Multicompartmental Toxicokinetic Modeling of Discrete Dietary and Continuous Waterborne Uptake of Two Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons by Zebrafish Danio rerio

Contribution of ingestive/dietary uptake to bioaccumulation of organics in worms

Ingestive uptake is critical for understanding the accumulation and trophic transfer of chemicals and synthesized particles in general. This study explored the contribution of ingestion in the bioaccumulation of chemicals focusing on worms. Novel theory and equations were developed to derive fractional ingestive contribution, fs, from a broad range of dietary uptake and accumulation studies, and to build a small dataset of fs (n = 43) from relevant toxicokinetic and bioaccumulation measurements. Worm fs could be fitted to log KOW-based sigmoidal models with small errors (RSE < 0.15, RMSE<0.15). The basis and limitations of the applied fs equations were elaborated. These included the assumption that aqueous-based and dietary-based elimination rate constants (kTw and kTS) may be statistically equivalent, as demonstrated using fish and worm data. Bioaccumulation and toxicokinetic parameters obtained at under-exposed conditions can also result in non-sensical, negative fs. The developed fs theory suggested a novel way to model bioaccumulation in the presence of aqueous and solid sources, and the potential to consolidate bioaccumulation data in their variant forms and definitions for assessment, modeling, and benchmarking purposes. While the presented fs-log KOW dependence remained to be explored in other species, the importance of ingestive uptake for high-log KOW chemicals questioned the validity of characterizing and regulating bioaccumulation potential of hydrophobic organics - for which dietary uptake matters - using aqueous-only bioconcentration factor (BCF). This question, along with other less important ones, is yet to be explored in future works.

Effects of Vibrio vulnificus and Microcystis aeruginosa co-exposures on microplastic accumulation and depuration in the Eastern Oyster (Crassostrea virginica)

Microplastics are ubiquitous in the aquatic environment, and bivalves such as the Eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) can accumulate these particles directly from the water column. Bivalves are concurrently exposed to pathogenic and toxin-producing bacteria, including Vibrio spp. and Microcystis spp., which have been shown to adversely impact filtration rates. Exposure to these bacteria could thus affect oysters' ability to accumulate and depurate microplastics. As climate change creates conditions that favor Vibrio spp. and Microcystis spp. growth in estuaries, it is increasingly important to understand how these co-occurring biotic stressors influence microplastic contamination in bivalves. The objective of this study was to examine how co-exposures to Vibrio vulnificus and Microcystis aeruginosa influence microplastic accumulation and depuration in Eastern oysters. Oysters were exposed to nylon microplastics (5000 particles L-1) and either V. vulnificus, M. aeruginosa, or both species (104 colony-forming units or cells mL-1, respectively) and sampled over time up to 96 h. Following exposure, remaining oysters were allowed to depurate in clean seawater and sampled over time for up to 96 h. Microplastic concentrations in oysters were quantified and compared among treatments, and rate constants for uptake (ku) and depuration (kd) were calculated using nonlinear regression and two-compartment kinetic models. Overall, microplastic concentrations in oysters exposed to V. vulnificus (X‾ = 2.885 ± 0.350 (SE) particles g-1 w.w.) and V. vulnificus with M. aeruginosa (X‾ = 3.089 ± 0.481 particles g-1 w.w.) were higher than oysters exposed to M. aeruginosa (X‾ = 1.540 ± 0.235 particles g-1 w.w.) and to microplastics alone (X‾ = 1.599 ± 0.208 particles g-1 w.w.). Characterizing microplastic accumulation and depuration in oysters co-exposed to these biotic stressors is an important first step in understanding how contaminant loads in bivalves can change. With this research, the efficacy of depuration for commonly-consumed seafood species can be estimated.

Zebrafish Feed Intake: A Systematic Review for Standardizing Feeding Management in Laboratory Conditions

Zebrafish are one of the most used animal models in biological research and a cost-effective alternative to rodents. Despite this, nutritional requirements and standardized feeding protocols have not yet been established for this species. This is important to avoid nutritional effects on experimental outcomes, and especially when zebrafish models are used in preclinical studies, as many diseases have nutritional confounding factors. A key aspect of zebrafish nutrition is related to feed intake, the amount of feed ingested by each fish daily. With the goal of standardizing feeding protocols among the zebrafish community, this paper systematically reviews the available data from 73 studies on zebrafish feed intake, feeding regimes (levels), and diet composition. Great variability was observed regarding diet composition, especially regarding crude protein (mean 44.98 ± 9.87%) and lipid content (9.91 ± 5.40%). Interestingly, the gross energy levels of the zebrafish diets were similar across the reviewed studies (20.39 ± 2.10 kilojoules/g of feed). In most of the reviewed papers, fish received a predetermined quantity of feed (feed supplied). The authors fed the fish according to the voluntary intake and then calculated feed intake (FI) in only 17 papers. From a quantitative point of view, FI was higher than when a fixed quantity (pre-defined) of feed was supplied. Also, the literature showed that many biotic and abiotic factors may affect zebrafish FI. Finally, based on the FI data gathered from the literature, a new feeding protocol is proposed. In summary, a daily feeding rate of 9-10% of body weight is proposed for larvae, whereas these values are equal to 6-8% for juveniles and 5% for adults when a dry feed with a proper protein and energy content is used.

Determining buffering capacity of polydimethylsiloxane-based passive dosing for hydrophobic organic compounds in large-volume bioassays

Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is the most widely used material for passive dosing. However, the ability of PDMS to maintain constant water concentrations of chemicals in large-volume bioassays was insufficiently investigated. In this study, we proposed a kinetic-based method to determine the buffering capacity of PDMS for maintaining constant water concentrations of hydrophobic organic contaminants (HOCs) in large-volume bioassays. A good correlation between log Kow and PDMS-water partitioning coefficients (log KPW) was observed for HOCs with log Kow values ranging from 3.30 to 7.42. For low-molecular-weight HOCs, volatile loss was identified as the primary cause of unstable water concentrations in passive dosing systems. Slow desorption from PDMS resulted in a reduction of water concentrations for high-molecular-weight HOCs. The volume ratio of PDMS to water (RV) was the key factor controlling buffering capacity. As such, buffering capacity was defined as the minimum RV required to maintain 90% of the initial water concentration and was determined to be 0.0076-0.032 for six representative HOCs. Finally, passive dosing with an RV of 0.014 was validated to effectively maintain water concentrations of phenanthrene in 2-L and 96-h toxicity tests with adult mosquitofish. By determining buffering capacity of PDMS, this study recommended specific RV values for cost-efficient implementation of passive dosing approaches in aquatic toxicology, particularly in large-volume bioassays.

Bioconcentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in different tissues of zebrafish (Danio rerio) investigated with PBTK model

Due to the lipophilicity, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are easily accumulated in fish. However, the research on PAH bioaccumulation process in different fish tissues and the relevant effect mechanisms are still deficient. The bioconcentration of PAHs (phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, and pyrene) in different zebrafish tissues (skin, fish muscle, gill, digestive tract, liver, gonad, and residual) was studied. It was found that there was a difference in the PAH concentrations in different zebrafish tissues. Compared with other tissues, the PAH concentration was highest in the skin and lowest in the fish muscle. For example, the steady-state concentration of phenanthrene in the skin was nearly five times higher than that in the muscle. PAH distribution was related with the lipid contents in different zebrafish tissues; however, the correlation was not significant (p > 0.05), indicating that the lipid content was not the determining factor for the PAH distribution. The distribution was also affected by the bioconcentration kinetics of PAHs in different zebrafish tissues, and the PAH hydrophobic properties. In addition, the physiological based toxicokinetic (PBTK) model showed good performance in predicting PAH internal concentrations, and it may be used to predict the concentrations of PAHs in different fish tissues in future.

Legacy and novel brominated flame retardants in a lab-constructed freshwater ecosystem: Distribution, bioaccumulation, and trophic transfer

The extensive utilization of both legacy and novel brominated flame retardants (BFRs) leads to high environmental concentrations, which would be bioaccumulated by organisms and further transferred through the food webs, causing potential risks to humans. In this study, five BFRs, that showed high detection frequencies and concentrations in sediments from an e-waste dismantling site in Southern China, namely 2,3,4,5,6-pentabromotoluene (PBT), hexabromobenzene (HBB), 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy) ethane (BTBPE), decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE), and decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE209), were selected as target pollutants in the lab-constructed aquatic food web as part of a micro-ecosystem, to investigate their distribution, bioaccumulation, and trophic transfer patterns. The significant correlations between different samples in the food web indicated that the dietary uptake appeared to influence the levels of BFRs in organisms. Significant negative correlations were observed between the trophic level of organisms and the lipid-normalized concentrations of BTBPE and DBDPE, indicating the occurrence of trophic dilution after 5-month exposure. However, the average values of bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) were from 2.49 to 5.17 L/kg, underscoring the importance of continued concern for environmental risks of BFRs. The organisms occupying higher trophic levels with greater bioaccumulation capacities may play a pivotal role in determining the trophic magnification potentials of BFRs. This research provides a helpful reference for studying the impacts of feeding habits on bioaccumulation and biomagnification, as well as for identifying the fate of BFRs in aquatic environment.

Dermal Uptake is an Important Pathway for the Bioconcentration of Hydrophobic Organic Compounds by Zebrafish (Danio rerio)

For bioconcentration of hydrophobic organic compounds (HOCs), most of studies assumed that fish absorb HOCs mainly through gills but often ignored the dermal uptake. In this study, deuterated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs-d₁₀, phenanthrene-d₁₀, and pyrene-d₁₀) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB-153) were selected to study whether zebrafish can absorb freely dissolved and dissolved organic matter (DOM)-associated HOCs through dermal uptake. The results showed that the freely dissolved PAHs and PCBs could directly enter the body of zebrafish through its skin. However, PAHs and PCB-153 associated with DOM (~ 10 kDa) could not enter zebrafish through the skin. When gill and dermal exposure coexisted, dermal uptake contributed 2.9 ~ 7.6% and 31.9 ~ 38.4% of PAHs and PCB-153 bioconcentration after exposure for 6 h, respectively. The present study demonstrates that dermal uptake is an important pathway for the bioconcentration of HOCs by fish, which should be considered when studying the toxicodynamics and toxicokinetics of HOCs in organisms.

Bioaccumulation, Detoxification, and Biological Macromolecular Damage of Benzo[a]pyrene in Exposure in Tissues and Subcellular Fractions of Scallop Chlamys farreri

Because of the persistence and high toxicity of benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P), the bioaccumulation and detoxification mechanisms of B[a]P have been studied extensively at the tissue level; but the data at the subcellular level in bivalves have not been reported. The present study was conducted to investigate the effects of B[a]P exposure on bioaccumulation, detoxification, and biomacromolecular damage in gills, digestive glands, and their subcellular fractions of the scallop Chlamys farreri. The subcellular fraction contains cytoplasm, mitochondria, microsome, nucleus, cell membrane, and overall organelle. The results demonstrated that B[a]P accumulation showed a clear time-dose effect. Based on the time-dependent accumulation of B[a]P in subcellular fractions, we speculated that the intracellular migration order of B[a]P was cell membrane, organelle, and nucleus in turn. Considering the difference of B[a]P accumulation may be related to B[a]P metabolism, we have further confirmed that the activities of B[a]P metabolizing enzymes in scallop tissues and subcellular fractions were significantly tempted by B[a]P (p < 0.05), including 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (increased), glutathione-S-transferase (GST; decreased), and superoxide dismutase (increased). First, GST was detected in bivalve cytoplasm and microsome. Second, B[a]P exposure also caused biomacromolecules damage. The results demonstrated that mitochondria and microsome were more vulnerable to lipid peroxidation than cell membrane and nucleus. Taken together, the present study fills some of the gaps in our knowledge of the bioaccumulation and detoxification mechanisms of C. farreri exposed to B[a]P in subcellular fractions and deeply explores the transportation and the main metabolic and damage sites of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in cells, which helped us to comprehensively understand the toxic mechanism of PAHs on bivalves. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:2353-2364. © 2022 SETAC.

Physiologically Based Toxicokinetic Modeling of Bisphenols in Zebrafish (Danio rerio) Accounting for Variations in Metabolic Rates, Brain Distribution, and Liver Accumulation

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an industrial chemical, which has raised human health and environmental concerns due to its endocrine-disrupting properties. BPA analogues are less well-studied despite their wide use in consumer products. These analogues have been detected in water and aquatic organisms around the world, with some analogues showing toxic effects in various species including fish. Here, we present novel organ-specific time-course distribution data of bisphenol Z (BPZ) in female zebrafish (Danio rerio), including concentrations in the ovaries, liver, and brain, a rarely sampled organ with high toxicological relevance. Furthermore, fish-specific in vitro biotransformation rates were determined for 11 selected bisphenols. A physiologically based toxicokinetic (PBTK) model was adapted for four of these bisphenols, which was able to predict levels in the gonads, liver, and brain as well as the whole body within a 2-5-fold error with respect to experimental data, covering several important target organs of toxicity. In particular, predicted liver concentrations improved compared to currently available PBTK models. Predicted data indicate that studied bisphenols mainly distribute to the carcass and gonads and less to the brain. Our model provides a tool to increase our understanding on the distribution and kinetics of a group of emerging pollutants.

Uptake Route Altered the Bioavailability of Graphene in Misgurnus anguillicaudatus: Comparing Waterborne and Sediment Exposures

Numerous studies on the bioavailability of graphene-based nanomaterials relate to the water-only exposure route. However, the sediment exposure route should be the most important pathway for benthic organisms to ingest graphene, while to date little work on the bioavailability of graphene in benthic organisms has been explored. In this study, with the help of carbon-14-labeled few-layer graphene (¹⁴C-FLG), we quantificationally compared the bioaccumulation, biodistribution, and elimination kinetics of ¹⁴C-FLG in loaches via waterborne and sediment exposures. After 72 h of exposure, the accumulated ¹⁴C-FLG in loaches exposed via waterborne was 14.28 μg/g (dry mass), which was 3.18 times higher than that (4.49 μg/g) exposed via sediment. The biodistribution results showed that, compared to waterborne exposure, sediment exposure remarkably facilitated the transport of ¹⁴C-FLG from the gut into the liver, which made it difficult to be excreted. Although ¹⁴C-FLG did not cause significant hepatotoxicity, the disruption of intestinal microbiota homeostasis, immune response, and several key metabolic pathways in the gut were observed, which may be due to the majority of ¹⁴C-FLG being accumulated in the gut. Overall, this study reveals the different bioavailabilities of graphene in loaches via waterborne and sediment exposures, which is helpful in predicting its bioaccumulation capability and trophic transfer ability.

Toxicokinetic Models for Bioconcentration of Organic Contaminants in Two Life Stages of White Sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus)

The white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) is an endangered ancient fish species that is known to be particularly sensitive to certain environmental contaminants, partly because of the uptake and subsequent toxicity of lipophilic pollutants prone to bioconcentration as a result of their high lipid content. To better understand the bioconcentration of organic contaminants in this species, toxicokinetic (TK) models were developed for the embryo-larval and subadult life stages. The embryo-larval model was designed as a one-compartment model and validated using whole-body measurements of benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) metabolites from a waterborne exposure to B[a]P. A physiologically based TK (PBTK) model was used for the subadult model. The predictive power of the subadult model was validated with an experimental data set of four chemicals. Results showed that the TK models could accurately predict the bioconcentration of organic contaminants for both life stages of white sturgeon within 1 order of magnitude of measured values. These models provide a tool to better understand the impact of environmental contaminants on the health and the survival of endangered white sturgeon populations.

Tissue-Specific Accumulation, Biotransformation, and Physiologically Based Toxicokinetic Modeling of Benzotriazole Ultraviolet Stabilizers in Zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers (BUVSs) are high-production-volume chemicals with ubiquitous occurrence in the aquatic environment. However, little is known about their bioconcentration and biotransformation, and physiologically based toxicokinetic (PBTK) models for BUVSs are lacking. This study selected six BUVSs for which experiments were performed with zebrafish (Danio rerio) exposed to two different levels (0.5 and 10 μg·L^-1). Higher kinetic bioconcentration factors (BCFs) were observed at the lower exposure level with environmental relevance, with BCF of 3.33 × 10³ L·kg^-1 for 2-(2-hydroxy-3,5-di-tert-butylphenyl)-5-chlorobenzotriazole (UV-327). This phenomenon was interpreted by a nonlinear adsorption mechanism, where binding with specific protein sites contributes to bioconcentration. Muscle exhibited the lowest accumulation, in which depuration half-life of UV-327 was 19.5 d. In kidney, muscle, ovary, gill, and skin, logBCF increased with increase in log K_OW of the BUVSs until log K_OW was ca. 6.5, above which logBCF decreased. However, the trend was not observed in the liver and intestine. Six biotransformation products were identified and mainly accumulated in the liver and intestine. Considering the nonlinear adsorption mechanism in the PBTK model, the prediction accuracy of the model was improved, highlighting the binding of xenobiotics with specific protein sites in assessing the bioconcentration of chemicals for their risk assessment.

Alkylated phenanthrene distributions in black rockfish (Sebastes schlegelii) and biotransformation into hydroxylated metabolites after intragastric administration

Marine organisms such as fish are at risk of exposure to petrogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) released in oil spills. PAH toxicities are affected by the rates of PAH biotransformation and elimination in fish tissues, but little information on these rates is available. In this study, the biotransformation and tissue distribution of methylated phenanthrenes-typical petrogenic PAHs found after oil spills-in black rockfish (Sebastes schlegelii) were investigated. Two groups of fish were used. Each fish in one group was given a single intragastric dose of 3-methylphenanthrene, and each fish in the other group was given a single intragastric dose of 3,6-dimethylphenanthrene. The fish were allowed to recover in purified sea water for 196 h. Methylated phenanthrenes were detected in only blood and liver for 24 h after dosing, but the concentrations decreased over time and > 98% had been eliminated by the end of the study. Four mono-hydroxylated metabolites of 3,6-dimethylphenanthrene and six mono-hydroxylated metabolites of 3-methylphenanthrene were tentatively identified for the first time from tandem mass spectrometry analyses of fish bile. The concentrations of these metabolites in bile remained constant for 192 h, suggesting that the metabolites could be used as biomarkers of rockfish exposure to petrogenic PAHs.

Effect of temperature on phenanthrene accumulation from hydraulic fracturing flowback and produced water in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

Hydraulic fracturing has become widely used in recent years to access vast global unconventional sources of oil and gas. This process involves the injection of proprietary mixtures of water and chemicals to fracture shale formations and extract the hydrocarbons trapped within. These injection fluids, along with minerals, hydrocarbons, and saline waters present within the formations being drilled into, return to the surface as flowback and produced water (FPW). FPW is a highly complex mixture, containing metals, salts and clay, as well as many organic chemicals, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons such as phenanthrene. The present study sought to determine the effects of temperature on the accumulation of phenanthrene in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). This model organism resides in rivers overlapping the Montney and Duvernay formations, both highly developed formations for hydraulic fracturing. Rainbow trout acclimated to temperatures of 4, 13 and 17 °C were exposed to either 5% or 20% FPW, as well as saline mixtures representing the exact ionic content of FPW to determine the accumulation of radiolabelled ¹⁴C phenanthrene within the gill, gut, liver and gallbladder. FPW exposure reduced the overall accumulation of phenanthrene in a manner most often similar to high salinity exposure, indicating that the high ionic strength of FPW is the primary factor affecting accumulation. Accumulation was different at the temperature extremes (4 and 17 °C), although no consistent relationship was observed between temperature and accumulation across the observed tissues. These results indicate that several physiological responses occur as a result of FPW exposure and water temperature change which dictate phenanthrene uptake, particularly in the gills. Temperature (and seasonality) alone cannot be used to model the potential accumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons after FPW spills.

Contribution of Dietary Uptake to PAH Bioaccumulation in a Simplified Pelagic Food Chain: Modeling the Influences of Continuous vs Intermittent Feeding in Zooplankton and Fish

Dietary uptake is important for trophic transfer of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the freshwater pelagic ecosystem. In this study, we hypothesized that both the dietary uptake rate and interval significantly influenced its relative contribution to bioaccumulation. We developed a toxicokinetic model framework for the bioaccumulation of deuterated PAHs (PAHs-d₁₀) in aquatic organisms considering different feeding intervals ranging from none for phytoplankton to approximately continuous for zooplankton to discrete for fish and built a simple artificial freshwater pelagic food chain composed of algae Chlorella vulgaris, zooplankton Daphnia magna, and zebrafish. We conducted bioaccumulation experiments and simulations for Daphnia magna and zebrafish under different algal densities based on our model. The results showed that intermittent feeding led to a large fluctuation in the PAH-d₁₀ concentrations in zebrafish compared to a leveled-off pattern in Daphnia magna because of approximately continuous feeding. Trophic dilution of PAHs-d₁₀ occurred in the food chain when there was waterborne-only uptake, but dietary uptake largely mitigated its extent that depended on dietary uptake rates. The assimilation efficiency, dietary uptake rate, and its relative contribution to bioaccumulation of PAHs-d₁₀ in zebrafish were all higher than those in Daphnia magna, suggesting that dietary uptake played a more important role in bioaccumulation of PAHs at higher trophic-level organisms.

Formation and distribution of phenanthrene and its metabolites (monohydroxy-phenanthrenes) in Korean rockfish (Sebastes schlegelii)

This study investigated the tissue distribution of phenanthrene (PHE) and the formation of monohydroxy-phenanthrene (OH-PHE) metabolites in Korean rockfish (Sebastes schlegelii). PHE was intragastrically administered to two groups of rockfish. The first group was exposed to PHE at a low dose (10 mg/kg body weight) and the second group was exposed at a high dose (30 mg/kg body weight). The rockfish were analyzed and the levels of PHE were higher in the liver, followed by muscle, and then bile. PHE concentrations in the liver, muscle, and bile were 1.4-26, 0.10-2.01, and not detected (ND)-0.13 μg/g wet weight, respectively. All five monohydroxylated PHE metabolites (1-OH-PHE, 2-OH-PHE, 3-OH-PHE, 4-OH-PHE, and 9-OH-PHE) were detected only in bile. Among these OH-PHE metabolites, 3-OH-PHE was found at the highest concentration from all fish bile samples in both PHE exposure groups, indicating that regioselective OH-PHE formation occurs in rockfish and 3-OH PHE could be a good biomarker of exposure of Korean rockfish to PHE. Suspect screening analysis of the rockfish bile was performed by LC-QTOF/MS, and the formation of two OH-PHE-DNA adducts (thymine-OH-PHE and cytosine-OH-PHE) were identified in the bile sample collected 6 h after rockfish were exposed to the high PHE dose, indicating that OH-PHE metabolites may be toxic to fish. This is the first report on the formation characteristics of OH-PHE metabolites in rockfish and their use as biomarkers of exposure of rockfish to parent PHE.

Bisphenol S Induces Ectopic Angiogenesis in Embryos via VEGFR2 Signaling, Leading to Lipid Deposition in Blood Vessels of Larval Zebrafish

Bisphenol S (BPS), used as a bisphenol A substitute, has been detected in various environments. However, the safety of BPS is still unclear. Here, zebrafish embryos were exposed to BPS (0, 1, 10, and 100 μg/L) for 24, 48, 72, 96 h, and 15 days. BPS induced ectopic sprouting of budding blood vessels in embryos, but the blood flow velocity within these lesions was unchanged at 48 h. At 72 h postfertilization (hpf), by observing the subintestinal venous plexus responsible for yolk absorption, we found that VEGFR2 transduced an angiogenic signal and that the subsequent reduction in blood flow velocity inhibited yolk absorption. At 96 hpf, yolk consumption was still delayed because of the disturbed transportation route, resulting in transient extensive lipid retention in the blood vessels. After feeding, obvious atherogenic lipids were discovered in the blood vessels, especially in bends, bifurcations, and stenoses. This dynamic visualization of the pathogenesis demonstrates a plausible mechanistic link between BPS exposure-induced embryonic vessel overgrowth and an increased atherosclerosis risk.