidiosis in these animals. This poses a risk to the trading of livestock, to other farms via breeding centres, and to human health. This study is a part of a global project aimed at strategies to tackle cryptosporidiosis. To reach this target, it was essential to determine whether prevalence was dependent on the studied countries or if the issue was borderless. Indeed, C. parvum occurrence was assessed across dairy farms in certain regions of Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. At the same time, the animal-to-animal transmission of the circulating C. parvum subtypes was studied. To accomplish this, we analysed 1084 faecal samples, corresponding to 57 dairy farms from all three countries. To this end, 18S rRNA and gp60 genes fragments were amplified, followed by DNA sequencing, which was subsequently used for detection and subtyping C. parvum. Bioinformatic and phylogenetic methods were integrated to analyse and characterise the obtained DNA sequences. Our results show 25.7%, 24.9% and 20.8% prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in Belgium, France, and the Netherlands respectively. Overall, 93% of the farms were Cryptosporidium positive. The gp60 subtyping demonstrated a significant number of the C. parvum positives belonged to the IIa allelic family, which has been also identified in humans. Therefore, this study highlights how prevalent C. parvum is in dairy farms and further suggests cattle as a possible carrier of zoonotic C. parvum subtypes, which could pose a threat to human health.