Single-Atom Fe-N4 Sites for Catalytic Ozonation to Selectively Induce a Nonradical Pathway toward Wastewater Purification

Unveiling the environmental sustainability of Ti4O7 electrified membrane for perfluorooctanoic acid removal

Emerging electrified membrane (EM) technology offers an efficient approach for decentralized water purification. However, EM currently faces the challenge of unknown environmental sustainability, which presents a critical knowledge gap impeding its scale-up implementation. In this work, we aim to explore the environmental impacts of EM technology via a "cradle-to-grave" life cycle assessment, benchmarked against sequential ultrafiltration-nanofiltration. Our study found that the current EM technology shows higher greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (19.70 kgCO2e g-1) than ultrafiltration-nanofiltration (8.60 kgCO2e g-1) for micropollutants removal. Electro-filtration operation dominates the total environmental impacts of EM process, driven primarily by the supporting electrolyte and electricity consumption. Notably, transitioning to greener electrolytes at lower concentrations can reduce GHG emissions by up to 66%, while switching to low-carbon-grid electricity through renewable energy sources will achieve a 33% reduction. Overall, this work enhances understanding of the environmental impacts of EM technology, emphasizing electrolyte optimization and carbon-intensity-reduction of electricity as critical factors for its sustainable development.

Synchronization Strategy for Activity and Stability in Fenton-Like Single-Atom Catalysis

Single-atom catalysts (SACs) have garnered significant attention in the applications of environmental remediation based on Fenton-like systems. Current research on Fenton-like single-atom catalysis often emphasizes catalytic activity and mechanism regulation, while paying limited attention to the simultaneous enhancement of both activity and stability-a critical factor for the practical and scale-up applications of SACs. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in synchronization strategies for improving the activity and stability of Fenton-like single-atom catalysis, with a focus on the design principles and mechanisms of four key strategies: coordination engineering, confinement effects, carrier substitution, and catalytic module design. To the best of knowledge, this represents the first comprehensive review of Fenton-like single-atom catalysis from the perspective of concurrent optimization of activity and stability. Additionally, the auxiliary role of machine learning and lifecycle assessment (LCA) is evaluated in advancing these synchronization strategies. By investigating the interplay among different support materials, coordination configurations, and reaction environments, as well as enlarged modules, key factors governing the stability/activity of SACs are highlighted, and future directions are proposed for developing next-generation catalysts with high efficiency and long-term durability for practical environmental remediation.

Isotope Techniques in Chemical Wastewater Treatment: Opportunities and Uncertainties

A comprehensive and in-depth analysis of reaction mechanisms is essential for advancing chemical water treatment technologies. However, due to the limitations of conventional experimental and analytical methods, the types of reactive species and their generation pathways are commonly debatable in many aqueous systems. As highly sensitive diagnostic tools, isotope techniques offer deeper insights with minimal interference from reaction conditions. Nevertheless, precise interpretations of isotope results remain a significant challenge. Herein, we first scrutinized the fundamentals of isotope chemistry and highlighted key changes induced by the isotope substitution. Next, we discussed the application of isotope techniques in kinetic isotope effects, presenting a roadmap for interpreting KIE in sophisticated systems. Furthermore, we summarized the applications of isotope techniques in elemental tracing to pinpoint reaction sites and identify dominant reactive species. Lastly, we propose future research directions, highlighting critical considerations for the rational design and interpretation of isotope experiments in environmental chemistry and related fields.

Hierarchical Porous Composite Carbon Microsphere Superstructures Based on D-p Orbital Hybridization for Efficient Capture of Low-Concentration Cs. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2025:e2409054. [PMID: 40296320 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202409054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0]

The limitation of diffusion kinetics affects the adsorption performance of porous materials. Hierarchical porous structure is one of the effective strategies to solve this problem. However, it is a challenge to construct macro-microporous orderly hierarchical structures to maximize material performance. In this work, three orderly hierarchical porous composite carbon microsphere superstructures are prepared self-assembled from nanoscale primary particles by microfluidic technology, which overcame the kinetic limitation and enhanced the adsorption performance. The surface microenvironment of these superstructures is regulated by different transition metals with varying numbers of d-orbital electrons. These hierarchical pore structures and effective d-p orbital hybridization enabled the composite carbon microsphere superstructures to efficiently capture low-concentration cesium ions, of which the highest adsorption capacity is 5 times that of non-metal carbon microsphere superstructures. This strategy provides a potential approach for precisely controlling the surface microenvironment of materials.

Enhanced catalytic ozonation via FeBi bimetallic catalyst: Unveiling the role of zero-valent Bi as an oxygen vacancy-mediated electron reservoir

A series of bimetallic carbon catalysts (FeM@C, M = Bi, Ce, Co, Ni, Mn) were synthesized via pyrolysis of metal-organic framework (MOF) precursors, among which FeBi@C exhibits exceptional catalytic ozonation performance, achieving 90.73 % oxalic acid removal within 30 min and retaining 84 % of its initial activity over eight consecutive cycles. Advanced characterizations, including EPR, and in-situ Raman spectroscopy, revealed that oxygen vacancies (OV) serve as active sites for ozone adsorption, leading to the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and ≡ Fe-O-O- peroxo intermediates. The post-reaction XPS analysis indicated significant shifts in binding energies and changes in the proportions of oxygen species, revealing the unique Fe-Bi synergy. The Fe2p spectra showed a decrease in Fe2+ content and a negative shift in binding energy, indicating an active Fe2+/Fe3+ redox cycle. The Bi4f spectra confirmed the presence of zero-valent Bi, which acts as an "electron reservoir", continuously donating electrons to enhance Fe2+/Fe3+ redox cycle and promote ozone activation. This unique mechanism, where zero-valent Bi sustains the electron transfer cycle, significantly enhances both the catalytic efficiency and long-term stability of the FeBi@C system, distinguishing it from conventional bimetallic catalysts. This work provides a novel strategy for designing high-performance catalysts for environmental remediation.

Precise manipulation of iron spin states in single-atom catalytic membranes for singlet oxygen selective production

Heterogeneous single-atom catalysts are attracting substantial attention for selectively generating singlet oxygen (1O2). However, precise manipulation of atom coordination structures remains challenging. Here, the fine coordination structure of iron single-atom carbon-nitride catalysts (Fe-CNs) was manipulated by precisely tuning the heating rate with 1 °C min-1 difference. Multiple techniques in combination with density functional theory (DFT) calculations reveal that FeN6 coordination sites with high Fe spin states promote the adsorption, electron transfer, and dissociation of peroxymonosulfate (PMS), resulting in nearly 100% selection of 1O2 generation. A lamellar single atom catalytic membrane is constructed, exhibiting high permeance, high degradation, high-salinity resistance and sustained operation stability. This work provides ideas for regulating spin states of the metal site to fabricate catalysts with selective 1O2 generation for membrane separation and environment catalysis applications.

Weakening the Mn-O-Si Interaction via Carbon Intercalation for the Enhanced Catalytic Ozonation of Refractory Pollutants in Environmental Matrices

The strong metal-support interaction (MSI) has been widely attributed to enhanced catalytic activity. However, this attribution might be wrong in catalytic ozonation, since MSI that is too strong might impede the activation of electron-poor ozone molecules. Herein, we reported a strategy to subtly modulate the Mn-O-Si interaction by intercalating the carbon film between the silica support and active manganese oxide. When using MnOx/0.5C/SiO2 with the moderate MSI as a catalyst in the catalytic ozonation of refractory paracetamol (PCM), 91.1 ± 2.4% of PCM was removed within 30 min, about 30% higher than that using the catalyst of MnOx/SiO2 with a strong MSI. Moreover, the reaction rate reached 8.01 × 10-2 min-1, 2.2 and 1.3 times that with MnOx/SiO2 and MnOx/1C/SiO2, respectively. Importantly, further integration of MnOx/0.5C/SiO2 into membrane filtration achieved high rejections of PCM (>94.3%) under various realistic water scenarios during a continuous 12 h operation, demonstrating strong resistance to environmental matrices interference. Experimental and theoretical evidence revealed that the moderate MSI resulted in the high dispersion of active MnOx nanoclusters in the size of 2.3-4.4 nm and promoted the adsorption of ozone over MnOx and its dissociation into surface *O, •OH, •O2-, and 1O2 for decontamination. As a constructive work, this study revealed the significance of MSI in catalytic ozonation and offered a simple regulation method for constructing active interfaces of metal-supported catalysts.

Mn-Fe Dual-Metal Assemblages on Carbon-Coated Al2O3 Spheres for Catalytic Ozonation Oxidation: Structure, Performance, and Reaction Mechanism

Catalysts with high catalytic activity and low production cost are important for industrial application of heterogeneous catalytic ozonation (HCO). In this study, we designed a carbon-coated aluminum oxide carrier (C-Al2O3) and reinforced it with Mn-Fe bimetal assemblages to prepare a high-performance catalyst Mn-Fe/C-Al2O3. The results showed that the carbon embedding significantly improved the abundance of surface oxygen functional groups, conductivity, and adsorption capacity of γ-Al2O3, while preserving its exceptional mechanical strength as a carrier. The prepared Mn-Fe/C-Al2O3 catalyst exhibited satisfactory catalytic ozonation activity and stability in the degradation of p-nitrophenol (PNP). Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and quenching experiments reveal that radical ( ⋅ OH and ⋅ O2 ⋅ ) and nonradical oxidation (1O2) dominated the PNP degradation process. Theoretical calculations corroborated that the anchored atomic Fe and Mn sites regulated the local electronic structure of the catalyst. This modulation effectively promoted the activation of O3 molecules, resulting in the generation of atomic oxygen species (AOS) and reactive oxygen species (ROS). The economic analysis on Mn-Fe/C-Al2O3 revealed that it was a cost-competitive catalyst for HCO. This study not only deepens the understanding on the reaction mechanism of HCO with transition metal/carbon composite catalysts, also provides a high-performance and cost-competitive ozone catalyst for prospective application.

Upcycling Iron Oxide Scale Slag into a High-Performance, Sustainable Ozone Catalyst

Upcycling iron slag into a monolithic catalyst has led to low-cost heterogeneous catalytic ozonation (HCO) strategies for water treatment. The primary industrial challenges are the low chemical oxygen demand (COD) reduction rate in treating authentic wastewater and difficulties sustaining close-loop reaction cycles. In this study, we present a monolithic catalyst transformed from low-cost iron oxide scale slag (IOSM) for highly efficient, sustainable ozone catalysis. The IOSM, constituted of 59.70 % Fe2O3 and 40.30 % Fe3O4, effectively decomposes ozone into superoxide radicals (⋅O2 -) through a close-loop cyclic reaction facilitated by interfacial charge transfer. This mechanism enables super-fast degradation of 100 mg L-1 tetracycline at ozone concentrations below 1.00 mg L-1 in just four minutes, with the iron leaching merely at 59 μg L-1 after 10 cycles. In tests with authentic antibiotic wastewater, the IOSM-based HCO system achieves a record-breaking 81.70 % COD reduction within two hours. This research underscores the potential of upcycling industrial waste into highly effective ozone catalysts for sustainable practices in wastewater treatment.

N-coordinated iron sites dispersed in porous carbon frameworks to activate peroxymonosulfate for efficient sulfisoxazole degradation and real hospital wastewater decontamination

Herein, an N-coordinated Fe site dispersed in porous carbon frameworks (Fe-NC) fabricated from zeolitic imidazolate frameworks encapsulated with iron acetylacetonate (Fe(acac)3 @ZIFs) was employed to activate peroxymonosulfate (PMS) for the attenuation of sulfisoxazole (SIZ) and treating real hospital wastewater. The constructed Fe-NC/PMS system exhibited good catalytic stability for SIZ degradation, maintaining excellent degradation performance over multiple cycles with virtually no leaching. The quenching experiments, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) capture analyses, and semi-quantitative measurements showed that singlet oxygen (1O2) and high-valent metal-oxo species were mainly responsible for SIZ degradation by Fe-NC/PMS. Significantly, ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS) was used to trace 134 pharmaceutical contaminants in real hospital wastewater. Effective degradation was achieved for 87 % of the pharmaceutical contaminants by the Fe-NC/PMS process. Seventy-four pharmaceutical contaminants were eliminated. Taken together, this work successfully established the Fe-NC/PMS technology using the developed iron-based materials and explored its application to real hospital wastewater treatment, providing an eco-friendly and effective strategy for treating wastewater.

Lattice-Confined Single-Atom Catalyst: Preparation, Application and Electron Regulation Mechanism

Lattice-confined single-atom catalyst (LC SAC), featuring exceptional activity, intriguing stability and prominent selectivity, has attracted extensive attention in the fields of various reactions (e.g., hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), oxygen evolution reaction (OER), oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), etc.). To design a "smart" LC SAC for catalytic applications, one must systematically comprehend updated advances in the preparation, the application, and especially the peculiar electron regulation mechanism of LC SAC. In this review, the specific preparation methods of LC SAC based on general coordination strategy are updated, and its applications in HER, OER, ORR, N2 reduction reaction (NRR), advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) and so forth are summarized to display outstanding activity, stability and selectivity. Uniquely, the electron regulation mechanisms are first and deeply discussed and can be primarily categorized as electron transfer bridge with monometallic active sites, novel catalytic centers with polymetallic active sites, and positive influence by surrounding environments. In the end, the existing issues and future development directions are put forward with a view to further optimize the performance of LC SAC. This review is expected to contribute to the in-depth understanding and practical application of highly efficient LC SAC.

Facilely tuning the coating layers of Fe nanoparticles from iron carbide to iron nitride for different performance in Fenton-like reactions

In this study, a series of Fe-based materials are facilely synthesized using MIL-88A and melamine as precursors. Changing the mass ratio of melamine and MIL-88A could tune the coating layers of generated zero-valent iron (Fe0) particles from Fe3C to Fe3N facilely. Compared to Fe/Fe3N@NC sample, Fe/Fe3C@NC exhibits better catalytic activity and stability to degrade carbamazepine (CBZ) with peroxymonosulfate (PMS) as oxidant. Free radical quenching tests, open-circuit potential (OCP) test and electron paramagnetic resonance spectra (EPR) prove that hydroxyl radicals (OH) and superoxide radical (O2-) are dominant reactive oxygen species (ROSs) with Fe/Fe3C@NC sample. For Fe/Fe3N@NC sample, the main ROSs are changed into sulfate radicals (SO4-) and high valent iron-oxo (Fe (IV)=O) species. In addition, the better conductivity of Fe3C is beneficial for the electron transfer from Fe0 to the Fe3C, thus could keep the activity of the surface sites and obtain better stability. DFT calculation reveals the better adsorption and activation ability of Fe3C than Fe3N. Moreover, PMS can also be adsorbed on the Fe sites of Fe3N with shorter FeO bonds and longer SO bonds than on Fe3C, the Fe (IV)=O is thus present in the Fe/Fe3N@NC/PMS system. This study provides a novel strategy for the development of highly active Fe-based materials for Fenton-like reactions and thus could promote their real application.

Non-radical oxidation driven by iron-based materials without energy assistance in wastewater treatment

Chemical oxidation is extensively utilized to mitigate the impact of organic pollutants in wastewater. The non-radical oxidation driven by iron-based materials is noted for its environmental friendliness and resistance to wastewater matrix, and it is a promising approach for practical wastewater treatment. However, the complexity of heterogeneous systems and the diversity of evolutionary pathways make the mechanisms of non-radical oxidation driven by iron-based materials elusive. This work provides a systematic review of various non-radical oxidation systems driven by iron-based materials, including singlet oxygen (1O2), reactive iron species (RFeS), and interfacial electron transfer. The unique mechanisms by which iron-based materials activate different oxidants (ozone, hydrogen peroxide, persulfate, periodate, and peracetic acid) to produce non-radical oxidation are described. The roles of active sites and the unique structures of iron-based materials in facilitating non-radical oxidation are discussed. Commonly employed identification methods in wastewater treatment are compared, such as quenching, chemical probes, spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and electrochemical testing. According to the process of iron-based materials driving non-radical oxidation to remove organic pollutants, the driving factors at different stages are summarized. Finally, challenges and countermeasures are proposed in terms of mechanism exploration, detection methods and practical applications of non-radical oxidation driven by iron-based materials. This work provides valuable insights for understanding and developing non-radical oxidation systems.

High-efficient M-NC single-atom catalysts for catalytic ozonation in water purification: Performance and mechanisms

Heterogeneous catalytic ozonation (HCO) holds promise in water purification but suffers from limited accessible metal sites, metal leaching, and unclear structure-activity relationships. This work reported M-NC (M=Co, Ni, Fe, and Mn) single-atom catalysts (SACs) with high atomic efficiency and minimal metal release. The new HCO systems, especially the Co-based system, exhibited impressive performance in various refractory contaminant removal, involving various reactive species generation, such as •OHads, •OHfree, *O, and 1O2. For sulfamethoxazole removal, the normalized kobs for Co-NC, Ni-NC, Fe-NC, and Mn-NC were determined as 13.53, 3.94, 3.55, and 4.13 min-1·mMmetal-1·g·m-2 correspondingly, attributed to the abundant acid sites, faster electron transfer, and lower energy required for O3 decomposition and conversion. The metal atoms and hydroxyl groups, individually serving as Lewis and Bronsted acid sites (LAS and BAS), were the primary centers for •OH generation and O3 adsorption. The relationships between active sites and both O3 utilization and •OH generation were found. LAS and BAS were responsible for O3 adsorption, while strong LAS facilitated O3 conversion into •OH. Theoretical calculations revealed the catalytic mechanisms involved O3→ *O→ *OO→ O3•-→ •OH. This work highlights the significance of SAC design for HCO and advances the understanding of atomic-level HCO behavior.

Enhanced Photocatalytic Ozonation Using Modified TiO2 With Designed Nucleophilic and Electrophilic Sites

Photocatalytic ozonation is considered to be a promising approach for the treatment of refractory organic pollutants, but the design of efficient catalyst remains a challenge. Surface modification provides a potential strategy to improve the activity of photocatalytic ozonation. In this work, density functional theory (DFT) calculations were first performed to check the interaction between O3 and TiO2-OH (surface hydroxylated TiO2) or TiO2-F (surface fluorinated TiO2), and the results suggest that TiO2-OH displays better O3 adsorption and activation than does TiO2-F, which is confirmed by experimental results. The surface hydroxyl groups greatly promote the O3 activation, which is beneficial for the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Importantly, TiO2-OH displays better performance towards pollutants (such as berberine hydrochloride) removal than does TiO2-F and most reported ozonation photocatalysts. The total organic carbon (TOC) removal efficiency reaches 84.4 % within two hours. This work highlights the effect of surface hydroxylation on photocatalytic ozonation and provides ideas for the design of efficient photocatalytic ozonation catalysts.

Advanced Characterization Techniques and Theoretical Calculation for Single Atom Catalysts in Fenton-like Chemistry

Single-atom catalysts (SACs) have attracted extensive attention due to their unique catalytic properties and wide range of applications. Advanced characterization techniques, such as energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy, have been used to investigate the elemental compositions, structural morphologies, and chemical bonding states of SACs in detail, aiming at unraveling the catalytic mechanism. Meanwhile, theoretical calculations, such as quantum chemical calculations and kinetic simulations, were used to predict the catalytic reaction pathways, active sites, and reaction kinetic behaviors of SACs, providing theoretical guidance for the design and optimization of SACs. This review overviews advanced characterization techniques and theoretical calculations for SACs in Fenton-like chemistry. Moreover, this work highlights the importance of advanced characterization techniques and theoretical calculations in the study of SACs and provides perspectives on the potential applications of SACs in the field of environmental remediation and the challenges of practical engineering.

Iron single atoms anchored on ultrathin carbon nitride photocatalyst for visible light-driven water decontamination

Graphitic carbon nitride has gained considerable attention as a visible-light photocatalyst. However, its photocatalytic efficiency is restricted by its limited capacity for absorbing visible light and swift recombination of charge carriers. To overcome this bottleneck, we fabricated an atomic Fe-dispersed ultrathin carbon nitride (Fe-UTCN) photocatalyst via one-step thermal polymerization. Fe-UTCN showed high efficiency in the photodegradation of acetaminophen (APAP), achieving > 90 % elimination within 60-min visible light irradiation. The anchoring of Fe atoms improved the photocatalytic activity of UTCN by narrowing the bandgap from 2.50 eV to 2.33 eV and suppressing radiative recombination. Calculations by density functional theory revealed that the Fe-N4 sites (adsorption energy of - 3.10 eV) were preferred over the UTCN sites (adsorption energy of - 0.18 eV) for the adsorption of oxygen and the subsequent formation of O2•-, the dominant reactive species in the degradation of APAP. Notably, the Fe-UTCN catalyst exhibited good stability after five successive runs and was applicable to complex water matrices. Therefore, Fe-UTCN, a noble-metal-free photocatalyst, is a promising candidate for visible light-driven water decontamination.

Optimization of Carbon-Defect Engineering to Boost Catalytic Ozonation Efficiency of Single Fe─N4 Coordination Motif

Carbon-defect engineering in single-atom metal-nitrogen-carbon (M─N─C) catalysts by straightforward and robust strategy, enhancing their catalytic activity for volatile organic compounds, and uncovering the carbon vacancy-catalytic activity relationship are meaningful but challenging. In this study, an iron-nitrogen-carbon (Fe─N─C) catalyst is intentionally designed through a carbon-thermal-diffusion strategy, exposing extensively the carbon-defective Fe─N4 sites within a micro-mesoporous carbon matrix. The optimization of Fe─N4 sites results in exceptional catalytic ozonation efficiency, surpassing that of intact Fe─N4 sites and commercial MnO2 by 10 and 312 times, respectively. Theoretical calculations and experimental data demonstrated that carbon-defect engineering induces selective cleavage of C─N bond neighboring the Fe─N4 motif. This induces an increase in non-uniform charges and Fermi density, leading to elevated energy levels at the center of Fe d-band. Compared to the intact atomic configuration, carbon-defective Fe─N4 site is more activated to strengthen the interaction with O3 and weaken the O─O bond, thereby reducing the barriers for highly active surface atomic oxygen (*O/*OO), ultimately achieving efficient oxidation of CH3SH and its intermediates. This research not only offers a viable approach to enhance the catalytic ozonation activity of M─N─C but also advances the fundamental comprehension of how periphery carbon environment influences the characteristics and efficacy of M─N4 sites.

Nanoscale Sequential Reactor Design Achieves Effective Removal of Disinfection Byproduct Precursors in Catalytic Ozonation

Transforming dissolved organic matter (DOM) is a crucial approach to alleviating the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in water treatment. Although catalytic ozonation effectively transforms DOM, increases in DBP formation potential are often observed due to the accumulation of aldehydes, ketones, and nitro compound intermediates during DOM transformation. In this study, we propose a novel strategy for the sequential oxidation of DOM, effectively reducing the levels of accumulation of these intermediates. This is achieved through the development of a catalyst with a tailored surface and nanoconfined active sites for catalytic ozonation. The catalyst features a unique confinement structure, wherein Mn-N4 moieties are uniformly anchored on the catalyst surface and within nanopores (5-20 Å). This design enables the degradation of the large molecular weight fraction of DOM on the catalyst surface, while the transformed smaller molecular weight fraction enters the nanopores and undergoes rapid degradation due to the confinement effect. The generation of *Oad as the dominant reactive species is essential for effectively reducing these ozone refractory intermediates. This resulted in over 70% removal of carbonaceous and nitrogenous DBP precursors as well as brominated DBP precursors. This study highlights the importance of the nanoscale sequential reactor design and provides new insights into eliminating DBP precursors by the catalytic ozonation process.

Size-Dependent Catalysis in Fenton-like Chemistry: From Nanoparticles to Single Atoms

State-of-the-art Fenton-like reactions are crucial in advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for water purification. This review explores the latest advancements in heterogeneous metal-based catalysts within AOPs, covering nanoparticles (NPs), single-atom catalysts (SACs), and ultra-small atom clusters. A distinct connection between the physical properties of these catalysts, such as size, degree of unsaturation, electronic structure, and oxidation state, and their impacts on catalytic behavior and efficacy in Fenton-like reactions. In-depth comparative analysis of metal NPs and SACs is conducted focusing on how particle size variations and metal-support interactions affect oxidation species and pathways. The review highlights the cutting-edge characterization techniques and theoretical calculations, indispensable for deciphering the complex electronic and structural characteristics of active sites in downsized metal particles. Additionally, the review underscores innovative strategies for immobilizing these catalysts onto membrane surfaces, offering a solution to the inherent challenges of powdered catalysts. Recent advances in pilot-scale or engineering applications of Fenton-like-based devices are also summarized for the first time. The paper concludes by charting new research directions, emphasizing advanced catalyst design, precise identification of reactive oxygen species, and in-depth mechanistic studies. These efforts aim to enhance the application potential of nanotechnology-based AOPs in real-world wastewater treatment.

Catalytic ozonation of reverse osmosis concentrate from coking wastewater reuse by surface oxidation over Mn-Ce/γ-Al2O3: Effluent organic matter transformation and its catalytic mechanism

Degradation of organics in high-salinity wastewater is beneficial to meeting the requirement of zero liquid discharge for coking wastewater treatment. Creating efficient and stable performance catalysts for high-salinity wastewater treatment is vital in catalytic ozonation process. Compared with ozonation alone, Mn and Ce co-doped γ-Al2O3 could remarkably enhance activities of catalytic ozonation for chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal (38.9%) of brine derived from a two-stage reverse osmosis treatment. Experimental and theoretical calculation results indicate that introducing Mn could increase the active points of catalyst surface, and introducing Ce could optimize d-band electronic structures and promote the electron transport capacity, enhancing HO• bound to the catalyst surface ([HO•]ads) generation. [HO•]ads plays key roles for degrading the intermediates and transfer them into low molecular weight organics, and further decrease COD, molecular weights and number of organics in reverse osmosis concentrate. Under the same reaction conditions, the presence of Mn/γ-Al2O3 catalyst can reduce ΔO3/ΔCOD by at least 37.6% compared to ozonation alone. Furthermore, Mn-Ce/γ-Al2O3 catalytic ozonation can reduce the ΔO3/ΔCOD from 2.6 of Mn/γ-Al2O3 catalytic ozonation to 0.9 in the case of achieving similar COD removal. Catalytic ozonation has the potential to treat reverse osmosis concentrate derived from bio-treated coking wastewater reclamation.

The "4 + 1" strategy fabrication of iron single-atom catalysts with selective high-valent iron-oxo species generation

Single-atom catalysts (SACs) with atomic dispersion active sites have exhibited huge potentials in peroxymonosulfate (PMS)-based Fenton-like chemistry in water purification. However, four-N coordination metal (MN4) moieties often suffer from such problems as low selectivity and narrow workable pH. How to construct SACs in a controllable strategy with optimized electronic structures is of great challenge. Herein, an innovative strategy (i.e., the "4 + 1" fabrication) was devised to precisely modulate the first-shell coordinated microenvironment of FeN4 SAC using an additional N (SA-FeN5). This leads to almost 100% selective formation of high-valent iron-oxo [Fe(IV)═O] (steady-state concentration: 2.00 × 10-8 M) in the SA-FeN5/PMS system. In-depth theoretical calculations unveil that FeN5 configuration optimizes the electron distribution of monatomic Fe sites, which thus fosters PMS adsorption and reduces the energy barrier for Fe(IV)═O generation. SA-FeN5 was then attached to polyvinylidene difluoride membrane for a continuous flow device, showing long-term abatement of the microcontaminant. This work furnishes a general strategy for effective PMS activation and selective high-valent metal-oxo species generation by high N-coordination number regulation in SACs, which would provide guidance in the rational design of superior environmental catalysts for water purification.

The interplay of hematite and photic biofilm triggers the acceleration of biotic nitrate removal

The soil-water interface is replete with photic biofilm and iron minerals; however, the potential of how iron minerals promote biotic nitrate removal is still unknown. This study investigates the physiological and ecological responses of photic biofilm to hematite (Fe2O3), in order to explore a practically feasible approach for in-situ nitrate removal. The nitrate removal by photic biofilm was significantly higher in the presence of Fe2O3 (92.5%) compared to the control (82.8%). Results show that the presence of Fe2O3 changed the microbial community composition of the photic biofilm, facilitates the thriving of Magnetospirillum and Pseudomonas, and promotes the growth of photic biofilm represented by the extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) and the content of chlorophyll. The presence of Fe2O3 also induces oxidative stress (•O2-) in the photic biofilm, which was demonstrated by electron spin resonance spectrometry. However, the photic biofilm could improve the EPS productivity to prevent the entrance of Fe2O3 to cells in the biofilm matrix and mitigate oxidative stress. The Fe2O3 then promoted the relative abundance of Magnetospirillum and Pseudomonas and the activity of nitrate reductase, which accelerates nitrate reduction by the photic biofilm. This study provides an insight into the interaction between iron minerals and photic biofilm and demonstrates the possibility of combining biotic and abiotic methods to improve the in-situ nitrate removal rate.

Synergetic Manipulation Mechanism of Single-Atom M-N4 and M-OH (M = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni) Sites for Ozone Activation: Theoretical Prediction and Experimental Verification

Carbon-based single-atom catalysts (SACs) have been gradually introduced in heterogeneous catalytic ozonation (HCO), but the interface mechanism of O3 activation on the catalyst surface is still ambiguous, especially the effect of a surface hydroxyl group (M-OH) at metal sites. Herein, we combined theoretical calculations with experimental verifications to comprehensively investigate the O3 activation mechanisms on a series of conventional SAC structures with N-doped nanocarbon substrates (MN4-NCs, where M = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni). The synergetic manipulation effect of the metal atom and M-OH on O3 activation pathways was paid particular attention. O3 tends to directly interact with the metal atom on MnN4-NC, FeN4-NC, and NiN4-NC catalysts, among which MnN4-NC has the best catalytic activity for its relatively lower activation energy barrier of O3 (0.62 eV) and more active surface-adsorbed oxygen species (Oads). On the CoN4-NC catalyst, direct interaction of O3 with the metal site is energetically infeasible, but O3 can be activated to generate Oads or HO2 species from direct or indirect participation of M-OH sites. The experimental results showed that 90.7 and 82.3% of total organic carbon (TOC) was removed within 40 min during catalytic ozonation of p-hydroxybenzoic acid with MnN4-NC and CoN4-NC catalysts, respectively. Phosphate quenching, catalyst characterization, and EPR measurement further supported the theoretical prediction. This contribution provides fundamental insights into the O3 activation mechanism on SACs, and the methods and ideals could be helpful for future studies of environmental catalysis.

Precisely constructing orbital coupling-modulated iron dinuclear site for enhanced catalytic ozonation performance

The advancement of atomically precise dinuclear heterogeneous catalysts holds great potential in achieving efficient catalytic ozonation performance and contributes to the understanding of synergy mechanisms during reaction conditions. Herein, we demonstrate a "ship-in-a-bottle and pyrolysis" strategy that utilizes Fe2(CO)9 dinuclear-cluster to precisely construct Fe2 site, consisting of two Fe1-N3 units connected by Fe-Fe bonds and firmly bonded to N-doped carbon. Systematic characterizations and theoretical modeling reveal that the Fe-Fe coordination motif markedly reduced the devotion of the antibonding state in the Fe-O bond because of the strong orbital coupling interaction of dual Fe d-d orbitals. This facilitates O-O covalent bond cleavage of O3 and enhances binding strength with reaction intermediates (atomic oxygen species; *O and *OO), thus boosting catalytic ozonation performance. As a result, Fe dinuclear site catalyst exhibits 100% ozonation efficiency for CH3SH elimination, outperforming commercial MnO2 catalysts by 1,200-fold. This research provides insights into the atomic-level structure-activity relationship of ozonation catalysts and extends the use of dinuclear catalysts in catalytic ozonation and beyond.

Understanding the Distance Effect of the Single-Atom Active Sites in Fenton-Like Reactions for Efficient Water Remediation

Emerging single-atom catalysts (SACs) are promising in water remediation through Fenton-like reactions. Despite the notable enhancement of catalytic activity through increasing the density of single-atom active sites, the performance improvement is not solely attributed to the increase in the number of active sites. The variation of catalytic behaviors stemming from the increased atomic density is particularly elusive and deserves an in-depth study. Herein, single-atom Fe catalysts (FeSA-CN) with different distances (dsite) between the adjacent single-atom Fe sites are constructed by controlling Fe loading. With the decrease in dsite value, remarkably enhanced catalytic activity of FeSA-CN is realized via the electron transfer regime with peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activation. The decrease in dsite value promotes electronic communication and further alters the electronic structure in favor of PMS activation. Moreover, the two adjacent single-atom Fe sites collectively adsorb PMS and achieve single-site desorption of the PMS decomposition products, maintaining continuous PMS activation and contaminant removal. Moreover, the FeSA-CN/PMS system exhibits excellent anti-interference performance for various aquatic systems and good durability in continuous-flow experiments, indicating its great potential for water treatment applications. This study provides an in-depth understanding of the distance effect of single-atom active sites on water remediation by designing densely populated SACs.

2D-Like Catalyst with a Micro-nanolinked Functional Surface for Water Purification

In water purification, the performance of heterogeneous advanced oxidation processes significantly relies upon the utilization of the catalyst's specific surface area (SSA). However, the presence of the structural "dead volume" and pore-size-induced diffusion-reaction trade-off limitation restricts the functioning of the SSA. Here, we reported an effective approach to make the best SSA by changing the traditional 3D spherule catalyst into a 2D-like form and creating an in situ micro-nanolinked structure. Thus, a 2D-like catalyst was obtained which was characterized by a mini "paddy field" surface, and it exhibited a sharply decreased dead volume, a highly available SSA and oriented flexibility. Given its paddy-field-like mass-transfer routine, the organic capture capability was 7.5-fold higher than that of the catalyst with mesopores only. Moreover, such a catalyst exhibited a record-high O3-to-·OH transition rate of 2.86 × 10-8 compared with reported millimetric catalysts (metal base), which contributed to a 6.12-fold higher total organic removal per catalyst mass than traditional 3D catalysts. The facile scale preparation, performance stability, and significant material savings with the 2D-like catalyst were also beneficial for practical applications. Our findings provide a unique and general approach for designing potential catalysts with excellent performance in water purification.

Degradation of atrazine by electro-peroxone enhanced by Fe and N co-doped carbon nanotubes with simultaneous catalysis of H2O2 and O3

Fe and N co-doped carbon nanotubes (Fe-N-CNT) was synthesized and attempted as efficient heterogeneous catalysts for simultaneous catalysis of H2O2 and O3 to improve electro-peroxone (Fe-N-CNT/EP) process efficiency for atrazine (ATZ) degradation. The removal and mineralization of ATZ was significantly enhanced, obtaining the degradation rate constant (k) by Fe-N-CNT/EP (0.23 min-1) about two times that of EP (0.12 min-1) owing to the formation of Fe0 and Fe-N coordination in Fe-N-CNT catalyst for co-catalysis of H2O2 and O3. The important factors such as applied current and ozone concentration were investigated, demonstrating that the optimized performance could be achieved at current of 30 mA and ozone concentration of 55 mg L-1. The oxidation capacity of Fe-N-CNT/EP maintained stably under wide pH range of 3∼7, obtaining the degradation rate constant 1.23-1.92 times that of EP and overcoming the defect of EP at acidic and neutral conditions. Capture experiments and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) experiments verified that .OH, generated by accelerating decomposition of H2O2/O3 and peroxone reaction, was the dominant active specie in Fe-N-CNT/EP. Besides, Fe-N-CNT showed high catalytic activity and good stability during six cycles. This work provides an efficient activator for enhanced EP process, exhibiting a promising prospect for water and wastewater purification.

Singlet oxygen in the removal of organic pollutants: An updated review on the degradation pathways based on mass spectrometry and DFT calculations

The degradation of pollutants by a non-radical pathway involving singlet oxygen (1O2) is highly relevant in advanced oxidation processes. Photosensitizers, modified photocatalysts, and activated persulfates can generate highly selective 1O2 in the medium. The selective reaction of 1O2 with organic pollutants results in the evolution of different intermediate products. While these products can be identified using mass spectrometry (MS) techniques, predicting a proper degradation mechanism in a 1O2-based process is still challenging. Earlier studies utilized MS techniques in the identification of intermediate products and the mechanism was proposed with the support of theoretical calculations. Although some reviews have been reported on the generation of 1O2 and its environmental applications, a proper review of the degradation mechanism by 1O2 is not yet available. Hence, we reviewed the possible degradation pathways of organic contaminants in 1O2-mediated oxidation with the support of density functional theory (DFT). The Fukui function (FF, f-, f+, and f0), HOMO-LUMO energies, and Gibbs free energies obtained using DFT were used to identify the active site in the molecule and the degradation mechanism, respectively. Electrophilic addition, outer sphere type single electron transfer (SET), and addition to the hetero atoms are the key mechanisms involved in the degradation of organic contaminants by 1O2. Since environmental matrices contain several contaminants, it is difficult to experiment with all contaminants to identify their intermediate products. Therefore, the DFT studies are useful for predicting the intermediate compounds during the oxidative removal of the contaminants, especially for complex composition wastewater.

Revisit the Role of Salinity in Heterogeneous Catalytic Ozonation: The Trade-Off between Reaction Inhibition and Mass Transfer Enhancement

Heterogeneous catalytic ozonation (HCO) is an effective technology for advanced wastewater treatment, while the influence of coexisting salts remains unclear and controversial. Here, we systematically explored the influence of NaCl salinity on the reaction and mass transfer of HCO through lab experiments, kinetic simulation, and computational fluid dynamics modeling, and proposed that the trade-off between reaction inhibition and mass transfer enhancement would affect the pollutants degradation pattern under varying salinity. The increase of NaCl salinity decreased ozone solubility and accelerated the futile consumption of ozone and hydroxyl radicals (•OH), and the maximum •OH concentration under 50 g/L salinity was only 23% of that without salinity. However, the increase of NaCl salinity also significantly reduced the ozone bubble size and enhanced the interphase and intraliquid mass transfer, with the volumetric mass transfer coefficient being 130% higher than that without salinity. The trade-off between reaction inhibition and mass transfer enhancement shifted under different pH values and aerator pore sizes, and the oxalate degradation pattern would change correspondingly. Besides, the trade-off was also identified for Na2SO4 salinity. These results emphasized the dual influence of salinity and offered a new theoretical perspective on the role of salinity in the HCO process.

Catalytic ozonation mechanism over M1-N3C1 active sites

The structure-activity relationship in catalytic ozonation remains unclear, hindering the understanding of activity origins. Here, we report activity trends in catalytic ozonation using a series of single-atom catalysts with well-defined M1-N3C1 (M: manganese, ferrum, cobalt, and nickel) active sites. The M1-N3C1 units induce locally polarized M - C bonds to capture ozone molecules onto M atoms and serve as electron shuttles for catalytic ozonation, exhibiting excellent catalytic activities (at least 527 times higher than commercial manganese dioxide). The combined in situ characterization and theoretical calculations reveal single metal atom-dependent catalytic activity, with surface atomic oxygen reactivity identified as a descriptor for the structure-activity relationship in catalytic ozonation. Additionally, the dissociation barrier of surface peroxide species is proposed as a descriptor for the structure-activity relationship in ozone decomposition. These findings provide guidelines for designing high-performance catalytic ozonation catalysts and enhance the atomic-level mechanistic understanding of the integral control of ozone and methyl mercaptan.

Mn-doped carbon-Al2SiO5 fibers enable catalytic ozonation for wastewater treatment: Interface modulation and mass transfer enhancement

Heterogeneous catalytic ozonation is an efficient approach to remove hazardous and refractory organic contaminants in wastewater. It is crucial to design an ozone catalyst with high catalytic activity, high mass transfer and facile separation properties. Herein, easily separable aluminosilicate (Al2SiO5) fibers were developed as carriers and after interface modulation, Mn-doped carbon-Al2SiO5 (Mn-CAS) fibrous catalysts were proposed for catalytic ozonation. The growth of carbon shells on Al2SiO5 fiber surface and the introduction of metal Mn provided abundant Lewis acid sites to catalyze ozone. The Mn-CAS fiber/O3 system exhibited superior reactivity to degrade oxalic acid with a rate constant of 0.034 min-1, which was about 19 times as high as Al2SiO5/O3. For coal gasification wastewater treatment, Mn-CAS fibers also demonstrated high catalytic activity and stability and the COD removal was over 56%. Computational fluid dynamic simulations proved the high mass transfer properties of fibrous catalysts. Hydroxyl radicals (•OH) were identified as the predominant active species for organic degradation. Particularly, the catalytic pathways of O3 to •OH on Mn-O4 sites were revealed by theoretical calculations. This work provides a novel fibrous catalyst with high reactivity and mass transfer as well as easy separation characteristics for catalytic ozonation and wastewater purification.

Carbon-based electrocatalytic dual-membrane system bolsters singlet oxygen production for ultrafast water decontamination

Reactive electrochemical membranes (REMs) are promising technologies in treating pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in water. Herein, a novel carbon-based electrocatalytic dual-membrane system was designed to exploit the whole redox process of electrodes, in which the membrane cathode and anode were formed by carbon fibers doped with Fe and metal organic frameworks derived SnO2, respectively. Propranolol (PRO) was used as a representative of PPCPs. The system bolstered singlet oxygen (1O2) production by the synergy of two REM electrodes, further improving the removal rate constant of PRO compared with single-electrode-dominant modes. 97.5 ± 1.7% of PRO removal was achieved in a single-pass electro-filtration at a residence time of ∼2.9 s. The generation of 1O2 and its reaction with pollutants were systematically and thoroughly explored via experiments coupled with theoretical calculation. The toxicity of the decomposition products was predicted to be reduced compared with PRO. These findings suggested that the carbon-based electrocatalytic dual-membrane system could effectively promote 1O2 production for ultrafast catalytic oxidation of PRO, providing a cost-effective solution for the development of an efficient and stable technology for PPCPs removal.

Facilely Tuning the First-Shell Coordination Microenvironment in Iron Single-Atom for Fenton-like Chemistry toward Highly Efficient Wastewater Purification

Precisely identifying the atomic structures in single-atom sites and establishing authentic structure-activity relationships for single-atom catalyst (SAC) coordination are significant challenges. Here, theoretical calculations first predicted the underlying catalytic activity of Fe-NxC4-x sites with diverse first-shell coordination environments. Substituting N with C to coordinate with the central Fe atom induces an inferior Fenton-like catalytic efficiency. Then, Fe-SACs carrying three configurations (Fe-N2C2, Fe-N3C1, and Fe-N4) fabricate facilely and demonstrate that optimized coordination environments of Fe-NxC4-x significantly promote the Fenton-like catalytic activity. Specifically, the reaction rate constant increases from 0.064 to 0.318 min-1 as the coordination number of Fe-N increases from 2 to 4, slightly influencing the nonradical reaction mechanism dominated by 1O2. In-depth theoretical calculations unveil that the modulated coordination environments of Fe-SACs from Fe-N2C2 to Fe-N4 optimize the d-band electronic structures and regulate the binding strength of peroxymonosulfate on Fe-NxC4-x sites, resulting in a reduced energy barrier and enhanced Fenton-like catalytic activity. The catalytic stability and the actual hospital sewage treatment capacity also showed strong coordination dependency. This strategy of local coordination engineering offers a vivid example of modulating SACs with well-regulated coordination environments, ultimately maximizing their catalytic efficiency.

Efficacy and mechanism of peroxymonosulfate activation by single-atom transition metal catalysts for the oxidation of organic pollutants: Experimental validation and theoretical calculation

Single-atom catalysts can activate peroxymonosulfate (PMS) to enhance its oxidation of organic pollutants in water treatment. We synthesized a series of carbon-supported single-atom transition metal catalysts (MnN@C, FeN@C, CoN@C, NiN@C, and CuN@C) with similar compositions and structures. Their catalytic activity toward PMS activation and oxidation mechanisms were investigated using acid orange 7 (AO7) as a model pollutant. The degradation rate (min^-1·mol^-1·g·m^-2) of AO7 followed order: FeN@C/PMS (7.576 × 10³) > MnN@C/PMS (5.104 × 10³) > CoN@C/PMS (1.919 × 10³) ≫ NiN@C/PMS (0.058 × 10³) > CuN@C/PMS (0.035 × 10³). Electron transfer mediated by surface-activated PMS was found to be the main regime of AO7 oxidation in the catalytic systems. Density functional theory calculations indicated that the degradation of AO7 was promoted by the intense adsorption of PMS and the electron transfer between AO7 and the surface-activated PMS on the catalyst. The cleavage of the naphthalene ring and the azo group was the primary degradation pathway. The toxicity of the products was significantly reduced. This research provides valuable findings for preparing highly efficient single-atom transition metal catalysts for PMS-based degradation of toxic and refractory organic pollutants from water.